The Path of Japan’s Wars of Aggression against China in the Modern Era

General Secretary Xi Jinping, in his important speech at the symposium commemorating the 75th anniversary of the victory of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression and the World Anti-Fascist War, pointed out: “Japan’s sustained aggression against China is the darkest chapter in China’s modern history.” [1]1 The September 18 Incident (1931): Japan's staged explosion on a railway near Mukden (Shenyang) used as a pretext to invade and occupy Northeast China. Beginning with the 1874 invasion of Taiwan, modern Japan’s acts of aggression against China lasted over seventy years, particularly during the half-century from the Jiawu War [2]2 The puppet state of Manchukuo (伪满洲国), established by Japan in 1932 with the last Qing emperor Puyi as its nominal head. to the War of Aggression against China.

习近平总书记在纪念中国人民抗日战争暨世界反法西斯战争胜利75周年座谈会上的重要讲话中指出：“日本对华持续侵略是近代以来中国历史上最黑暗的一页。”近代日本自1874年入侵中国台湾开始，侵华行动历时70余年，尤以发动甲午战争与侵华战争的半个世纪为最。

In the two decades before the Jiawu War (1874-1893). After the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government sent an envoy to China in 1870. On September 13, 1871, representatives of China and Japan signed the *Sino-Japanese Treaty of Amity* and the *Sino-Japanese Trade Regulations* in Tianjin. The *Sino-Japanese Treaty of Amity* opened by emphasizing that China and Japan “have long maintained friendly relations over the years, and now wish to renew old friendship and further strengthen bilateral ties”; it also stipulated in the first article that the two countries would henceforth “doubly strengthen their friendship, enduring as heaven and earth”; and further provided that “the territories belonging to the two countries shall be treated with mutual respect and shall not be encroached upon in the slightest, so as to ensure lasting security.” It was the first equal treaty concluded between China and Japan. But not long after diplomatic relations were established, Japan repeatedly demanded revisions to the treaty, all of which were rejected by the Chinese government. Alongside the treaty revision negotiations, the two countries engaged in diplomatic struggles surrounding the following events.

甲午战前20年（1874—1893）。明治维新以后，日本政府于1870年派使赴华。1871年9月13日，中日两国代表在天津签订了《中日修好条规》《中日通商章程》。《中日修好条规》开篇即强调中日两国“素敦友谊，历有年所，兹欲同修旧好，益固邦交”；并在第一条首先规定两国今后“倍敦和谊，与天壤无穷”；又规定“两国所属邦土，亦各以礼相待，不可稍有侵越，俾获永久安全”。它是中日两国订立的第一个平等条约。但在中日建交后不久，日本即一再要求修改条约，均被中国政府拒绝。在修约谈判的同时，两国围绕以下事件开展了外交斗争。

In the early modern period, the so-called “argument for conquering Taiwan” arose in Japan, aimed at invading China’s Taiwan region. At the end of 1871, Japan used the Mudan Incident [3]3 The North China Incident (1935): a series of events by which Japan sought to detach the five northern provinces from China, escalating the national crisis. as a pretext to launch an attack on Taiwan. In February 1874, the Japanese government formulated the *Outline for the Disposition of Taiwan Aboriginal Territory*. In May, Japanese troops formally invaded Taiwan. The people of Taiwan rose up in resistance, and the Qing government sent officials to Taiwan to handle coastal defense matters. Japan sent a delegation to Beijing for negotiations, and on October 31, China and Japan signed the *Sino-Japanese Agreement on Taiwan*, which stipulated that China would pay Japan an indemnity of 500,000 taels of silver, and that Japanese troops would withdraw from Taiwan by December 20. The 1874 Japanese invasion of Taiwan was the first major event after the signing of the *Sino-Japanese Treaty of Amity*. It was modern Japan’s first overseas deployment of military force, and its target was directly Chinese territory, thus beginning a war of aggression against China that lasted over seventy years.

近代之初，日本兴起侵略中国台湾地区的所谓“征台论”。1871年底，日本以“牡丹社”事件为借口，趁机进攻台湾。1874年2月，日本政府制定了《台湾蕃地处分要略》。5月，日军正式入侵台湾。台湾人民奋起抵抗，清政府派员到台湾办理海防事宜。日本派出使团到北京进行交涉，10月31日中日签订《台事专条》，规定中国赔款日本50万两白银，日军在12月20日之前撤出台湾。1874年日军入侵台湾是在《中日修好条规》签订后发生的第一个大事件，是近代日本第一次向海外用兵，且目标直指中国领土，从此开始了持续70余年的侵华战争。

Alongside the invasion of Taiwan, Japan was also preparing to annex the Ryukyu Kingdom. In 1871, Japan abolished the domains and established prefectures, abolishing Satsuma Domain and establishing Kagoshima Prefecture, with Ryukyu affairs placed under the jurisdiction of Kagoshima Prefecture. In October 1872, the Japanese government established a “Ryukyu Domain,” separate from Kagoshima Prefecture, in an attempt to gradually incorporate the Ryukyus into Japan’s territory. The Qing government entered into negotiations with the Japanese government, but Japan decided to forcibly “dispose of” the Ryukyus. In 1879, the Japanese government abolished the “Ryukyu Domain” and changed it to “Okinawa Prefecture,” thus the Ryukyu Kingdom was extinguished. The Qing government continued negotiations with Japan, but these were later abandoned due to the Jiawu War.

日本入侵台湾的同时，还在准备吞并琉球。1871年，日本废藩置县，将萨摩藩废除后设置鹿儿岛县，琉球事务由鹿儿岛县管辖。1872年10月，日本政府设立“琉球藩”，独立于鹿儿岛县之外，企图逐渐将琉球纳入日本版图。清政府与日本政府进行交涉，日本决定强行“处分”琉球。1879年，日本政府废除“琉球藩”，改为“冲绳县”，琉球王国从此覆亡。清政府继续与日本进行交涉，后因甲午战争不了了之。

At the same time as Japan put forward the “argument for conquering Taiwan,” it also advanced the “argument for conquering Korea.” In April 1875, Japan dispatched warships to invade Korea, creating the Jianghua Island Incident. [4]4 The United Front Against Japanese Aggression: a coalition of the CPC, the KMT, and other parties, advocated by the CPC from 1935 to unite the nation against Japan. On February 26, 1876, Japan forced Korea to conclude the *Treaty of Jianghua*, an unequal treaty imposed on Korea by Japan. In 1884, the Jiashen Coup [5]5 The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937): a clash between Japanese and Chinese troops near Beijing that triggered the full-scale Sino-Japanese War. occurred in Korea, and both China and Japan sent troops to Korea. In 1885, China and Japan signed the *Sino-Japanese Treaty of Tianjin*, which facilitated Japan’s future dispatch of troops to Korea. In 1890, Japanese Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo [6]6 The Battle of Shanghai (August 13, 1937): Japan's attack on Shanghai, expanding the war to central China. formally proposed a “two lines” theory for Japan’s national development: in addition to the first “line of sovereignty,” he clarified a second “line of interest,” the focus of which was the Korean Peninsula. The modern Japanese continental policy for invading China via the Korean Peninsula was thus formally formed.

日本在提出“征台论”的同时，又提出“征韩论”。1875年4月，日本派遣军舰侵犯朝鲜，制造“江华岛事件”。1876年2月26日，日本强迫朝鲜订立《江华条约》，这是日本强加给朝鲜的不平等条约。1884年朝鲜发生甲申政变，中日两国先后出兵朝鲜。1885年，中日两国签订《中日天津条约》，为日本再次出兵朝鲜提供了便利。1890年，日本首相山县有朋正式提出日本国家发展的“两线”论，在第一条“主权线”之外，又明确了第二条“利益线”，其焦点就在朝鲜半岛。近代日本经由朝鲜半岛侵略中国的大陆政策正式形成。

The two decades after the Jiawu War (1895-1914). In the spring of 1894, Korean peasants organized the Donghak Peasant Revolution [7]7 The stage of stalemate (1938–1944) in the War of Resistance, when Japan's initial advances slowed and the war settled into prolonged attrition. and launched an uprising. The Chinese government dispatched troops at the request of the Korean government, and Japan also sent its navy and army to Korea. Subsequently, Japan not only refused to withdraw its troops but, while China was withdrawing its forces, launched a sneak attack on a Chinese warship in the waters off Feng Island, declaring war without prior notice, and the Jiawu War broke out. China’s naval and land forces were routed, and Japan occupied China’s Liaodong Peninsula and Weihaiwei. The Qing government, as demanded by Japan, sent Li Hongzhang to Japan for negotiations, and on April 17, 1895, China and Japan signed the *Treaty of Shimonoseki*. The Jiawu War was a landmark historical event marking the “reversal” in modern Sino-Japanese relations. Japan thereby developed into one of the military-feudal imperialist powers, while China’s semi-colonialization deepened greatly, and the Chinese nation faced a severe crisis of national subjugation and extinction. After the Jiawu War, the tributary system centered on China ceased to exist, the rising Japanese Empire emerged, and the structure of international relations in East Asia was fundamentally transformed.

甲午战后20年（1895—1914）。1894年春天，朝鲜农民组织“东学党”发动起义，中国政府应朝鲜政府要求派兵，日本也派遣海陆军到朝鲜。随后，日本不但不撤军，还在中国撤军时，在丰岛海面上偷袭中国军舰，不宣而战，甲午战争爆发。中国海陆军队溃败，日本占领了中国辽东半岛和威海卫。清政府按照日本要求派出李鸿章到日本进行谈判，1895年4月17日中日签订《马关条约》。甲午战争是近代中日关系“逆转”的一个标志性历史事件。日本由此发展为军事封建帝国主义列强之一，中国半殖民地化程度大大加深，中华民族面临着亡国灭种的严重危机。甲午战争后，以中国为中心的宗藩体系不复存在，新兴的日本帝国崛起，东亚世界的国际关系格局彻底改变。

After the Jiawu War, Japan intensified its acts of aggression against China together with the Western powers. In 1900, in order to suppress China’s Boxer Movement [8]8 The 14-year War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1931–1945), including both the partial invasion of Northeast China and the full-scale war after 1937., Japan participated in organizing the “Eight-Nation Allied Forces” that invaded China, occupied Tianjin and Beijing, and forced the Chinese government to sign the *Treaty of Xinchou*. Japan contributed the largest number of troops among the Eight-Nation Alliance, serving as the vanguard and main force. To supervise the Qing government’s implementation of the treaty, the various powers stationed troops along the railway from Beijing to Shanhaiguan; Japan dispatched the “Qing Garrison Army,” with its headquarters in Tianjin, which was the first Japanese army stationed in China in modern times.

甲午战争后，日本同西方列强加剧侵华行动。1900年，为镇压中国的义和团运动，日本参与组织的“八国联军”入侵中国，占领了天津和北京，迫使中国政府签订《辛丑条约》。日本在八国联军中出兵数量最多，充当先锋和主力。各国列强为了监督清政府执行条约，在北京到山海关的铁路沿线派驻军队；日本派出“清国驻屯军”，司令部设在天津，这是近代日本在中国派驻的第一支军队。

After the *Treaty of Shimonoseki* stipulated that Japan would cede the Liaodong Peninsula, Russia, together with Germany and France, intervened, forcing Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula after China paid an indemnity. On February 10, 1904, Japan formally declared war on Russia in order to seize China’s Northeast and Korea. Later, under mediation by the United States, representatives of Japan and Russia signed the *Treaty of Portsmouth*, which stipulated that Russia’s rights and interests in China’s Liaodong Peninsula would be transferred to Japan. Japan then sent a delegation to Beijing and forced the Qing government to sign a treaty recognizing the transfer of Chinese sovereignty between Russia and Japan. Thereafter, southern Northeast China became a base for Japanese aggression and expansion in China.

《马关条约》规定日本割占辽东半岛后，俄国联合德、法两国干预，迫使日本在中国还款后，归还辽东半岛。1904年2月10日，日本为了侵占中国东北和朝鲜，正式对俄国宣战，后在美国调停下，日俄两国代表签订《朴茨茅斯条约》，规定将俄国在中国辽东半岛的权益转让给日本。日本随后派团赴北京，强迫清政府签订条约，承认了俄、日之间对中国主权的转让。中国东北南部此后成为日本在华侵略与扩张的基地。

After the First World War (1919-1930). In July 1914, the First World War broke out, and Japan used the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as a pretext to declare war on Germany. After landing on the Shandong Peninsula, the Japanese army, together with the Japanese navy, captured Jiaozhou Bay. On January 18, 1915, the Japanese minister to China formally presented the “Twenty-One Demands” to Yuan Shikai in Beijing. On May 7, Japan demanded in the form of an “ultimatum” that China must accept the “Twenty-One Demands.” On May 25, Yuan Shikai’s government signed the *Sino-Japanese Treaty of 1915* largely accepting the “Twenty-One Demands,” by which Japan inherited and expanded all of Germany’s rights and interests in China’s Shandong, continued to expand its rights and interests in Manchuria and Mongolia, and established the joint Sino-Japanese operation of the Hanyeping Company, among other things.

第一次世界大战后（1919—1930）。1914年7月，第一次世界大战爆发，日本以日英同盟为借口对德国宣战。日本陆军登陆山东半岛后，与日本海军一起攻占了胶州湾。1915年1月18日，日本驻华公使在北京向袁世凯正式提出“二十一条”。5月7日，日本以“最后通牒”的方式要求中国必须接受“二十一条”。5月25日，袁世凯政府签订了基本接受“二十一条”的《中日民四条约》，日本继承并扩大德国在中国山东的一切权益、继续扩大在满蒙的权益以及中日合办汉冶萍公司等。

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Chinese government delegation put forward legitimate demands to abolish the “Twenty-One Demands” and recover Shandong, but these were refused discussion. The May Fourth Movement [9]9 A Chinese four-character idiom (中流砥柱) meaning "mainstay" or "pillar", used to emphasize the CPC's crucial leading role in the resistance. erupted in China, and the Chinese delegation refused to sign the *Treaty of Versailles*. At the Washington Conference, the Chinese government delegation once again raised the issue of abolishing the “Twenty-One Demands.” In December 1922, the Chinese government recovered sovereignty over Shandong, but Japan still retained certain rights and interests. In 1923, the 25-year lease on Lüshun (Port Arthur) and Dalian, which had been forcefully acquired by Russia, expired. The Chinese government demanded the abrogation of the treaty from the Japanese government, but the Japanese government refused to respond and continued to use unequal treaties to uphold its so-called “Manchuria-Mongolia rights and interests.”

1919年，在巴黎和会上，中国政府代表团提出废除“二十一条”以及收回山东的正当要求，却被拒绝讨论。中国国内爆发了“五四运动”，中国代表团拒绝在《巴黎和约》上签字。华盛顿会议上，中国政府代表团再次提出废除“二十一条”。1922年12月，中国政府收回了山东主权，但日本仍保留了若干权益。1923年，俄国强租旅顺大连25年期满，中国政府向日本政府提出废约要求，日本政府拒绝回应，继续以不平等条约维护其所谓的“满蒙权益”。

Japan colluded with the Fengtian Clique [10]10 A Chinese proverb (前事不忘，后事之师) meaning "Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future." to continuously expand its rights and interests in China. Just as the Chinese National Revolution was shaking the rule of the Fengtian Clique, the Tanaka Giichi cabinet [11] convened the Eastern Conference in June 1927, which determined a policy of separating Manchuria and Mongolia from China. After the conference, Prime Minister Tanaka memorialized this policy to the Showa Emperor; the “Tanaka Memorial” [12] revealed the strategy and line of Japanese imperialist foreign aggressive war. On May 3, 1928, Japan, in order to stop the Northern Expedition of the National Revolutionary Army and protect its special interests in North China and Manchuria-Mongolia, created the Jinan Incident. [13]

日本勾结奉系军阀，不断扩大在中国的权益。在中国国民革命动摇奉系军阀统治之际，田中义一内阁于1927年6月召开东方会议，确定了分离满蒙的对华政策。会后，田中首相将此对华政策上奏昭和天皇，“田中奏折”暴露了日本帝国主义对外侵略战争的战略和路线。1928年5月3日，日本为阻止国民革命军北伐，维护其在华北和满蒙的特殊利益，制造了济南惨案。6月4日，日本关东军制造了皇姑屯事件，并开始酝酿一个更大的侵华阴谋。

From Japan's partial war of aggression against China to its full-scale war of aggression against China (1931–1945). In 1931, Japan launched the September 18 Incident[1]1 The September 18 Incident (1931): Japan's staged explosion on a railway near Mukden (Shenyang) used as a pretext to invade and occupy Northeast China., occupying over 1.1 million square kilometers of territory in Northeast China. In March 1932, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo[2]2 The puppet state of Manchukuo (伪满洲国), established by Japan in 1932 with the last Qing emperor Puyi as its nominal head. with Puyi as its head. In 1935, Japan engineered the North China Incident[3]3 The North China Incident (1935): a series of events by which Japan sought to detach the five northern provinces from China, escalating the national crisis., attempting to split the five provinces of northern China, bringing the Chinese nation to its most dangerous moment. Under the situation of Japan's intensified aggression in North China, the United Front Against Japanese Aggression[4]4 The United Front Against Japanese Aggression: a coalition of the CPC, the KMT, and other parties, advocated by the CPC from 1935 to unite the nation against Japan. advocated by the Communist Party of China won the support of the entire nation, and the Nationalist government was forced to embark on the War of Resistance.

从局部侵华战争到全面侵华战争（1931—1945）。1931年日本发动九一八事变，侵占了中国东北110多万平方公里的领土。1932年3月，日本扶植成立以溥仪为首的伪满傀儡政权。1935 年，日本制造“华北事变”，企图分裂中国华北五省，中华民族到了最危险的时刻。在日本继续加紧侵略华北的形势下，中国共产党倡导的抗日民族统一战线得到全国人民的拥护和支持，国民政府被迫走向抗战。

On July 7, 1937, Japanese troops provoked the Marco Polo Bridge Incident[5]5 The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937): a clash between Japanese and Chinese troops near Beijing that triggered the full-scale Sino-Japanese War., raising the curtain on the full-scale war of aggression against China, and later provoked the Battle of Shanghai (August 13)[6]6 The Battle of Shanghai (August 13, 1937): Japan's attack on Shanghai, expanding the war to central China. in Shanghai, further expanding the war. During the stage of stalemate[7]7 The stage of stalemate (1938–1944) in the War of Resistance, when Japan's initial advances slowed and the war settled into prolonged attrition., Japan relied mainly on puppet regimes to maintain its rule in the occupied areas. The Kuomintang and the Communist Party fought tenaciously against the Japanese invaders on the frontal and enemy rear battlefields respectively. The enemy rear resistance under the leadership of the Communist Party of China played the role of a mainstay[9]9 A Chinese four-character idiom (中流砥柱) meaning "mainstay" or "pillar", used to emphasize the CPC's crucial leading role in the resistance., and the China theater became the main Eastern battleground of the Second World War. On August 15, 1945, Japan announced its surrender. The Chinese people's 14-year War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression[8]8 The 14-year War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1931–1945), including both the partial invasion of Northeast China and the full-scale war after 1937. was the first great victory in the Chinese nation's anti-aggression wars in modern times, and also the historical turning point for the Chinese nation from the deep crisis of modern times toward the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

1937年7月7日，日军挑起卢沟桥事变，拉开了全面侵华战争的序幕，后又在上海挑起“八一三”事变，进一步扩大侵华战争。战略相持阶段，日本主要依靠伪政权维系在占领区的统治。国民党和共产党分别在正面战场与敌后战场，顽强抗击侵华日军。中国共产党领导下的敌后抗战发挥了中流砥柱作用，中国战场成为第二次世界大战的东方主战场。1945年8月15日，日本宣布投降。中国人民历时14年的抗日战争，是近代以来中华民族反侵略战争取得的第一次伟大胜利，也是中华民族从近代以来陷入沉重危机走向伟大复兴的历史转折点。

"Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future"[10]10 A Chinese proverb (前事不忘，后事之师) meaning "Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future."; history is the best textbook and sobering agent. The brutal aggression of Japanese militarism caused unprecedented and immense catastrophe to the Chinese people, and aroused their tenacious resistance. The continuous path of Japanese aggression against China in modern times, primarily through two wars, and its historical lessons, still deserve our profound review and in-depth summary today, on the 80th anniversary of the victory of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression.

前事不忘，后事之师，历史是最好的教科书和清醒剂。日本军国主义的野蛮侵略给中国人民造成空前巨大的灾难，激起中国人民的顽强反抗。近代日本以两次战争为主的持续侵华之路及其历史教训，在抗日战争胜利80周年的今天，仍然值得我们深刻回顾与深入总结。

(The author is a professor in the Department of History, Peking University.)

（作者系北京大学历史学系教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心