The Historical Status of the Eastern Main Battlefield from the Perspective of the International Order

In the mainstream narrative of Western historiography, the outbreak of the Second World War is usually defined as September 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. At that time, China, located at the eastern end of the Eurasian continent, had already been fighting the War of Resistance Against Japan for eight years. However, for a long time, foreign countries have lacked research on the important position and role of China's War of Resistance in the World Anti-Fascist War, or even avoided discussing it. Therefore, it is necessary to deeply understand the important historical status of the Chinese battlefield. Examining the evolution of the international order can provide a useful perspective for understanding the historical status of the Eastern Main Battlefield.

在西方史学的主流叙述中，第二次世界大战的爆发通常界定于1939年9月德国入侵波兰。处于亚欧大陆东端的中国，彼时已经进行了长达8年的抗日战争。然而，长期以来国外对中国抗战在世界反法西斯战争中的重要地位和作用缺乏研究，甚至避而不谈。因此，有必要深刻认识中国战场的重要历史地位。审视国际秩序的演变，可以为理解东方主战场的历史地位提供一个有益视角。

The battlefield that started the World Anti-Fascist War earliest

最早开始世界反法西斯战争的战场

On September 18, 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army launched the September 18th Incident [1]1 The September 18th Incident: On the night of September 18, 1931, Japanese troops blew up a section of railway near Mukden (now Shenyang) and blamed it on Chinese soldiers, using it as a pretext to launch a full-scale invasion of Northeast China., carrying out aggression under the guise of "self-defense". The Nanjing National Government pursued a policy of "non-resistance" and appealed to the League of Nations, the organization that maintained the international order after World War I, for a solution. On December 10, 1931, the League of Nations resolved to form a commission of inquiry to investigate in East Asia. During the investigation, the League of Nations commission received thousands of petitions from the Chinese people, which revealed the facts of the people's resistance against Japan — "resisting the Japanese army everywhere," "the spirit of the people of the three provinces [2]2 The three provinces: The three northeastern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang, which were the first to be fully occupied by Japan after the September 18th Incident. in resisting Japan and saving the nation and their determination to oppose the puppet state," "the various volunteer armies rising up to resist the inhuman Japanese army," "swearing to oppose and fight to the death."

1931年9月18日，日本关东军发动九一八事变，以“自卫”之名行侵略之实。南京国民政府奉行“不抵抗”政策，诉诸一战后维护国际秩序的组织——国际联盟寻求解决。国联于1931年12月10日决议组建调查团前往东亚调查。在调查期间，国联调查团收到中国民众数千封说帖，说帖内容揭示了民众抗日事实——“到处抵抗日军”，“三省人民抗日救国之精神与反对伪国之决心”，“各处的义勇军群起抵抗日本惨无人道的军队”，“誓死反对并与决斗到底”。

In stark contrast to the National Government's policy of "non-resistance", the Communist Party of China (CPC) held high the banner of resistance against Japan and clearly recognized the nature of Japan's aggression against China. This was fully reflected in the CPC's series of statements on the Report of the League of Nations Commission of Inquiry. On October 5, 1932, the CPC Central Committee encouraged "the people to spontaneously organize northward death squads to join the Northeast Volunteer Army, to recover the lost territories of the three northeastern provinces... to defeat Japanese imperialism through a national revolutionary war." On October 7, the CPC Central Committee pointed out that "Japan's bandit aggression against China is an important stage in the development of war."

与国民政府的“不抵抗”政策形成鲜明对比，中国共产党高举抗日旗帜，清晰认识到日本对华侵略的本质，这充分反映在中国共产党关于《国联调查团报告书》的系列声明中。1932年10月5日，中共中央鼓励“民众自动组织北上决死团到东北义勇军中去，收复东三省失地……以民族的革命战争打倒日本帝国主义”。10月7日，中共中央指出“日本帝国主义对于中国的强盗侵略是战争发展中的重要的阶段”。

In addition to propaganda and mobilization, the CPC actually led the anti-Japanese struggle in the Northeast region. The Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC actively carried out movements such as anti-Japanese propaganda, workers' strikes, and peasants' resistance to rent and taxes. From the spring of 1932 to the spring of 1934, the CPC successively established 18 anti-Japanese guerrilla units in various parts of the Northeast. Thereafter, the CPC successively organized the Northeast People's Revolutionary Army and the Northeast United Resistance Army, fighting in the mountains and forests of the Northeast, becoming the backbone of resistance against Japanese aggression on the Northeast battlefield during the period of partial resistance.

除宣传动员外，中国共产党实际领导了东北地区的抗日斗争。中共满洲省委积极开展反日宣传、工人罢工、农民抗租抗捐等运动。从1932年春到1934年春，中国共产党在东北各地先后建立18支抗日游击队。此后，中国共产党相继组织东北人民革命军、东北抗日联军，转战于白山黑水之间，成为局部抗战时期东北战场抵抗日本侵略的中坚力量。

After the September 18th Incident, the League of Nations-led powers Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement, and the United States also failed to curb Japanese aggression. This not only left China to actually bear the pressure of Japanese aggression and resistance alone, but also condoned Japan's acts of aggression against China. After the League of Nations did not recognize the Japanese-sponsored "Manchukuo" [3]3 Manchukuo: A puppet state established by Japan in 1932 in Northeast China, with the last Qing emperor Puyi as its nominal head. It was never recognized by the League of Nations. puppet regime, Japan resolutely withdrew from the League of Nations and gradually expanded its war of aggression against China. From the perspective of the League of Nations, it is clear that the Chinese battlefield was the battlefield that started the World Anti-Fascist War earliest, and for a considerable period bore the burden of resisting Japanese aggression alone.

九一八事变后，国联主导国英法采取绥靖政策，美国亦未能遏制日本侵略，不仅导致中国实际上独自承受日本侵略与抗日压力，而且纵容了日本侵华行径。在国联不认可日本扶植的“伪满”政权后，日本断然退出国联，逐步扩大侵华战争。从国联视角审视，可以明确中国战场是世界上最早开始反法西斯战争的战场，且在相当长时期内独自承担抗击日本侵略的重担。

A resilient battlefield that persistently resisted Japanese militarism

持续抵抗日本军国主义的坚韧战场

After the July 7th Incident [4]4 The July 7th Incident: Also known as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which occurred on July 7, 1937, near Beijing. It was the trigger for the full-scale outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War., Japan launched a full-scale war of aggression against China, and China faced an unprecedentedly severe situation of resistance. The Nanjing National Government again appealed to the League of Nations on the issue of Japanese aggression against China. As the brutality of Japan's aggression and the heroism of Chinese military and civilian resistance gradually became known to the world, the League of Nations supported China morally and condemned Japan. On September 27, 1937, the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations Assembly adopted a resolution condemning Japanese air raids. On October 6, the League of Nations recommended that member states provide aid to China. During the subsequent Brussels Conference, the international community only verbally demanded that Japan stop military operations, which made Japan's aggression and expansion even more unscrupulous. On December 13, 1937, the invading Japanese troops committed the Nanjing Massacre [5]5 The Nanjing Massacre: The mass killing and rape committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after the capture of Nanjing, then the capital of China, in December 1937. Estimates of the death toll range from 200,000 to 300,000.. The Nanjing National Government again appealed to the League of Nations, calling for aid to China, and the League Council declared that member states could impose sanctions on Japan. Japan responded with more intense opposition, announcing its decision to terminate the cooperative relationship it had maintained with League of Nations institutions since its withdrawal from the League.

七七事变后，日本发动全面侵华战争，中国面临空前严峻的抗日局面，南京国民政府再次将日本侵华问题诉诸国联。随着日本侵略行径的野蛮性与中国军民抵抗的英勇性渐为世人所知，国联从道义层面支持中国并谴责日本。1937年9月27日，国联大会下属远东咨询委员会通过谴责日本空袭的决议。10月6日，国联建议成员国向中国提供援助。随后的布鲁塞尔会议期间，国际社会仅在口头上要求日本停止军事行动，致使日本侵略扩张更加肆无忌惮。1937年12月13日，侵华日军制造了南京大屠杀惨案。南京国民政府又一次向国联提出申诉，呼吁援助中国，国联理事会宣布各会员国可以实施对日制裁。日本则以更激烈的对抗回应，宣布决定终止自退出国联以来与国联各机构一直保持的合作关系。

The resistance achievements and strategic contributions of the Chinese battlefield gradually received positive evaluations from the international community, as recorded in Headway, the journal of the League of Nations Union in Britain. In June 1938, Headway published an article emphasizing that "whatever the final outcome of the war, China has already shattered the myth of the 'invincibility of the Japanese army,' and its significance is no less profound than any victory report on the battlefield." In March 1940, H. J. Timperley [6]6 H. J. Timperley: An Australian journalist and writer who reported on the Nanjing Massacre and wrote the book *What War Means: The Japanese Terror in China*. published an article in Headway, warning that the War of Resistance should not be ignored because of the European war: "When the critical events of the European battlefield draw the world's attention, it is all too easy for us to forget... China's war against aggression, fought with extraordinary courage and unwavering will." In September 1942, Headway clearly stated, "China was in fact the first victim of the aggressive acts that triggered World War II. Even if the September 18th Incident is not counted, China's War of Resistance lasted nearly twice as long as that of other Allies."

中国战场的抵抗事迹与战略贡献逐渐获得国际社会的正面评价，英国国际联盟协会会刊《前进》（Headway）对此有诸多记载。1938年6月，《前进》刊文强调“无论战局最终走向如何，中国已然击碎所谓‘日军不可战胜’的神话，其意义之深远，实不亚于战场上的任何捷报”。1940年3月，田伯烈在《前进》刊文，警示不能因为欧战忽视抗日战争，“当欧洲战场的危急事件牵动世人目光时，我们极易遗忘……中国以非凡勇气与坚定意志抗击侵略的战争”。1942年9月，《前进》刊文明确指出，“中国实为那场引爆二战之侵略暴行的首位受难者。即便不计九一八事变，中国抗战历时亦近其他盟国两倍”。

The Eastern Main Battlefield that gave birth to and promoted a new international order

孕育催生新国际秩序的东方主战场

In September 1939, Germany blitzkrieged Poland, and the Second World War broke out in full. The League of Nations existed in name only, and the international order urgently needed to be restructured. The status of the Chinese battlefield as the Eastern Main Battlefield of the World Anti-Fascist War was thus established.

1939年9月，德国闪击波兰，第二次世界大战全面爆发，国联名存实亡，国际秩序亟须重构，中国战场作为世界反法西斯战争东方主战场的地位得以确立。

Given that the international order maintained by the League of Nations had failed to effectively curb Japanese aggression, China had already initiated discussions on a new international order. The Eastern Main Battlefield became fertile ground for nurturing a new international order. On February 11, 1938, Mao Zedong put forward the concept of three united fronts against aggression: China's united front, the world's united front, and the Japanese people's united front. Among them, the concept of a "world united front" contained the ideological basis for a new international order. In December 1941, after the outbreak of the Pacific War, regarding the establishment of a World Anti-Fascist United Front, the CPC Central Committee emphasized: "The components of this united front should include all governments, parties, and all strata of people who oppose Japanese aggression." Public opinion also sparked heated discussions on the idea of a new international organization, from "restructuring the League of Nations" to a "new League of Nations," with various proposals being offered.

鉴于国联所维系的国际秩序未能有效遏制日本侵略，中国早已萌发关于新国际秩序的讨论，东方主战场成为孕育新国际秩序的沃土。1938年2月11日，毛泽东提出三个反侵略统一战线的概念，即中国的统一战线、世界的统一战线和日本人民的统一战线。其中，“世界的统一战线”理念蕴含着新国际秩序的思想基础。1941年12月，太平洋战争爆发，关于建立世界反法西斯统一战线的问题，中共中央强调：“这个统一战线的组成部分，应当包括反对日本侵略的一切民族的政府、党派及一切阶层的人民。”舆论亦掀起关于新国际组织构想的热议，从“国联重组”到“新的国联”，各献其策。

China's enormous sacrifices and strategic contributions in the War of Resistance established its position as a core member of the new international order. Japan was deeply bogged down on the Chinese battlefield, and its overall military strategy was constrained in multiple ways: China's tenacious resistance forced Japan to abandon its "northward advance" plan, allowing the Soviet Union to transfer troops to support the Battle of Moscow; China's sustained resistance slowed Japan's "southward advance" speed, buying time for the United States and Britain to prepare for war; China sent the Expeditionary Force "westward" to fight in Burma, rescuing British troops and thwarting the Japanese-German plan to link up in the Middle East. Precisely because of its great contributions to the War of Resistance, China became one of the main architects of the new international order. On January 1, 1942, China, together with 26 countries including the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, signed the Declaration by United Nations, forming the World Anti-Fascist United Front, and China became one of the "Big Four". On October 30, 1943, China, the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union adopted the Four-Power Declaration on General Security, proposing the establishment of a "general international organization", marking the joint establishment of a new international order by the four major powers.

中国在抗战中的巨大牺牲和战略贡献，奠定了其作为新国际秩序核心成员的地位。日本深陷中国战场，其整体军事战略受到多重掣肘：中国的顽强抵抗迫使日本放弃“北进”计划，苏联得以抽调军队支援莫斯科保卫战；中国的持续抵抗延缓日军“南进”速度，为美英争取备战时间；中国派遣远征军“西向”入缅作战，解救英军和粉碎日德中东会师图谋。正是基于抗战的伟大贡献，中国成为新国际秩序的主要筹建者之一。1942年1月1日，中国与美英苏等26个国家共同签署《联合国家宣言》，结成世界反法西斯统一战线，中国成为“四强”之一。1943年10月30日，中美英苏通过《四国关于普遍安全的宣言》，提出“建立一个普遍性的国际组织”，标志着四大国共同建立新国际秩序。

The core status of the Eastern Main Battlefield was one of the key factors in China's acquisition of a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. From August to October 1944, China, the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union held the Dumbarton Oaks Conference to draft the charter of a new international organization. The Chinese delegation actively offered suggestions and submitted the "Outline of Basic Points for the Charter of the International Organization". The four powers jointly drafted the "Proposals for the Establishment of a General International Organization", which outlined the contours of the future United Nations. The Yalta Conference in February 1945 unanimously agreed to establish the United Nations after the war. China became a founding member of the United Nations and obtained a permanent seat on the Security Council, laying the foundation for China's participation in the new international order. On April 25, 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization opened. The heads of the delegations of the four sponsoring powers—China, the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union—served in rotation as chairmen of the plenary sessions. On June 26, the signing ceremony for the Charter of the United Nations was held, and Wellington Koo [7]7 Wellington Koo (Gu Weijun): A prominent Chinese diplomat who served as China's representative at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and later as ambassador to several countries. He signed the UN Charter on behalf of China. signed first on behalf of China.

作为东方主战场的核心地位，是中国获得联合国安理会常任理事国席位的关键因素之一。1944年8—10月，中美英苏于敦巴顿橡树园召开会议，拟定新的国际组织章程。中国代表团积极建言献策，提交《国际组织宪章基本要点节略》，中美英苏共同草拟出台《国际组织建议案》，确定未来联合国的轮廓。1945年2月的雅尔塔会议一致同意战后建立联合国，中国成为联合国的创始会员国，并获得安理会常任理事国席位，奠定中国参与国际关系新秩序的基础。1945年4月25日，联合国制宪会议开幕，中美英苏4个发起国的代表团团长轮流担任全体会议主席，6月26日，《联合国宪章》举行签字仪式，顾维钧代表中国第一个签字。

From the ineffective League of Nations after World War I to the more authoritative United Nations after World War II, this evolution profoundly contains the lessons of China's War of Resistance Against Japan and the strategic contributions of the Eastern Main Battlefield. After the September 18th Incident, China appealed to the League of Nations, but the League's appeasement policy and compromise with Japan left China to resist Japanese aggression alone and unaided, making it the earliest battlefield of the World Anti-Fascist War. Chinese military and civilians persisted in the War of Resistance under extremely difficult conditions, demonstrating the resilience of the Chinese battlefield and ultimately winning wide international recognition. It was precisely the enormous sacrifices made and the key role played by the Chinese battlefield that made China one of the "Big Four" and enabled it to achieve a historic transformation within the UN framework from an object of assistance to a builder of the international order.

从一战后效能不彰的国际联盟，到二战后更具权威性的联合国，其演变过程深刻蕴含着中国抗日战争的经验教训与东方主战场的战略贡献。九一八事变后，中国诉诸国联，而国联的绥靖政策与对日妥协，使中国在孤立无援下独自抗击日本侵略，成为世界上最早开始反法西斯战争的战场。中国军民在极端困难条件下始终坚持抗战，彰显了中国战场的坚韧性，并最终赢得国际社会的广泛认可。正是中国战场付出的巨大牺牲与发挥的关键作用，使中国成为“四强”之一，并在联合国机制中实现从被援助对象向国际秩序构建者的历史性转变。

(This article is a phased achievement of the National Social Science Fund key project "Compilation and Research of Historical Materials Related to the League of Nations' Series of Sino-Japanese Conflicts (1928–1939)" (24AZS017))

（本文系国家社科基金重点项目“国际联盟有关中日系列冲突的史料整理与研究（1928—1939）”（24AZS 017）阶段性成果）

(The author is an associate professor at the Institute of Modern History, Nanjing University)

（作者系南京大学中华民国史研究中心副教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心