Why Did the War of Resistance Win?

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Communist Party of China, based on China’s national conditions, the balance of power between China and Japan, and the international situation, formulated a basic line of total resistance and the strategic policy of protracting the war, strengthening the nation’s conviction that victory in the war was certain. The Communist Party of China opened up a rear battlefield behind enemy lines, elevated guerrilla warfare to a strategic position, and caused the Japanese aggressors to be engulfed in the vast ocean of China’s total popular resistance. When discussing the contributions of the Communist Party of China and Mao Zedong to the strategic thinking and theory of the War of Resistance, the most frequently cited is Mao’s essay “On Protracted War,” published in May 1938. At that time, less than a year since the outbreak of full-scale resistance, the flames of Japanese aggression were raging. In his essay, Mao not only foresightedly asserted that China would ultimately win the war, but also scientifically predicted the characteristics of each stage of the war and the strategies and tactics China should adopt.

抗日战争时期，中国共产党根据当时的中国国情、中日力量对比与国际形势，制定了全面抗战的基本路线与坚持持久战的战略方针，坚定了全国人民抗战必胜的信念。中国共产党开辟抗日敌后战场，把游击战提高到战略地位，使日本侵略者陷入到中国全民抗战的汪洋大海之中。讨论中国共产党与毛泽东对抗日战争战略思想与理论的贡献，最常被说起的是毛泽东1938年5月发表的《论持久战》。彼时，距全面抗战爆发不到一年，日本侵略者的气焰正炽，毛泽东在文章中不仅高瞻远瞩地断言中国一定能取得抗日战争的最终胜利，而且科学地预见了抗日战争各个阶段的特点与中国应采取的战略战术。

In fact, even earlier, in July 1936, Mao Zedong, in a conversation with American journalist Edgar Snow [2]2 Edgar Snow (1905–1972), American journalist who was the first Western correspondent to visit the Communist base area in Yan’an in 1936. in a cave dwelling in Yan’an, had predicted that China could win the War of Resistance under three conditions. This prediction was basically consistent with the actual course of the War of Resistance.

其实，更早之前的1936年7月，毛泽东即在延安窑洞里与美国记者埃德加·斯诺（Edgar Snow）的谈话中预言过，中国在三个条件下一定能取得抗日战争的胜利。这个预言与抗日战争的实际进程基本吻合。

I. The “Cave Conversation” between Mao Zedong and Snow

一、毛泽东与斯诺的“窑中对谈”

In 1936, the situation in China was such that the main forces of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army, after the arduous Long March, had only just secured a foothold in northern Shaanxi, while Chiang Kai-shek sought to strike a final blow before the Red Army could stabilize. The Japanese aggressors, having occupied the Northeast, were creating the North China Crisis in an attempt to expand their war of invasion. Both China and the Chinese revolution were at a crossroads. In July, Snow arrived in Yan’an, becoming the first Western journalist to interview the red area, and interviewed Mao Zedong. It was a historic meeting: a Western journalist had finally visited the secret realm of the Chinese revolution, and the leader of the Chinese revolution spoke for the first time to the West. In the cave dwelling in Yan’an, two individuals who were vastly different yet urgently needed to understand each other engaged in heartfelt, all-night conversations more than a dozen times. Snow wrote up his observations in Yan’an into a series of dispatches published in British and American newspapers and magazines, which created a sensation. Later, he compiled the reports into a book titled *Red Star over China*.

1936年中国的形势是，经过艰难长征的工农红军主力刚在陕北立足，蒋介石要趁红军立足未稳之际予以最后一击，日本侵略者在占领东北后，又制造华北危机，企图扩大侵华战争。中国与中国革命向何处去，都处在十字路口。7月，斯诺到达延安，成为第一个到红色区域采访的西方记者，采访了毛泽东。这是历史性的会面，西方记者终于探访到中国革命的秘境，中国革命的领导人第一次面向西方发出自己的声音。在延安的窑洞里，两个差异巨大而又急切需要了解对方的人就广泛的问题彻夜促膝长谈十数次。斯诺将在延安的所见所闻写成多篇通讯报道在英国和美国的报刊发表，名动一时。稍后，他又将报道汇集成册，取名了Red Star over China（《红星照耀中国》）出版。

As a keen journalist, Snow naturally asked how the CPC viewed Japan’s invasion of China and China’s anti-Japanese strategy in his “cave conversation” with Mao in Yan’an. Mao gave detailed answers. The *Collected Works of Mao Zedong* includes three related themes from their talks: “Foreign Relations,” “On Opposing Japanese Imperialism,” and “On the United Front.” During the discussion around the theme “On Opposing Japanese Imperialism” on July 16, Mao expressed his firm conviction about the future of the War of Resistance: “We are deeply convinced that the Chinese people will not yield to Japanese imperialism. We are convinced that they will mobilize their immense potential and throw it into the anti-Japanese battlefield, and they will go all out to meet the challenge of the aggressors. In this struggle, final victory will certainly belong to the Chinese people.” Then came their brilliant dialogue:

作为一个敏锐的记者，斯诺在延安与毛泽东“窑中对谈”时，当然会提出中共如何看待日本侵华与中国抗日的策略问题，毛泽东予以详细解答。《毛泽东文集》中收录了他们所谈的三个相关主题：“外交问题”“论反对日本帝国主义”“论统一战线”。在7月16日围绕“反对日本帝国主义”主题进行讨论时，毛泽东对斯诺表达了对抗日战争前途的坚定信念：“我们深信，中国人民是不会向日本帝国主义屈服的。我们深信他们会把他们的巨大潜力动员起来，投到抗日的战场上去的，他们会全力以赴地去对付侵略者的挑战。在这场斗争中，最后胜利必定属于中国人民。”接下来，便有两人的精彩对话：

(Snow asked:) Under what conditions can China defeat and eliminate the strength of Japanese imperialism?

（斯诺）问：在什么条件下，中国能战胜并消灭日本帝国主义的实力呢?

(Mao Zedong answered:) There must be three conditions: first, the completion of the Chinese anti-Japanese united front; second, the completion of the international anti-Japanese united front; and third, the rise of the revolutionary movement of the Japanese people and the people of Japan’s colonies. From the standpoint of the Chinese people, the great unity of the Chinese people is the primary factor.

（毛泽东）答：要有三个条件：第一是中国抗日统一战线的完成；第二是国际抗日统一战线的完成；第三是日本国内人民和日本殖民地人民的革命运动的兴起。就中国人民的立场来说，三个条件中，中国人民的大联合是主要的。

(Snow asked:) How long do you think this war will last?

（斯诺）问：你想，这个战争要延长多久呢?

(Mao Zedong answered:) It depends on the strength of the Chinese anti-Japanese united front and many other decisive factors in both China and Japan. That is to say, besides depending mainly on China’s own strength, international assistance to China and the revolution within Japan are also very important. If the Chinese anti-Japanese united front develops powerfully and is effectively organized both horizontally and vertically; if the governments and peoples of various countries that recognize Japanese imperialism as a threat to their own interests give China the necessary assistance; and if the Japanese revolution comes quickly, then the war will end quickly and China will be quickly victorious. If these conditions cannot be realized soon, the war will be prolonged. But the result will be the same: Japan will be defeated, and China will be victorious.

（毛泽东）答：要看中国抗日统一战线的实力和中日两国其他许多决定的因素如何而定。即是说，除了主要地看中国自己的力量之外，国际间所给中国的援助和日本国内革命的援助也很有关系。如果中国抗日统一战线有力地发展起来，横的方面和纵的方面都有效地组织起来，如果认清日本帝国主义威胁他们自己利益的各国政府和各国人民能给中国以必要的援助，如果日本的革命起来得快，则这次战争将迅速结束，中国将迅速胜利。如果这些条件不能很快实现，战争就要延长。但结果还是一样，日本必败，中国必胜。

The brilliance of this dialogue lies in the fact that at that time China’s War of Resistance was still in the stage of partial resistance, the Kuomintang and the Communist Party were still in civil war, and foreign support for China’s resistance was minimal. The three conditions Mao Zedong said were needed for victory had not yet materialized. Yet he, staying in the remote Northwest, boldly asserted that the outcome of the War of Resistance would be “Japan will be defeated, and China will be victorious.” However, this bold judgment was not wishful thinking; it was based on Mao’s careful observation and analysis of China’s actual situation, the balance of power between China and Japan, and the international political landscape.

这段对话的精彩之处在于，此时中国的抗日战争尚处于局部抗战阶段，国共仍在内战之中，外国对中国抗战的支持微乎其微，毛泽东所说抗战胜利的三个条件均尚未出现，偏处西北的他就大胆地提出抗日战争的结局是“日本必败，中国必胜”。然而，这个大胆的判断并非一厢情愿，而是毛泽东认真观察与思考中国的实际情况、中日力量对比与国际政治格局做出的。

Behind this prediction lay a profound theoretical foundation, namely Mao Zedong’s basic method for understanding and solving problems – the theory of contradiction [3]3 “On Contradiction” (Maodun Lun), a philosophical work by Mao Zedong (1937) elaborating the Marxist dialectical method of contradiction analysis.. Mao believed that contradictions are universal and absolute, exist in all processes of development, and are constantly evolving. The Communist Party of China must learn to use the method of the theory of contradiction to correctly analyze the history and present situation of the Chinese revolution, “and to infer the future of the revolution.” At that time, the principal contradiction in Chinese society had gradually transformed into the contradiction between the Chinese nation and Japanese imperialism. Among the factors determining the development and change of things, “external causes are the condition of change, internal causes are the basis of change, and external causes become operative through internal causes.” Applying this to analyze the War of Resistance, the strength of Japanese imperialism and the weakness of China were reality, but this reality could change. Based on this, Mao Zedong told Snow that under three conditions the Chinese people could defeat the Japanese aggressors. Among the three conditions, the completion of the Chinese anti-Japanese united front was the internal cause, and the completion of the international anti-Japanese united front and the rise of the revolutionary movement of the Japanese people were the external causes. “Among the three conditions, the great unity of the Chinese people is the primary factor.”

这个预测的背后有着深厚的理论基础，即毛泽东认识问题与解决问题的基本方法——矛盾论。毛泽东认为，矛盾是普遍的、绝对的，存在于事物发展的一切过程中，矛盾是发展变化的。中国共产党必须学会用矛盾论的方法正确地分析中国革命的历史和现状，“并推断革命的将来”。当时中国社会的主要矛盾已逐步转化为中华民族与日本帝国主义的矛盾。在决定事物发展变化的因素中，“外因是变化的条件，内因是变化的根据，外因通过内因而起作用”。由此来分析抗日战争，日本帝国主义的强大与中国的弱小是现实，但这个现实是可以发生转变的。毛泽东据此向斯诺提出三个条件之下中国人民就能够战胜日本侵略者。三个条件中，中国抗日统一战线的完成是内因，国际抗日统一战线的完成与日本国内人民革命运动的兴起是外因，“三个条件中，中国人民的大联合是主要的”。

Mao Zedong’s 1936 prediction that China could win the War of Resistance under three conditions was basically consistent with the actual course of the full-scale war. These three conditions were the basic factors enabling China’s victory.

毛泽东1936年关于中国在三个条件下一定能取得抗日战争胜利的预测，与全面抗战的实际进程基本一致。这三条就是抗战能够赢的基本条件。

II. The Formation of the Chinese Anti-Japanese United Front

二、中国抗日统一战线的形成

The first condition Mao Zedong set for China to win the War of Resistance was the formation of the Chinese anti-Japanese united front, which was also the most important condition. There was a huge gap between China and Japan in military and economic terms; only by achieving total national unity in resistance could a backward China hope to win. When Mao talked with Snow, the Kuomintang and the Communist Party were still in serious armed opposition, and the prospect of establishing a Chinese anti-Japanese united front seemed remote. But Mao determined it could be established based on three factors: the severity of Japanese aggression; the Communist Party of China’s advocacy of the united front; and the willingness of patriots within the Kuomintang to cooperate with the CPC.

毛泽东所列出中国赢得抗日战争胜利的第一个条件是中国抗日统一战线的形成，这也是最重要的条件。中日两国在军事、经济诸方面存在巨大的差距，落后的中国只有实现全民族的团结抗战，才有可能取得胜利。毛泽东与斯诺谈话之时，国共仍处于严重的武装对立，中国抗日统一战线建立的前景看似渺茫，但毛泽东根据以下三个因素，断定一定能建立起来：日本侵略的严重性；中国共产党对统一战线的倡导；国民党内部爱国人士主张与中共合作。

The Communist Party of China was the initiator and defender of the Anti-Japanese National United Front, and Kuomintang-CPC cooperation was its foundation. After Japan launched the September 18 Incident [4]4 The September 18 Incident (1931): Japan’s staged explosion on a railway near Mukden (Shenyang) used as a pretext to occupy Northeast China. in 1931 and occupied Northeast China, the CPC began a long and arduous effort to establish an anti-Japanese national united front. In December 1935, at the Wayaobu Conference [5]5 The Wayaobu Conference (December 1935): a meeting of the CPC Politburo in northern Shaanxi that set the policy of forming an anti-Japanese national united front., the Party Central Committee formally proposed that “the Party’s task is to combine the activities of the Red Army with those of the workers, peasants, students, urban petty bourgeoisie, and bourgeoisie throughout the country into a single national revolutionary front.” At this conference, the Party Central Committee raised the necessity and possibility of establishing an anti-Japanese national united front, and also raised the issue of “international assistance.” It can be said that Mao’s “cave conversation” with Snow was a continuation of his series of reflections. In August 1936, the CPC sent a letter to the Chinese Kuomintang, calling for an end to the civil war and the establishment of an anti-Japanese national united front. After the outbreak of the Xi’an Incident [6]6 The Xi’an Incident (December 12, 1936): the arrest of Chiang Kai-shek by Generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, which led to the formation of the second Kuomintang-CPC united front., the CPC reviewed the situation and decided on the policy of a peaceful resolution. Chiang Kai-shek was forced to accept conditions such as ending the civil war and uniting with the CPC to resist Japan. Subsequently, the CPC sent representatives many times to negotiate with the Kuomintang on cooperation in resisting Japan. On July 7, 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident [7]7 The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937): a clash between Chinese and Japanese troops near Beijing that triggered the full-scale outbreak of the War of Resistance. marked the outbreak of full-scale resistance. The CPC Central Committee presented Chiang Kai-shek with three demands, including mobilizing the entire nation for resistance, and four guarantees by the CPC to realize Kuomintang-CPC cooperation. Through negotiations, Chiang Kai-shek was forced to agree to reorganize the armed forces led by the CPC into the Eighth Route Army of the National Revolutionary Army [8]8 The Eighth Route Army of the National Revolutionary Army: the main Communist-led force reorganized from the Red Army after the Kuomintang-CPC agreement in 1937. and the New Fourth Army of the National Revolutionary Army [9]9 The New Fourth Army of the National Revolutionary Army: another Communist-led force reorganized from guerrilla units in central and southern China in 1937., which were sent to the front and became the backbone of the resistance. On September 22, the Central News Agency [10]10 The Central News Agency: the official news agency of the Kuomintang government at the time. published the “Declaration of the CPC Central Committee on the Publication of Kuomintang-CPC Cooperation.” Chiang Kai-shek then issued a statement that effectively recognized the legal status of the Communist Party. The publication of the CPC Central Committee’s declaration and Chiang Kai-shek’s statement marked the formal formation of the Chinese Anti-Japanese National United Front centered on Kuomintang-CPC cooperation, as advocated by the CPC.

中国共产党是抗日民族统一战线的倡导者与捍卫者，国共合作是抗日民族统一战线的基础。1931年日本发动九一八事变，占领中国东北后，中国共产党就开始为建立抗日民族统一战线而进行长期艰苦的努力。1935年12月，中共中央在瓦窑堡会议上正式提出“党的任务就是把红军的活动和全国的工人、农民、学生、城市小资产阶级、资产阶级的一切活动汇合起来，成为一个统一的民族革命战线”。在这次会议上，中共中央提出了建立抗日民族统一战线的必要性与可能性，也提出了“国际援助”的问题。可以说，毛泽东与斯诺的“窑中对谈”,是他一系列思考的延续。1936年8月，中国共产党致信中国国民党，呼吁停止内战，建立抗日民族统一战线。西安事变爆发后，中国共产党审时度势，确定了和平解决西安事变的方针，蒋介石被迫接受了停止内战、联共抗日等条件。此后，中国共产党多次派代表与国民党进行关于两党合作抗日的谈判。1937年7月7日，卢沟桥事变标志着全面抗战爆发，中共中央向蒋介石提出了发动全民族抗战等三项要求与中国共产党为实现国共合作的四项保证。通过谈判，蒋介石被迫同意将中国共产党领导的武装力量分别改编为国民革命军第八路军与国民革命军新编第四军，开赴抗日前线，成为抗战的中坚力量。9月22日，中央通讯社发表了《中共中央为公布国共合作宣言》。蒋介石随即发表谈话，实际上承认共产党合法地位。中共中央的宣言和蒋介石谈话的发表，标志着中国共产党倡导的以国共合作为中心的中国抗日民族统一战线正式形成。

Through the active efforts and promotion of the CPC, an anti-Japanese national united front centered on Kuomintang-CPC cooperation was established and developed, involving all ethnic groups, all democratic parties, all patriotic armies, patriotic people from all walks of life, and overseas Chinese. They threw themselves into the largest national liberation and national revolutionary war in modern Chinese history. Throughout the course of the War of Resistance, there were differences and even frictions within the Chinese anti-Japanese national united front. The CPC adhered to the general policy of “developing the progressive forces, winning over the middle forces, and isolating the diehard forces” and the strategy of “unity and struggle, seeking unity through struggle,” which allowed the anti-Japanese national united front to persist and ensured the victory of the War of Resistance.

在中国共产党的积极努力和推动下，以国共两党合作为中心，中国各族人民、各民主党派、各爱国军队、各阶层爱国人士以及海外华侨的抗日民族统一战线建立和发展起来，投入了中国近代以来规模最大的民族解放与民族革命战争。在整个抗日战争进程中，中国抗日民族统一战线内部也产生过分歧，甚至摩擦。中国共产党坚持“发展进步势力，争取中间势力，孤立顽固势力”的总方针与“又团结又斗争﹐以斗争求团结”的策略，使得抗日民族统一战线得以坚持下来，确保了抗日战争的胜利。

The War of Resistance was a total war. Patriotic people from all ethnic groups, all walks of life, and all strata, including overseas Chinese, threw themselves into the torrent of resistance and national salvation. Army officers and soldiers fought bloodily and sacrificed heroically at the front; the people in the rear intensified production, tightened their belts to support the front; truly, everyone regardless of gender or age, everywhere regardless of north, south, east, or west, was a soldier, striking at the aggressors. All political parties and groups expressed support for the CPC’s policy of the anti-Japanese national united front and implemented nationwide united resistance based on Kuomintang-CPC cooperation. Various social forces, including the intellectual community, religious circles, and women’s circles, established anti-Japanese organizations and joined the anti-Japanese movement, creating many moving and heroic deeds. The industrial relocation and university relocation in the early stages of the war were extremely broad in scope and extremely difficult. Under the pursuit and heavy bombing of the Japanese invading forces, they were completed, preserving the basic industrial system for China’s war effort and the cultural lineage of China’s higher education, which sustained the long-term resistance. This was also a miracle in world migration history.

抗日战争是全方位的战争，全国各族各界各阶层爱国人士包括海外侨胞都投入抗日救亡的洪流。军队官兵在前线浴血奋战，英勇牺牲，后方民众加紧生产，节衣缩食支援前方，真正做到了人无分男女老幼，地无分东南西北，全民皆兵，打击侵略者。各政党各团体均表示拥护中国共产党抗日民族统一战线政策，以国共合作为基础实行全国团结抗战。包括知识界、宗教界、妇女界在内的各种社会力量都建立起抗日组织，投身抗日运动，涌现出许多可歌可泣的事迹。抗战初期的工业内迁、高校内迁，涉及面极广，难度极大，在侵华日军的追击与狂轰滥炸之下，得以完成，保全了中国抗战的基本工业生产体系，保存了中国高等教育的文脉，支撑了长期抗战。这也是世界移民史上的奇迹。

People from all ethnic minorities actively participated in the resistance. Ethnic minorities mostly lived in remote areas, and the central government’s ties and governance over them were originally relatively loose. When the Japanese invasion penetrated deeply into China’s minority areas, their lives and property suffered huge losses, directly prompting the minority peoples to organize armed resistance. During the partial resistance period, the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army included many Korean-Chinese officers and soldiers; the Chahar People’s Anti-Japanese Allied Army [11]11 The Chahar People’s Anti-Japanese Allied Army: a volunteer force formed in 1933 by Feng Yuxiang and others to resist Japan in Chahar Province., organized by Feng Yuxiang and others, attracted Mongolian patriots to participate. During the full-scale resistance period, almost all ethnic minority armed forces in the western Yunnan region participated in the resistance. They established many anti-Japanese guerrilla units with independent combat capabilities, supporting the Chinese Expeditionary Force in combat, frequently harassing Japanese-occupied areas. In May 1944, when the Chinese Expeditionary Force launched a full-scale counteroffensive against the Japanese, the people of all ethnic groups in western Yunnan gave full support. The CPC attached great importance to guiding minority anti-Japanese activities; by mobilizing minority people to fight and integrating minority anti-Japanese armed forces, it established anti-Japanese base areas in many minority-concentrated areas. Guided by the anti-Japanese national united front, the vast majority of ethnic minority people merged into China’s War of Resistance, producing many anti-Japanese heroes. The famous Hui patriot Ma Benzhai [12]12 Ma Benzhai (1901–1944): a Hui Muslim commander who led a guerrilla unit against the Japanese in Hebei. organized the Hui People’s Anti-Japanese Volunteer Army (later reorganized into the Hebei Guerrilla Anti-Japanese Training Unit of the Eighth Route Army, i.e., the Hui People’s Detachment [13]13 The Hui People’s Detachment: a predominantly Hui Muslim guerrilla unit under Ma Benzhai, part of the Eighth Route Army.), carrying out guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines in Hebei, fighting against Japanese and puppet forces more than 800 times and inflicting heavy casualties.

各少数民族民众积极投身抗战。少数民族多居住在偏远地区，中央政府与其联系及治理原本较松散。日本入侵深入到中国少数民族区域，他们的生命和财产受到巨大损失，直接推动了少数民族组织起来武装反抗。在局部抗战期间，东北抗日民主联军中有不少的朝鲜族官兵，冯玉祥等组建的察哈尔民众抗日同盟军吸引了蒙古族爱国民众参加。在全面抗战时期，滇西地区的各少数民族武装几乎都参与抗战，他们建立了许多支具有独立作战能力的抗日游击队，支援中国远征军作战，频繁袭扰日军占领区域，1944年5月中国远征军对日军发动全面反攻之时，滇西各族民众全力支持。中国共产党十分重视对少数民族抗日活动的引导，通过动员少数民族民众参战，对少数民族抗日武装进行整合等方式，在不少民族聚居地区建立了抗日根据地。广大少数民族民众受到抗日民族统一战线的引领，汇入中华民族的抗日战争中，涌现出不少抗日英雄。著名的回族爱国人士马本斋组织了回民抗日义勇队（后改编为八路军河北游击军抗日教导队，即“回民支队”）,在河北开展敌后游击战争，与日伪军斗争800余次，歼敌甚众。

Overseas Chinese also fought together with the motherland. As an important component of the Chinese nation, Chinese scattered around the world initially had limited understanding of Japan’s invasion and the motherland’s war due to factors such as being in foreign lands and inconvenient communications. When they learned of the danger of national extinction posed by Japan’s invasion, they became extremely indignant. Overseas compatriots supported the motherland’s War of Resistance in various ways, such as boycotting Japanese goods, donating money and goods, purchasing national bonds, and investing in the motherland. Research shows that during the early period of full-scale resistance, overseas Chinese donations accounted for almost one-third of the total military expenditure; over the eight years of full-scale resistance, total overseas Chinese donations exceeded 1.32 billion national currency. Some overseas Chinese resolutely returned to the motherland to participate in the War of Resistance; only from Guangdong province, more than 40,000 returned overseas Chinese joined the war, and some shed blood on the battlefield. At the request of the National Government, the famous patriotic overseas Chinese leader Tan Kah Kee [14]14 Tan Kah Kee (Chen Jiageng, 1874–1961): Chinese businessman and philanthropist in Singapore, a prominent overseas Chinese leader who mobilized support for China’s war effort. recruited urgently needed drivers and mechanics from Southeast Asia to serve on the Burma Road and the Southwest Highway for military material transport. More than 3,000 Nanyang Drivers and Mechanics [15]15 Nanyang Drivers and Mechanics: overseas Chinese drivers and mechanics recruited from Southeast Asia to serve on the Burma Road and other supply routes. responded to the call and returned to serve the motherland’s war effort.

海外华侨也与祖国人民一同抗战。作为中华民族的重要组成部分，离散在世界各地的华侨最初因身处异邦、交通信息不便等因素，对日本侵华及祖国抗战的情况了解有限，当他们了解到日本侵华造成中华民族亡国灭种的危险时，激起了对侵略者的无比愤慨，海外侨胞通过抵制日货、捐款捐物、购买国债、回国投资等多种方式，支援祖国的抗日战争。有研究表明，全面抗战初期华侨捐款几乎占全部抗战军费的1/3,全面抗战8年期间华侨的捐款总数超过13.2亿元国币。更有部分华侨毅然回到祖国参加抗日战争，仅广东籍侨胞回国参战者就有4万多人，有些侨胞血洒疆场。著名爱国侨领陈嘉庚应国民政府的请求，在南洋招募国内紧缺的司机与修理工，服务于滇缅路与西南公路军用物资运输，先后有3000多名南侨机工响应召唤回国，服务于祖国的抗战事业。

Ethnic minorities and overseas Chinese are important and special components of the Chinese nation. In the process of resisting Japan’s invasion, people of all ethnic groups stood shoulder to shoulder and shared a common hatred for the enemy. The War of Resistance awakened the consciousness of the entire Chinese nation, promoted unity and integration among ethnic groups, enhanced the sense of motherland and national identity among overseas Chinese, and made the concept of the Chinese national community deeply rooted in people’s minds, transforming a loose union of nations into a unified, stable, and united Chinese national community.

少数民族与海外华侨是中华民族重要而特殊的组成部分，中华各族人民在反抗日本侵略的过程中，携手并肩，同仇敌忾。抗日战争唤醒了整个中华民族的觉悟，促进了各民族间的团结融合，促进了海外侨胞的祖国意识与民族认同，使得中华民族共同体的观念深入人心，从松散的民族联合体，转变为一个统一的、稳固的、团结的中华民族共同体。

Mao Zedong said at the Seventh National Congress of the CPC in 1945: “The vast number of officers and soldiers of the Chinese army bled and fought at the front; the Chinese workers, peasants, intellectuals, and industrialists worked hard in the rear; overseas Chinese contributed money to assist the war; all anti-Japanese political parties, except for those who oppose the people, did their part for the war.” Xi Jinping pointed out in 2020, “The victory of the War of Resistance was a great victory achieved by the whole nation with one heart and one mind in a courageous war.”

毛泽东1945年在中共七大上说：“中国军队的广大官兵，在前线流血战斗，中国的工人、农民、知识界、产业界，在后方努力工作，海外华侨输财助战，一切抗日政党，除了那些反人民分子外，都对战争有所尽力。”习近平在2020年指出，“抗日战争胜利是全民族众志成城奋勇抗战的伟大胜利”：

In the arduous War of Resistance, all Chinese sons and daughters fought for national survival, for national rejuvenation, and for human justice. Social mobilization was broad, national awakening was profound, fighting will was tenacious, and belief in victory was firm, all reaching unprecedented heights. Generals who died in battle, such as Yang Jingyu, Zhao Shangzhi, Zuo Quan, Peng Xuefeng, Tong Linge, Zhao Dengyu, Zhang Zizhong, and Dai Anlan; heroic groups such as the Eighth Route Army’s “Five Heroes of Langya Mountain” [16]16 The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain: five Eighth Route Army soldiers who, in 1941, jumped off a cliff after running out of ammunition to avoid capture., the New Fourth Army’s “Liu Laozhuang Company” [17]17 The Liu Laozhuang Company: a company of the New Fourth Army that fought to the death against the Japanese in 1943; all 82 troops were killed., the eight female soldiers of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army [18]18 The Eight Women Warriors: eight female soldiers of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army who drowned themselves in 1938 to avoid capture by Japanese forces., and the Kuomintang army’s “Eight Hundred Heroes” [19]19 The Eight Hundred Heroes: a group of Kuomintang soldiers who defended a warehouse in Shanghai in 1937 against overwhelming Japanese forces in a famous last stand.—these are outstanding representatives of the tens of millions of anti-Japanese soldiers and civilians. With iron bones, the Chinese people fought the strong enemy; with flesh and blood, they built a Great Wall; and one after another, they threw themselves into the national disaster, composing a magnificent epic that moves heaven and earth.

在艰苦卓绝的抗日战争中，全体中华儿女为国家生存而战、为民族复兴而战、为人类正义而战，社会动员之广泛，民族觉醒之深刻，战斗意志之顽强，必胜信念之坚定，都达到了空前的高度。杨靖宇、赵尚志、左权、彭雪枫、佟麟阁、赵登禹、张自忠、戴安澜等殉国将领，八路军“狼牙山五壮士”、新四军“刘老庄连”、东北抗联八位女战士、国民党军“八百壮士”等众多英雄群体，就是千千万万抗日将士的杰出代表。中国人民以铮铮铁骨战强敌、以血肉之躯筑长城、以前仆后继赴国难，谱写了惊天地、泣鬼神的雄壮史诗。

The War of Resistance was a turning point for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The foundation of this turning point was the sense of the Chinese national community formed by people of all ethnic groups in the process of resisting Japanese aggression. The theory and practice of the anti-Japanese national united front advocated by the Communist Party of China played a major role in the formation of the sense of the Chinese national community.

抗日战争是中华民族伟大复兴的转折点，转折的基础是各族人民在抗击日本侵略过程中形成的中华民族共同体意识。中国共产党倡导的抗日民族统一战线的理论与实践，对中华民族共同体意识的形成起了重大作用。

III. The Formation of the International Anti-Japanese United Front

三、国际抗日统一战线的形成

Under the circumstances of a great disparity in power between China and Japan, China’s War of Resistance urgently needed support from countries around the world. During China’s period of partial resistance, governments of European and American countries, based on their own interests, did not openly support China’s resistance. But Mao Zedong analyzed that with the expansion of Japan’s invasion, it would inevitably create sharp contradictions with the interests of various countries in China: “Japan’s invasion not only threatens China, but also threatens world peace, especially peace in the Pacific. Japanese imperialism is not only the enemy of China, but also the enemy of the people of all countries that desire peace, especially the people of countries with interests in the Pacific, namely the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Japan’s continental policy and maritime policy are directed not only at China, but also at these countries.” Based on this, Mao Zedong called on governments, peoples, political parties, and mass organizations of various countries to unite and form a united front against Japanese imperialism. This international anti-Japanese united front was an expansion and extension of the domestic anti-Japanese national united front.

在中日力量对比悬殊的情况下，中国的抗日战争亟需世界各国的支援。在中国的局部抗战时期，欧美各国政府出于各自的利益考虑，没有一个公开支援中国的抗日。但毛泽东分析，随着日本侵华的扩大，必然与各国的在华利益产生尖锐矛盾：“日本侵略不仅威胁中国，而且也威胁世界和平，尤其是太平洋的和平。日本帝国主义不仅是中国的敌人，同时也是要求和平的世界各国人民的敌人，特别是和太平洋有利害关系的各国即美、英、法、苏等国的人民的敌人。日本的大陆政策和海洋政策不仅指向中国，而且也指向这些国家。”毛泽东据此呼吁各国政府、各国人民、各党派和各群众组织团结起来，组成反对日本帝国主义的统一战线。这个国际抗日统一战线是国内抗日民族统一战线的扩大与延伸。

When Japan launched its full-scale war of invasion in 1937, the Eastern theater of World War II began. The Soviet Union was the first to feel the threat from Japan, signing the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Treaty with China, providing military aid, and sending military advisers. The famous Soviet Volunteer Flying Corps [20]20 The Soviet Volunteer Flying Corps: Soviet air units dispatched to China between 1937 and 1941 to aid in the fight against Japan. came directly to China to fight against Japan, achieving the record of shooting down or destroying nearly a thousand Japanese aircraft, and more than 200 Soviet pilots died in combat. Although Japan’s full-scale invasion severely damaged the interests of the United States, Britain, and other countries in China, due to the tense situation in Europe, the European and American countries still tried to avoid serious conflict with Japan and did not dare openly support China’s resistance. China’s war situation was very difficult. In 1939, Mao Zedong appealed to countries such as the United States and Britain, “If China is defeated, the United States, Britain, and other countries will not be able to sleep soundly”; helping China is helping themselves, and “any country that wants to stay out of it is impossible.” In the early period of the war, Chiang Kai-shek recognized that ultimate victory in resisting Japan required international support: “The way to subdue Japan lies in our perseverance and confidence to hold on to the end, that is, to win final victory with unyielding will; externally, we hope the United States and Britain will unite to provoke international intervention, so that Japan’s ambition to dominate East Asia and conquer China will be lost.” He spent a great deal of time and energy seeking foreign aid and was often frustrated and helpless when he did not get a friendly response: “Today I am most worried and agitated because of the international situation and the lack of air force; I often comfort myself with the idea of resigning to fate.”

1937年日本全面侵华战争爆发，第二次世界大战东方战场开战。苏联最先感到日本的威胁，与中国签署了《中苏互不侵犯条约》,对华提供军事援助，派出军事顾问。著名的苏联志愿援华飞行队直接来华参加对日作战，取得了击落击毁近千架日军飞机的战绩，200多名苏联飞行员在作战中牺牲。日本的全面侵华战争虽严重损害了美英等国的在华利益，然而由于欧洲局势紧张，欧美各国仍尽量避免与日本发生严重冲突，不敢公开支援中国抗日，中国的抗战局面十分艰难。毛泽东在1939年向英美等国呼吁，“中国如果战败，英、美等国将不能安枕”,援助中国就是援助他们自己，“任何国家欲置身事外是不可能的”。抗战初期，蒋介石认识到抗击日本最后胜利需要国际支持：“制倭之道，在我以毅力与信心坚持到底，即坚忍不拔之志，取得最后胜利；在外则望英美联合激起国际干涉，使敌独霸东亚与克服中国之野心丧失是也。”他花费大量时间与精力来争取外援，因得不到友善回应恼火而无奈，“以国际形势与空军无人之故，今日忧虑燥激为最甚，常以听天由命之意以自解”。

In September 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and the European theater of World War II began. Britain and France not only did not help China resist Japan to attack the fascist camp, but under Japanese pressure, closed the Burma Road [21]21 The Burma Road: a supply route from Burma to southwestern China used to transport military material during the war. and the Yunnan-Vietnam Railway [22]22 The Yunnan-Vietnam Railway: a railway connecting Kunming, Yunnan, with the port of Haiphong in Vietnam, another wartime supply line., making China’s resistance situation even more difficult. It was not until December 1941, when Japan attacked the US military base at Pearl Harbor [23]23 Pearl Harbor: the US naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, leading to the US entry into World War II., that the illusions of Britain and the United States were completely shattered. The United States declared war on Japan, and China also declared war on Japan. China, the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and other countries formed an anti-fascist alliance. The United States and Britain recognized the importance of the China theater and hoped China could pin down and exhaust the Japanese forces to the maximum extent. US President Roosevelt proposed organizing the China Theater to coordinate the Allied forces’ operations against Japan in China, Thailand, Vietnam, and northern Burma. On January 1, 1942, Roosevelt announced the establishment of the China Theater in Washington, with Chiang Kai-shek appointed as the Supreme Commander. The world anti-German-Japanese-Italian fascist front, including the war of resistance, was formed, and the Chinese battlefield officially merged with the world anti-fascist battlefield.

1939年9月，德国进攻波兰，第二次世界大战欧洲战场开战。英法等国不但未帮助中国抗击日本以打击法西斯阵营，反而在日本的压力下，关闭了滇缅公路和滇越铁路，造成中国抗战局面更加困难。直到1941年12月，日本偷袭美国军事基地珍珠港，彻底打破了英美各国的幻想，美国宣布对日作战，中国也同时对日宣战，中国与美、英、苏等国结成了反法西斯同盟。英美等国认识到中国战场的重要性，希望中国能够最大限度地拖住和消耗日军。美国罗斯福总统提议组织中国战区，负责同盟国军队在中国、泰国、越南和缅北境内对日作战。1942年1月1日，罗斯福在华盛顿正式宣布建立中国战区的决定，推举蒋介石为中国战区统帅。包括抗日在内的世界反德日意法西斯战线形成，中国抗日战场正式与世界反法西斯战场融为一体。

Chinese forces not only pinned down and exhausted large numbers of Japanese troops on the Chinese battlefield, but also entered Burma twice to coordinate operations with the British army, and presided over the acceptance of the surrender of Japanese forces in northern Vietnam, spreading China’s prestige abroad. The Chinese battlefield became the main Eastern theater of the world anti-fascist war. China played an active role in the international anti-fascist united front, participating in the Cairo Conference [24]24 The Cairo Conference (November 1943): a meeting of leaders of China, the United States, and the United Kingdom to discuss postwar arrangements for Asia., contributing to the founding of the United Nations [25]25 The United Nations: founded in 1945 as an international organization to replace the League of Nations; China was a founding member and permanent member of the Security Council., and becoming one of the “Big Four” [26]26 The “Big Four”: the principal Allied powers in World War II: the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China..

中国军队不但在中国战场上大量牵制与消耗日军，还两次进入缅甸与英军协同作战，主持越南北部日军的受降，扬威域外。中国战场成为世界反法西斯的东方主战场。中国在国际反法西斯统一战线中发挥积极作用，参加开罗会议，参与联合国的创立，成为“四强”之一。

With the formation of the international anti-fascist united front, the Allied powers provided China with massive economic and military aid, greatly improving the situation in China’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression and strengthening the Chinese people’s confidence in victory. Take air force operations as an example. The War of Resistance was a full-scale modern war; the air force was the most advanced branch at the time, capable not only of supporting ground operations through reconnaissance and bombing but also of conducting independent air combat and seizing air superiority. When the full-scale war of resistance broke out, the disparity in air power between China and Japan was enormous: China had only one-seventh as many combat-ready aircraft as Japan. Although China launched a surprise attack on 14 August 1937 and won a major victory over the Japanese air force, the Japanese soon seized air superiority and bombed Nanjing. During the Battle of Wuhan, the Soviet Volunteer Air Force assisted the Chinese air force in resisting the Japanese; in the following years, the Japanese air force completely controlled the skies over the Chinese battlefield, using bases in central China to carry out “exhaustion bombing” against Chongqing and the rest of the southwest, inflicting heavy losses on Chinese civilian lives and property and severely depressing the morale of both troops and civilians. In July 1941, retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer Claire Lee Chennault, commissioned by Chiang Kai-shek, recruited a group of pilots and mechanics in the United States and formally established the American Volunteer Group of the Chinese Air Force. After the outbreak of the Pacific War, the U.S. government began providing large numbers of aircraft and helping to train pilots, and the combat capability of the Chinese air force began to recover. The American Volunteer Group was formally incorporated into the U.S. Army China Air Task Force, later expanded into the Fourteenth Air Force, which fought on the China theater. The American air forces in China were collectively known as the Flying Tigers. By 1944, the Chinese and American air forces had fully gained air superiority over the battlefield, not only supporting ground operations but also bombing Japanese strategic strongpoints, and even, flying from airfields on the Chinese mainland, bombing the Japanese home islands. During the Battle of Western Hunan on the eve of victory in the War of Resistance, China dispatched 1,690 sorties of American-made aircraft into combat, bombing Japanese frontline and rear areas, effectively supporting ground forces, and achieving a major victory over the Japanese. In September 2024, on the 79th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance, the Nanjing Anti-Japanese Aviation Martyrs Memorial Hall released for the first time a list of 2,590 American aviation martyrs who died in China’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression; some fell in air combat against the Japanese, others died during the grueling Hump airlift transport missions. The joint operations and mutual support of the Chinese and American air forces contributed to the victory in the War of Resistance and in the global anti-fascist war.

由于国际反法西斯统一战线形成，盟国对中国提供大量的经济与军事援助，中国抗日战争的局面大为改观，增强了中国人民必胜的信心。以空军作战为例。抗日战争是一场全面的现代化战争，空军是当时最先进的兵种，它不仅能通过侦察、轰炸等手段配合地面作战，而且能独立地进行空战，掌握制空权。全面抗战爆发之时，中日空军力量悬殊，中国能够参战的飞机仅为日本的1/7。虽然在1937年8月14日空战时中方出其不意，取得对日本空军的大捷，但不久日军就掌握了制空权，轰炸南京。武汉会战期间，苏联援华空军志愿队协助中国空军进行抵抗，其后的数年中，日本空军完全掌握了中国战场的制空权，利用在华中的基地对重庆为主的西南地区实施“疲劳轰炸”,使中国民众生命财产受到巨大损失，也严重挫伤军民的士气。1941年7月，美国退役空军军官陈纳德（Claire Lee Chennalt）受蒋介石委托，在美国招募了一批飞行员与机械师，正式组建了中国空军美国志愿队。太平洋战争爆发后，美国政府开始援助了大量的战机，并帮助训练飞行员，中国空军的战力开始恢复。美国志愿队也正式编入美军中国特遣航空队，之后扩编为第十四航空队，在中国战场作战。在华美国空军被通称“飞虎队”。中美空军到1944年完全掌握了战场的制空权，不仅配合地面作战，也轰炸日军战略据点，甚至从中国大陆机场出发，轰炸日本本土。在抗战胜利前夕的湘西会战中，中国出动1690架次美式战机投入战斗，轰炸日军前线与后方，有力地配合地面部队，取得击败日军的大捷。2024年9月抗日战争胜利79周年之际，南京抗日航空烈士纪念馆首次公布了2590名在中国抗日战争中牺牲的美国籍抗日航空英烈名录，他们有的牺牲于对日军空战，有的牺牲于艰苦异常的“驼峰航线”运输。中美空军联合作战，互相支持，为抗日战争与世界反法西斯战场的胜利作出了贡献。

The Chinese people will forever remember the support of all Allied nations in the international anti-fascist war. Xi Jinping said, “The victory of the Chinese people’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression was a great victory won by the Chinese people fighting shoulder to shoulder with the anti-fascist Allied nations and the peoples of all countries. The Chinese people will never forget the precious assistance and support given to the Chinese people’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression by countries, peoples, and international organizations that love peace and justice, and all anti-fascist forces.” In September 2023, Xi Jinping replied to the chairman of the Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation and Flying Tigers veterans, expressing the hope that the Flying Tigers spirit could be passed down from generation to generation between the two peoples. The letter said: “Looking back on the past, the Chinese and American peoples shared a common hatred against the Japanese fascists, endured the test of blood and fire, and forged a deep friendship. Looking to the future, as two major countries, China and the United States bear an even greater responsibility for world peace, stability, and development, and should and must achieve mutual respect, peaceful coexistence, and win-win cooperation.”

中国人民永远铭记国际反法西斯各盟国对抗日战争的支持。习近平说：“中国人民抗日战争胜利是中国人民同反法西斯同盟国以及各国人民并肩战斗的伟大胜利，中国人民永远不会忘记，世界上爱好和平与正义的国家和人民、国际组织等各种反法西斯力量对中国人民抗日战争给予的宝贵援助和支持”。2023年9月，习近平复信美中航空遗产基金会主席与飞虎队老兵，希望飞虎队精神能够在两国人民之间世代相传。信中称：“追忆往昔，中美两国人民在抗击日本法西斯的斗争中同仇敌忾，经受了血与火的考验，结下了深厚友谊。展望未来，中美作为两个大国，对世界的和平、稳定与发展负有更加重要的责任，应该也必须实现相互尊重、和平共处、合作共赢。”

An indispensable reason why the Chinese people won victory in the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression lies in two aspects: domestically, the people of all ethnic groups, united under the banner of the national united front of resistance against Japanese aggression, persisted in the war; externally, they joined with the countries of the international anti-fascist united front in solidarity and mutual support to confront the enemy. Before the full-scale war of resistance broke out, Mao Zedong asserted that under three conditions the Chinese people’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression would definitely achieve final victory. Although the anti-war activities of the Japanese people and the colonial peoples in Japan’s colonies did not reach the level necessary to stop the aggression and cause its defeat, the two conditions of China’s united front of resistance against Japanese aggression and the international united front of resistance against Japanese aggression (expanded into the anti-fascist united front) did take shape, and their strength was sufficient to defeat the Japanese aggressors, thereby guaranteeing victory in the War of Resistance.

中国人民赢得抗日战争胜利不可或缺的重要原因有两点：在中国内部，各族人民在抗日民族统一战线的旗帜下万众一心坚持抗日；在外部，与世界反法西斯统一战线各国团结互助共同对敌。毛泽东在全面抗战爆发前所断言在3个条件之下中国人民抗日战争一定能最后胜利，虽然日本国内与其殖民地人民的反战活动未能达到足以阻止侵略并促使其失败的程度，但中国抗日统一战线与国际抗日统一战线（扩大为反法西斯统一战线）两个条件形成，且力量十分强大，足以战胜日本侵略者，这就保证了抗日战争的胜利。

History has proven the correctness of Mao Zedong’s 1936 prophecy in his “cave conversation” with Edgar Snow in Yan’an that China would surely win the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression.

历史证明了毛泽东1936年在延安与斯诺“窑中对谈”中关于抗日战争中国一定能赢预言的正确性。

(About the author: Chen Hongmin, professor at the School of History, Zhejiang University, and researcher at the Center for Sino-Japanese Historical Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)

（作者简介：陈红民，浙江大学历史学院教授、中国社会科学院中日历史研究中心研究员）

Online Editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心