Deng Xiaoping’s Creative Contributions to the World Socialist Movement

In the process of exploring a Chinese path for socialist development, Deng Xiaoping put forward the major concept of “the Chinese model,” leading the Communist Party of China to successfully open up socialism with Chinese characteristics at a critical historical turning point. Viewed from the history of the world socialist movement, the exploration and successful practice of a “Chinese model” of scientific socialism are of great significance. This is one of Deng Xiaoping’s creative contributions to world socialism. The Soviet model and the “Chinese model” mark two stages of development in the world practice of scientific socialism. The Soviet model represents the founding period of socialist practice, while the “Chinese model” represents the entry of socialist practice into a new period of in-depth exploration. The significance of the “Chinese model” for world socialism lies in the fact that, at the historical moment when Soviet socialist practice in the 20th century experienced stagnation of social development and rigidity and collapse of the institutional operation due to structural problems, the “Chinese model,” in the form of the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, provided a new direction and a new path for the continued exploration of world socialism in the 21st century.

邓小平在探索社会主义发展的中国道路过程中提出了“中国的模式”重大概念，领导中国共产党在历史转折重大关头成功开辟中国特色社会主义。从世界社会主义运动史上看，科学社会主义的“中国的模式”的探索和成功实践具有重大意义，这是邓小平对世界社会主义的创造性贡献之一。苏联模式和“中国的模式”标志着世界科学社会主义实践的两个发展阶段。苏联模式代表着社会主义实践的创立期，“中国的模式”代表着社会主义实践进入一个新的深入探索期。“中国的模式”对于世界社会主义的意义在于，当20世纪苏联社会主义实践出现了由于结构性问题而导致的苏联社会发展停滞和制度运行僵化并崩溃的历史时刻，“中国的模式”以中国特色社会主义道路的方式，提供了21世纪世界社会主义继续向前探索的新方向和新路径。

I. Deng Xiaoping Was the First to Clearly Use the Concept of “the Chinese Model”

一、邓小平最早明确使用“中国的模式”概念

As early as May 1980, in a conversation with leading comrades of the Central Committee on how to handle relations with brother parties, Deng Xiaoping clearly used the concept of “the Chinese model.” Deng Xiaoping said: “The Chinese revolution did not proceed according to the model of the October Revolution in Russia, but proceeded in accordance with China’s actual conditions, encircling the cities from the countryside and seizing state power by armed force. Since the victory of the Chinese revolution relied on the integration of the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of our own country, we should not require other developing countries to follow the Chinese model in their revolutions, still less should we require developed capitalist countries to adopt the Chinese model. Of course, we should not require these countries to adopt the Russian model either.” In September 1982, at the opening ceremony of the Twelfth National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Deng Xiaoping once again expressed the basic connotation of socialism with Chinese characteristics by using the phrase “taking our own road.” Deng Xiaoping uttered a very famous passage: “In carrying out our modernization drive, we must proceed from Chinese realities. Both in revolution and in construction, we should also learn from foreign countries and draw on their experience, but mechanical copying and application of foreign experience and models will get us nowhere. We have had many lessons in this respect. Integrating the universal truth of Marxism with the concrete realities of China, taking our own road and building socialism with Chinese characteristics — that is the basic conclusion we have drawn from reviewing our long historical experience.” [1]1 The Twelfth National Congress of the CPC, held in September 1982, was a landmark meeting at which Deng Xiaoping first formally proposed “building socialism with Chinese characteristics.” In this passage, “taking our own road and building socialism with Chinese characteristics” is juxtaposed with “foreign experience and foreign models.”

早在1980年5月，邓小平在与中央负责同志就应该如何处理与兄弟党关系的谈话中，明确使用了“中国的模式”这一概念。邓小平说：“中国革命就没有按照俄国十月革命的模式去进行，而是从中国的实际情况出发，农村包围城市，武装夺取政权。既然中国革命胜利靠的是马列主义普遍原理同本国具体实践相结合，我们就不应该要求其他发展中国家都按照中国的模式去进行革命，更不应该要求发达的资本主义国家也采取中国的模式。当然，也不能要求这些国家都采取俄国的模式。”1982年9月，在中国共产党第十二次全国代表大会的开幕式上，邓小平再一次用“走自己的道路”表达了中国特色社会主义的基本内涵。邓小平讲了一段非常著名的话：“我们的现代化建设，必须从中国的实际出发。无论是革命还是建设，都要注意学习和借鉴外国经验。但是，照抄照搬别国经验、别国模式，从来不能得到成功。这方面我们有过不少教训。把马克思主义的普遍真理同我国的具体实际结合起来，走自己的道路，建设有中国特色的社会主义，这就是我们总结长期历史经验得出的基本结论。”在这段话里，“走自己的道路，建设有中国特色的社会主义”是与“别国经验、别国模式”相对应的。

In 1983, when talking with foreign experts, Deng Xiaoping said: “The modernization we are undertaking is a Chinese-style modernization. The socialism we are building is socialism with Chinese characteristics.” In 1988, during a conversation with the President of the Maldives, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, he particularly emphasized that both China’s revolution and construction must take their own road: “If there is any experience we can claim in the achievements we have made, it is that in recent years we have reiterated the principle of seeking truth from facts, which Comrade Mao Zedong advocated. The victory of the Chinese revolution came about because Comrade Mao Zedong integrated Marxism-Leninism with China’s actual conditions and took our own road. Now that China is engaging in construction, it must also integrate Marxism-Leninism with China’s actual conditions and take its own road. Over the past six years, China’s countryside has achieved success precisely by taking its own road in accordance with this principle. The recently adopted decision on reform focusing on the cities is also based on integrating the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism with China’s actual conditions and taking our own road. This is experience we have summed up after suffering setbacks.” In Deng Xiaoping’s view, China’s revolutionary, construction, and reform causes must all adhere to integrating Marxism-Leninism with China’s actual conditions and blaze their own development path.

邓小平在1983年同外籍专家谈话时说：“我们搞的现代化，是中国式的现代化。我们建设的社会主义，是有中国特色的社会主义。”他在1984年同马尔代夫总统加尧姆谈话时特别强调了中国革命和建设都要走自己的路，“我们取得的成就，如果有一点经验的话，那就是这几年来重申了毛泽东同志提倡的实事求是的原则。中国革命的成功，是毛泽东同志把马克思列宁主义同中国的实际相结合，走自己的路。现在中国搞建设，也要把马克思列宁主义同中国的实际相结合，走自己的路。六年来，中国农村就是根据这样的原则，走自己的路，取得成功的。最近通过的以城市为重点的改革的决定，也是把马克思列宁主义的基本原理同中国实际相结合，走自己的路。这是我们吃了苦头总结出来的经验。”在邓小平看来，中国的革命、建设和改革事业，都要坚持马克思列宁主义同中国的实际相结合，走出自己的发展道路。

Deng Xiaoping’s most direct and classic expression of the “Chinese model” came in 1988 when he met with the President of Mozambique. He said: “Problems in the world cannot be solved with a single model. China has its own model, and Mozambique should have Mozambique’s own model.” It can be seen that Deng Xiaoping repeatedly used similar concepts such as “the Chinese model,” “China’s own model,” and “taking our own road.” This fully demonstrates that “the Chinese model” in Deng Xiaoping’s theoretical system has profound theoretical logic and rich scientific connotations, specifically embodied in six dimensions.

邓小平关于“中国模式”最直接、最经典的表述是在1988年会见莫桑比克总统的时候，他说：“世界上的问题不可能都用一个模式解决。中国有中国自己的模式，莫桑比克也应该有莫桑比克自己的模式。”可见，邓小平多次反复使用“中国的模式”“中国自己的模式”“走自己的路”等相似概念，这充分说明“中国的模式”在邓小平理论体系中具有深刻的理论逻辑和丰富的科学内涵，具体体现为六个维度。

First, conceptually, Deng Xiaoping basically used the three expressions “the Chinese model,” “taking our own road,” and “socialism with Chinese characteristics” as concepts with the same meaning. Among them, “taking our own road” is equivalent to “socialism with Chinese characteristics.” The rough difference between these three expressions is that “the Chinese model” was often used when talking with foreign leaders, while “taking our own road” and “socialism with Chinese characteristics,” although used both domestically and internationally, were used more often at home.

第一，从概念上看，邓小平基本上是把“中国的模式”“走自己的路”“有中国特色的社会主义”这三个表述，作为同一意义的概念使用。其中，“走自己的路”与“有中国特色的社会主义”是等同的。这三个表述大致的区别是，“中国的模式”经常是在与外国领导人谈话时使用，而“走自己的路”“有中国特色的社会主义”，虽然对内对外都用，但更多的是在国内使用。

Second, in terms of content, when using the three concepts of “the Chinese model,” “taking our own road,” and “socialism with Chinese characteristics,” Deng Xiaoping usually referred to China’s development path or development model. In addition, Deng Xiaoping also used the concept of “Chinese-style modernization” to express the particularity of the Chinese path.

第二，从内容上看，邓小平在使用“中国的模式”“走自己的路”“有中国特色的社会主义”这三个概念时，通常是指中国的发展道路或发展模式。除此之外，邓小平还使用过“中国式的现代化”这一概念表述中国道路的特殊性。

Third, in terms of lineage, the theoretical basis for Deng Xiaoping’s use of the concept of “the Chinese model” is Mao Zedong Thought. The living soul and core essence of Mao Zedong Thought are seeking truth from facts, the mass line, and independence and self-reliance. Deng Xiaoping took the basic principles of “seeking truth from facts” and “independence and self-reliance” proposed by Mao Zedong as the theoretical basis for “the Chinese model” and “taking our own road, building socialism with Chinese characteristics,” and the experience of Mao Zedong leading the victory of the Chinese revolution and the initial exploration of socialism as the practical basis. For example, Deng Xiaoping proposed that the Chinese revolution was not exactly the same as Russia’s October Revolution; the CPC took the path of “encircling the cities from the countryside,” while Lenin’s Russian October Socialist Revolution took the path of urban insurrection. [2]2 “Encircling the cities from the countryside” and “seizing state power by armed force” refer to the CPC’s revolutionary strategy of building rural base areas and using them to eventually capture urban centers, in contrast to the Bolsheviks’ urban insurrection of 1917. The methods used by New China to handle the capitalists were also different from Lenin’s; it adopted “socialist transformation,” including policies such as buying out. [3]3 “Socialist transformation” (1953–1956) was the CPC’s policy of converting private ownership of the means of production into public ownership, including the “peaceful transformation” of capitalist industry and commerce through state capitalism and buyouts. Deng Xiaoping believed: “Our greatest success was the socialist transformation … Because we adopted these methods according to China’s own characteristics, there were almost no twists and turns, production did not decline but kept rising, there was no unemployment, and social products were abundant.” It can be said that Deng Xiaoping pioneered the concept of “the Chinese model,” but its core inherited the essence of Mao Zedong Thought. In 1956, when revising the draft political report for the Eighth National Congress of the CPC, Mao Zedong pointed out: “It is inconceivable that the specific process of development and forms of expression of the socialist system in different countries can only have a single, stereotyped format. China is a large Eastern country, and a large country. Therefore, not only does China have many of its own characteristics in the process of the democratic revolution, but it also has many of its own characteristics in the process of socialist transformation and socialist construction; moreover, after the future completion of the socialist society, it will continue to have many of its own characteristics.” [4]4 The Eighth National Congress of the CPC (September 1956) was the first congress after the founding of the PRC and emphasized the shift from class struggle to economic construction. In this passage, Mao Zedong spoke of three stages and three characteristics: the democratic revolution, socialist transformation and socialist construction, and the future socialist society. But the common point across the three stages is that under the universal principles of socialism, China has “many of its own characteristics.” The integration of Marxist theory with the concrete practice of China’s revolution and construction is an important feature of Mao Zedong Thought. From Deng Xiaoping’s discourse on “the Chinese model,” one can clearly see the coherent connection between Deng Xiaoping Theory and Mao Zedong Thought.

第三，从传承上看，邓小平使用“中国的模式”概念的理论基础是毛泽东思想。毛泽东思想活的灵魂和核心要义就是实事求是、群众路线和独立自主。邓小平是把毛泽东提出的“实事求是”和“独立自主”的基本原则作为“中国的模式”和“走自己的道路，建设有中国特色的社会主义”的理论根据，以毛泽东领导中国革命胜利和社会主义最初探索的经验作为实践根据。比如，邓小平提出，中国革命与俄国十月革命就不完全一样，中国共产党走的是“农村包围城市”的道路，列宁领导的俄国十月社会主义革命走的是城市起义道路；新中国处理资本家的办法也与列宁不一样，采用的是“社会主义改造”，包括赎买等政策。邓小平认为：“我们最成功的是社会主义改造……由于我们是根据中国自己的特点采用这些方式的，所以几乎没有发生曲折，生产没有下降还不断上升，没有失业，社会产品是丰富的。”可以说，邓小平首创了“中国的模式”概念，但其核心是继承了毛泽东思想的精髓。毛泽东在1956年修改党的八大政治报告稿时指出：“不可能设想，社会主义制度在各国的具体发展过程和表现形式，只能有一个千篇一律的格式。我国是一个东方大国，又是一个大国。因此我国不但在民主革命的过程中有自己的许多特点，在社会主义改造和社会主义建设的过程中也带有自己的许多特点，而且在将来建成社会主义社会以后还会继续存在自己的许多特点。”在这段话里，毛泽东讲了三个阶段三个特点：民主革命、社会主义改造和社会主义建设、将来的社会主义社会，但三个阶段里的共同点是在社会主义的普遍原则下，中国有“自己的许多特点”。把马克思主义理论与中国革命和建设的具体实践相结合是毛泽东思想的重要特征。从邓小平关于“中国的模式”的论述中，可以清楚地看到，邓小平理论与毛泽东思想之间一脉相承的关联性。

Fourth, from the perspective of time and space, the content of the concept of “the Chinese model” proposed by Deng Xiaoping runs through the entire process of China’s socialist revolution and socialist construction led by the CPC. The Chinese revolution took its own path of “encircling the cities from the countryside,” which was different from the Russian model; the same applies to the construction and reform of New China. Especially on the issue of adhering to the direction of reform and opening up, Deng Xiaoping repeatedly and firmly stated that we must not take the Western path, nor the path of the Soviet model. Therefore, in the context of Deng Xiaoping Theory, “the Chinese model” had long been integrated into the historical traditions of the CPC and into the historical process of China’s revolution, construction, and reform. This point is consistent with the view expressed by Mao Zedong at the Eighth National Congress of the CPC.

第四，从时空上看，邓小平提出的“中国的模式”概念的内容贯穿于中国共产党领导的中国社会主义革命和社会主义建设的全过程。中国革命就是走的自己的“农村包围城市”的道路，它与俄国的模式不同；新中国的建设、改革都是如此。特别是在坚持改革开放的方向问题上，邓小平多次坚定地谈到，不能走西方的路，也不能走苏联模式的路。所以，在邓小平理论的语境下，“中国的模式”早已融汇在中国共产党的历史传统中，融汇于中国革命、建设和改革的历史过程。这一点与毛泽东在党的八大时表明的观点是一致的。

Fifth, from the perspective of the coordinate system, Deng Xiaoping’s “the Chinese model” corresponds to the Soviet model (Russian model) and the Western model. “The Chinese model” is fundamentally different from the Western model, while the difference with the Soviet model is homogeneous; that is, both “the Chinese model” and the Soviet model are practices of the socialist system under the guidance of Marxism, both belonging to specific forms of the world socialist movement.

第五，从坐标系来看，邓小平提出“中国的模式”对应的是苏联模式(俄国模式)和西方模式。“中国的模式”与西方模式具有本质区别，而与苏联模式的区别则是同质的，即“中国的模式”和苏联模式都是马克思主义指导下的社会主义制度实践，都属于世界社会主义运动的具体形态。

Sixth, from the perspective of cognition, Deng Xiaoping’s view of “the Chinese model” and “taking our own road” indicates that the CPC has become theoretically more mature and practically more conscious. On June 30, 1949, in his article “On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship,” Mao Zedong said: “The salvocs of the October Revolution brought us Marxism-Leninism. … Take the road of the Russians — that was the conclusion.” From taking the road of the Russians to taking our own road, this deepening of ideological understanding indicates the CPC’s maturity in theoretical innovation and practical exploration of scientific socialism.

第六，从认识上看，邓小平“中国的模式”和“走自己的路”的观点表明，中国共产党在理论上更加成熟，行动上更加自觉。1949年6月30日，毛泽东在《论人民民主专政》一书中说：“十月革命一声炮响，给我们送来了马克思列宁主义。……走俄国人的路—这就是结论。”从走俄国人的路，到走自己的路，这个思想认识上的深化，表明中国共产党在科学社会主义理论创新和实践探索问题上的成熟。

II. The Ideological Sources and Practical Basis of Deng Xiaoping’s Concept of “the Chinese Model”

二、邓小平“中国的模式”概念的思想来源和实践依据

Deng Xiaoping experienced firsthand and worked for a long time at the core leadership level of the Party. He was intimately familiar with the practical experience of China’s revolution, construction, and reform. Moreover, especially as a comrade-in-arms of Mao Zedong, having worked under Mao’s leadership and influence for a long time, he long understood the essence and living soul of Mao Zedong Thought — “seeking truth from facts, the mass line, and independence and self-reliance” — and applied them skillfully in practical work. In 1963, during a conversation with a delegation of the Communist Party of Indonesia, Mao Zedong pointed out: “In the past, we were taught to write by our teacher, holding our hand. From the founding of the Party in 1921 to 1934, we suffered because of our teacher. The program was drafted by our teacher, and the resolutions of the Central Committee plenums were also drafted by our teacher. Especially in 1934, we suffered great losses. After that, we learned to think for ourselves. … True independence and self-reliance began with the Zunyi Conference. [5]5 The Zunyi Conference (January 1935) was a pivotal meeting of the CPC during the Long March, at which Mao Zedong gained effective leadership of the Party and criticized dogmatic adherence to Soviet directives. That conference criticized dogmatism. The dogmatists said that everything about the Soviet Union was correct and did not integrate Soviet experience with China’s actual conditions. The integration of the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of China — this slogan was put forward during the Yan’an Rectification Movement. [6]6 The Yan’an Rectification Movement (1942–1944) was a Party-wide campaign to correct “subjectivism, sectarianism, and Party formalism” and to promote the sinification of Marxism (Mao Zedong Thought). This slogan was written into the Moscow Declaration of 1957. … Foreign experience, no matter which country it is from, can only serve as reference.” Let us also read Mao Zedong’s conversation about “If we do not engage in science and technology, productivity cannot be raised.” While listening to the report of Nie Rongzhen, Vice Premier and Director of the State Science and Technology Commission, on the ten-year science and technology plan, Mao Zedong pointed out: “The battle of science and technology must be fought, and it must be fought well. In the past, we fought the battle of the superstructure, establishing the people’s political power and the people’s army. What was the purpose of establishing these superstructures? It was to engage in production. The purpose of building the superstructure and adjusting the relations of production was to liberate the productive forces. Now that the relations of production have been changed, we must raise the productive forces. If we do not engage in science and technology, the productive forces cannot be raised.” From these conversations, it is not difficult to see that the spiritual essence contained in Deng Xiaoping’s discourse is the same as that of Mao Zedong Thought, and the historical facts on which his views are based are also the same. Whether it is Deng Xiaoping’s proposal of “the Chinese model” of “taking our own road” or the view that “science and technology constitute a primary productive force,” both are ideological principles consistently upheld by the CPC. Thus, Deng Xiaoping highly summarized the basic experience running through the entire process of China’s revolution, construction, and reform, and summarized the historical characteristics of China’s revolution, construction, and reform as the Chinese model. This is an excellent distillation of modern and contemporary Chinese historical practice and also a summary of his rich life experience.

邓小平亲身经历并长期在党的核心领导层工作，对中国革命、建设和改革事业的实践经验如数家珍，而且，特别是作为毛泽东的战友，长期在毛泽东的领导和影响下工作，对毛泽东思想“实事求是、群众路线和独立自主”的精髓和活的灵魂早已了然于胸，并在实际工作中运用自如。毛泽东在1963年与印度尼西亚共产党代表团的一次谈话中指出：“过去我们就是由先生把着手学写字，从一九二一年党成立到一九三四年，我们就是吃了先生的亏，纲领由先生起草，中央全会的决议也由先生起草，特别是一九三四年，使我们遭到了很大的损失。从那之后，我们就懂得要自己想问题。……真正懂得独立自主是从遵义会议开始的，这次会议批判了教条主义。教条主义者说苏联一切都对，不把苏联的经验同中国的实际相结合。马列主义普遍真理与中国具体实践相结合，这个口号就是在延安整风时提出的。这个口号写进了一九五七年莫斯科宣言。……外国经验，不管是哪一个国家的，只能供参考”。我们再读一下毛泽东关于“不搞科学技术，生产力无法提高”的谈话。在听取国务院副总理兼国家科学技术委员会主任聂荣臻汇报十年科学技术规划时，毛泽东指出：“科学技术这一仗，一定要打，而且必须打好。过去我们打的是上层建筑的仗，是建立人民政权、人民军队。建立这些上层建筑干什么呢?就是要搞生产。搞上层建筑、搞生产关系的目的就是解放生产力。现在生产关系是改变了，就要提高生产力。不搞科学技术，生产力无法提高。”从这些谈话中，不难看出，邓小平话语中蕴含的精神实质与毛泽东思想是相同的，其思想观点基于的历史事实也都是相同的。无论是邓小平提出“走自己的路”的“中国的模式”，还是“科学技术是第一生产力”的观点，都是中国共产党一贯坚持的思想原则。由此，邓小平高度概括了贯穿于中国革命、建设和改革全过程的基本经验，把中国革命、建设和改革的历史特点概括为中国的模式，是对现当代中国历史实践的精彩提炼，也是他人生丰富阅历的经验总结。

“The Chinese model” is not a view summarized by Westerners and then promoted to the world, but a great creation of the Chinese people under the leadership of the CPC. As General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out in a speech at the seminar for newly elected members and alternate members of the Central Committee on studying and implementing the spirit of the 18th National Congress of the CPC on January 5, 2013: “We have always believed that the development path of each country should be chosen by its own people. The so-called ‘Chinese model’ is the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics created by the Chinese people in their own practical struggle.”

“中国的模式”不是由西方人概括出来，进而向世界推销的观点，而是中国共产党带领人民进行的伟大创造。正如2013年1月5日，习近平总书记在新进中央委员会的委员、候补委员学习贯彻党的十八大精神研讨班上讲话中指出的那样：“我们始终认为，各国的发展道路应由各国人民选择。所谓的‘中国模式’是中国人民在自己的奋斗实践中创造的中国特色社会主义道路。”

III. Deng Xiaoping’s Proposal of “the Chinese Model” Is a Profound Summary and Powerful Impetus for the Development of Contemporary World Socialism

三、邓小平提出“中国的模式”是对当代世界社会主义发展的深刻总结和有力推动

From the perspective of the world-historical dimension of the development of scientific socialism, scientific socialism has roughly gone through three landmark stages: First, the mid-to-late 19th century, marked by the publication of the *Communist Manifesto* in 1848 and the first volume of *Capital* in 1867, which signified the completion of the theoretical system of scientific socialism. Second, the early 20th century, marked by the success of the Russian October Socialist Revolution in 1917, which signified the entry of the basic principles and value goals of socialism into the stage of social practice with the state as the entity. The institutional characteristic of this stage is manifested in the Soviet model. Third, the end of the 1970s, marked by the convocation of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, signifying the successful opening up of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the gradual maturity of the Chinese path of scientific socialist practice. The successful development of socialism with Chinese characteristics fully proves that the concept of “the Chinese model” proposed by Deng Xiaoping is in fact the second model of scientific socialist practice.

从科学社会主义发展的世界历史维度看，科学社会主义大致经历了三个标志性阶段：一是19世纪中后期，1848年《共产党宣言》的发表和1867年《资本论》第一卷的发表，标志着科学社会主义理论体系创立完成；二是20世纪初期，1917年俄国十月社会主义革命的成功标志着社会主义基本原则和价值目标进入以国家为实体的社会实践阶段。这个阶段的制度性特征表现为苏联模式。三是20世纪70年代末，党的十一届三中全会召开，标志着中国特色社会主义成功开辟，科学社会主义实践的中国道路逐渐成熟。中国特色社会主义的成功发展，充分证明邓小平提出的“中国的模式”概念实际上是科学社会主义实践的第二种模式。

As mentioned above, when Deng Xiaoping spoke of “the Chinese model,” he usually did so in a manner consistent with “taking our own road” and “Chinese characteristics,” all placed within a coordinate system contrasting with the Soviet model (Russian model). It must be acknowledged that the practice of scientific socialism objectively has the function of providing a standard for socialist development; the vast majority of people obtain their understanding of socialism through socialist practice. The Soviet model is the world’s first practical model of scientific socialism, and can also be said to be the first standard of socialism. This standard has both theoretical significance and universal significance. The Soviet model is Soviet, but its nature is industrial and Europeanized. The theoretical significance of the Soviet model is that it basically implemented Marx and Engels’ theoretical design for socialist society; its universal significance is that it provided institutional norms for the practice of socialist society. The basic features and theoretical genealogy of the Soviet model derive from the logical deduction of Marxist theory and the modernity of European culture. This basic judgment can be clearly seen from works such as Marx and Engels’ *Communist Manifesto*, Engels’ *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, Marx’s *Critique of the Gotha Programme*, and Lenin’s *The State and Revolution*. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union also promoted internationalism under this understanding. Therefore, on the eve of the founding of New China, Mao Zedong issued the call: “Take the road of the Russians — that was the conclusion,” as the CPC’s basic understanding of socialist society. There is no doubt that this road of the Russians was the socialist road identified by the CPC. Although the Soviet model, as the practice of the first socialist country, inevitably had imperfections and structural defects of the founding period, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union failed to handle various problems in practice, ultimately leading to the painful lesson of the collapse of the CPSU and the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the broad masses of people in Asia, Africa, and Latin America came to know socialism through the Soviet model, and it sparked a wave of anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist struggles worldwide.

如前所述，邓小平在讲“中国的模式”的时候，通常都是与“走自己的路”和“中国特色”的内容相一致的，都是建立在与苏联模式(俄国模式)对照的坐标系里。必须承认的是，科学社会主义实践在客观上具有提供社会主义发展标准的功能，绝大多数人对社会主义的认识是通过社会主义实践而获得的。苏联模式是世界上第一个科学社会主义实践模式，也可以说是第一个社会主义标准。这个标准带有理论意义和普遍性意义。苏联模式是苏联的，但其性质是工业化的和欧洲化的。苏联模式的理论意义是基本实践了马克思恩格斯对社会主义社会的理论设计，普遍性意义则是对社会主义社会实践作了制度性规范。苏联模式的基本特征和理论谱系，来源于马克思主义的理论逻辑推证和欧洲文化的现代性。这个基本判断可以从马克思恩格斯的《共产党宣言》、恩格斯《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》、马克思《哥达纲领批判》和列宁《国家与革命》等著作中看得很清楚。苏联共产党也是在这种认知下推行国际主义的。所以，毛泽东在新中国建立前夕提出：“走俄国人的路—这就是结论”的号召，作为中国共产党对社会主义社会的基本认知。毫无疑问，这个俄国人的路，就是中国共产党认定的社会主义之路。虽然苏联模式作为第一个社会主义国家实践，还带有创立阶段不可避免的不完善和结构性缺陷，苏联共产党也没有处理好实践中的各种问题，最终导致苏共垮台、苏联解体的惨痛教训。但是，广大亚非拉人民正是通过苏联模式认识到社会主义，并在世界范围内掀起了反对帝国主义殖民主义的斗争浪潮。

“The Chinese model” is the world’s second practical model of scientific socialism. “The Chinese model” carries strong distinctiveness, which is precisely China’s own uniqueness, meaning that “the Chinese model” bears a clear Chinese imprint. This includes, in the field of economic system reform, establishing and improving the socialist market economy; upholding the leadership of the CPC as an inevitable choice for the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity; the path of Chinese-style industrialization and agricultural modernization solving major difficulties such as the cultural separation between industrial society and agrarian society and the fracture of urban-rural social structure, and so on. It is obvious that the theory of “the Chinese model” is formed on the basis of China’s extremely thick history and culture of over 5,000 years. On the one hand, the theory of “the Chinese model” establishes the direction of human social development represented by Marxism as the theoretical guidance for social progress; on the other hand, it boldly draws on the instrumental elements of capitalist development and the civilizational elements of contemporary social development, and incorporates, absorbs, and reshapes them in a modern way. These are the essential characteristics of the Chinese model, providing contemporary vitality for the development of scientific socialism.

“中国的模式”是世界上第二个科学社会主义实践模式。“中国的模式”带有强烈的独特性，这个独特性就是中国自身的与众不同，即“中国的模式”带有清晰的中国印记。这其中包括，在经济体制改革领域建立并完善社会主义市场经济；坚持中国共产党的领导是国家治理体系和治理能力现代化的必然选择；中国特色工业化和农业现代化道路解决了工业社会和农耕社会的文化隔离、城乡社会结构断裂等重大困难，等等。显而易见，“中国的模式”理论是在中国社会所积淀的极为厚重的5000多年历史文化基础上形成的。“中国的模式”理论，一方面确立马克思主义所代表的人类社会发展方向作为社会前进的理论指导，另一方面大胆借鉴资本主义发展的工具性和当代社会发展中的文明要素，并加以现代性的兼容并蓄和吸收重塑。这些都是中国模式的本质特征，为科学社会主义的发展提供了当代活力。

It can be seen that “the Chinese model” provided a correct method of understanding for adhering to the direction of socialist development in China and for solving the problem of the forward development of scientific socialism in various countries, at a time when the Soviet model could no longer provide better solutions for socio-political and economic development, thus providing a new direction and new path for the continued exploration of world socialism in the 21st century.

可见，“中国的模式”是苏联模式不能为社会政治经济发展提供更好的解决方案的时候，为中国坚持社会主义发展方向和为解决科学社会主义在各个国家内向前发展而提供的正确认识方法，为21世纪世界社会主义继续向前探索提供了新方向和新路径。

The Soviet model and “the Chinese model” represent two stages of development in the worldwide practice of scientific socialism. One is the founding period, and the other is the period of in-depth exploration. The entire historical stage of the development of scientific socialism is divided into three stages: first, the stage of theoretical creation, that is, Marxist theory creating the theory of scientific socialism, mainly solving the problem of theoretical guidance; second, the stage of practical exploration, that is, the historical period when the Soviet Union established a socialist state power, practiced Marxist theory, and carried out socialist modernization construction; third, the new period of deeper exploration of socialism at the turning point when the practice of scientific socialism encountered major setbacks. From the Soviet model to “the Chinese model,” the practice of world scientific socialism has gone through a development process from the general to the particular. This will inevitably promote the vigorous development of the world socialist movement in the 21st century and further enhance people’s theoretical understanding of the universal laws of the future socialist movement.

苏联模式和“中国的模式”代表着世界范围内科学社会主义实践的两个发展阶段。一个是创立期，一个是深入探索期。整个科学社会主义发展的历史阶段共分为三个阶段，一是思想理论创立阶段，即马克思主义理论创立科学社会主义理论，主要解决理论指导问题；二是实践探索阶段，即苏联建立社会主义国家政权并践行马克思主义理论和进行社会主义现代化建设的历史时期；三是在科学社会主义实践遇到重大挫折的转折关头，社会主义进入到更深入的探索新时期。从苏联模式到“中国的模式”，世界科学社会主义的实践经过了从一般到特殊的发展历程，这必将推动21世纪世界社会主义运动的蓬勃发展，进一步提高人们对未来社会主义运动的普遍规律性的理论认识。

From the world dimension of scientific socialism, the successful opening up of socialism with Chinese characteristics marks the creative development of the path form of scientific socialism. After Marx and Engels published the Communist Manifesto and founded scientific socialism, they once clearly pointed out: "The general principles of this Manifesto are still completely correct on the whole," but "the practical application of these principles will always depend, as the Manifesto itself states, on the historical circumstances at hand." [7]7 Marx and Engels, in the 1872 German edition preface to the Communist Manifesto, stressed that the application of principles must depend on historical circumstances. Soon after Lenin led the victory of the October Revolution and established the first socialist country in the world, he realized that "for Russia, the era of arguing about socialism based on books has passed, and I am deeply convinced that it has gone forever. Today we can only talk about socialism based on experience." [8]8 Lenin's remark after the October Revolution, emphasizing that socialism must be discussed from experience rather than from books; this view is frequently cited in later debates on socialist construction. Thereafter, how to build socialism in a Russia that was economically and culturally backward became a difficult problem and a major test for "real socialism." [9]9 "Real socialism" refers to the concrete practice of socialist construction in countries with relatively backward economic and cultural conditions, such as the Soviet Union, as distinct from the socialism envisioned by Marx on the basis of advanced capitalism. After Lenin's death, the Soviet practice of socialism gradually formed the Soviet model characterized by a highly centralized political and economic system. [10]10 The Soviet model: the highly centralized political and economic system formed under Stalin in the Soviet Union, characterized by state ownership, central planning, and a command economy. It should be noted that the Soviet model played an important role in promoting the development of world socialism, but as the times progressed, the Soviet model gradually became rigid and dogmatic. In the second half of the 20th century, the socialist countries of Eastern Europe successively began socialist reforms, such as the Yugoslav path of self-managed socialism, the Polish path and the "socialist renovation line," and Hungary's "new economic mechanism," [11]11 The Yugoslav path of self-managed socialism (associated with Josip Broz Tito's market-oriented worker self-management), the Polish path (Władysław Gomułka's moderate reforms), the "socialist renovation line" (the program of political and economic reform proposed by the Polish United Workers' Party in the 1980s), and Hungary's "new economic mechanism" (the market-oriented economic reforms launched in 1968). all aiming to reform the shortcomings of the Soviet model and explore a socialist path suited to their own national conditions, but all ended in failure. Deng Xiaoping [12]12 Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997), the core of the CPC's second generation of central collective leadership and the chief architect of China's reform and opening up. led the Communist Party of China to adhere to proceeding from reality and taking its own road, and with the historic achievement of successfully opening up socialism with Chinese characteristics, found the correct path for building socialism in relatively economically and culturally backward countries, thereby enabling world socialism to escape the mental constraints and practical fetters of a single model and enter a historical stage where multiple paths coexist and develop. Socialism with Chinese characteristics is a great creation combining the basic principles of Marxism with China's specific realities. The development of this path is a contribution not only to Chinese socialism but also to world socialism.

从科学社会主义的世界维度看，中国特色社会主义的成功开辟，标志着科学社会主义的道路形态实现了创造性发展。马克思、恩格斯发表《共产党宣言》，创立科学社会主义后，曾经明确指出：“这个《宣言》中所阐述的一般原理整个说来直到现在还是完全正确的”，但是“这些原理的实际运用，正如《宣言》中所说的，随时随地都要以当时的历史条件为转移”。列宁领导十月革命胜利，建立世界上第一个社会主义国家后不久，就意识到“对俄国来说，根据书本争论社会主义纲领的时代也已经过去了，我深信已经一去不复返了，今天只能根据经验来谈论社会主义。”此后，如何在经济文化落后的俄国建设社会主义，成为“现实社会主义”的一道难题和重大考验。列宁逝世后，苏联社会主义实践逐渐形成了以高度集中的政治经济体制为特征的苏联模式。应该看到，苏联模式在促进世界社会主义发展过程中发挥了重要作用，但是随着时代的发展，苏联模式逐渐僵化、教条。20世纪下半叶，东欧社会主义国家陆续开始了社会主义改革，诸如南斯拉夫自治社会主义道路、波兰道路和“社会主义革新路线”、匈牙利的“新经济体制”等，目的都是要改革苏联模式的弊端，探索适合本国国情的社会主义道路，但是最后都以失败告终。邓小平带领中国共产党坚持从实际出发，走自己的路，以成功开辟中国特色社会主义的历史性成就找到了经济文化比较落后的国家建设社会主义的正确道路，使得世界社会主义走出了一种模式的思维困扰和现实羁绊，从而进入到多种道路并存发展的历史阶段。中国特色社会主义是马克思主义基本原理与中国具体实际相结合的伟大创造，这条道路的发展既是对中国社会主义的贡献，也是对世界社会主义的贡献。

(The author is a professor at the Party School of the Central Committee of the CPC (National Academy of Governance))

（作者系中共中央党校(国家行政学院)教授）

(Online editor: Ma Jingren)

网络编辑：马京仁