The Spanish International Brigades and the Chinese United Front of Resistance against Japan

In the 1930s, Japan flagrantly launched a war of aggression against China, while at the same time the Spanish Civil War broke out. These two countries, almost simultaneously, became the Eastern and Western theaters of the world anti-fascist war. The close interaction between the two theaters profoundly demonstrates that the world anti-fascist war was not an isolated national act but a global undertaking of united, common struggle.

20世纪30年代，日本公然发动对中国的侵略战争，与此同时，西班牙内战爆发。这两个国家几乎于同一时期，分别成为世界反法西斯战争的东方与西方战场。两个战场之间的密切互动，深刻表明世界反法西斯战争并非孤立的国家行为，而是全球团结、共同抗争的世界性壮举。

The International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War and the Chinese united front of resistance against Japan represented two different yet complementary anti-fascist models: the former was a model of internationalist solidarity across national borders, the latter a model of a nationwide popular resistance front based on native soil. Although they differed in geographical location and historical context, both took anti-fascism as their common banner and had much to learn from each other. This fully manifested the dialectical tension between internationalism and localization, exerting a profound influence on the ultimate victory of the world anti-fascist war. This year marks the 89th anniversary of the founding of the International Brigades and the 80th anniversary of the victory of the Chinese People's War of Resistance against Japan and the World Anti-Fascist War. Deeply reflecting on the international anti-fascist chapter jointly written by Spain and China can still provide important spiritual wealth and intellectual resources for humanity to confront common challenges.

西班牙内战时期的国际纵队和中国抗日民族统一战线分别代表了两种不同却又相互补充的反法西斯模式：前者是跨越国界的国际主义支援模式，后者是基于本土的全民抵抗战线模式。尽管二者所处地域与历史背景不同，但均以反法西斯为共同旗帜，彼此存在诸多可供相互借鉴之处，充分彰显了国际主义与本土化之间的辩证张力，对世界反法西斯战争的最终胜利产生了深远影响。今年是国际纵队成立89周年，亦是中国人民抗日战争暨世界反法西斯战争胜利80周年。深入反思西班牙与中国共同谱写的国际反法西斯篇章，仍能为人类应对共同挑战提供重要的精神财富与思想资源。

The harbinger of transnational anti-fascist struggle. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out. Germany and Italy supplied the rebel forces with equipment and directly dispatched troops to participate in the war, while the Soviet Union provided aid to the Republican government. The Spanish Civil War became the first international confrontation between fascist and anti-fascist forces.

跨国反法西斯斗争的先声。1936年7月，西班牙内战爆发。德国和意大利为叛军提供装备并直接派遣军队参战，苏联向共和政府提供援助。西班牙内战成为法西斯与反法西斯力量之间的首次国际性较量。

The members of the International Brigades were representative. Responding to the call of the Communist International, over 30,000 Chinese workers in Europe, overseas students, Communist Party members, and other revolutionaries from more than 50 countries went to Spain in various ways, including a group of Chinese volunteers living around the world. Volunteers of the International Brigades signed an oath: "I come here voluntarily, to save the freedom of Spain and the whole world; if necessary, I will give my last drop of blood." They fought valiantly on the battlefield, and their spirit of sacrifice is recorded in the annals of the international communist movement, becoming a symbol of the internationalist spirit. This spirit provided an important model for the later world anti-fascist united front. The Spanish people's anti-fascist struggle continued until the end of March 1939, and over 10,000 members of the International Brigades gave their precious lives. Regrettably, the International Brigades failed to effectively integrate the social forces within Spain itself. This predicament revealed the limitations of internationalist practice: once detached from a specific historical environment, it becomes difficult to cope with complex local contradictions.

国际纵队成员具有代表性。在共产国际的号召下，先后有来自50多个国家的3万多名旅欧华工、留学生、共产党员及其他革命者，以不同方式奔赴西班牙，其中有一批旅居世界各地的中国志愿者。国际纵队志愿者签署誓言：“我自愿来到这里，为了拯救西班牙和全世界的自由，若有需要，我将献出最后一滴血。”他们在战场上英勇奋战，其牺牲精神载入国际共产主义运动史册，成为国际主义精神的象征。这种精神为后来的世界反法西斯统一战线提供了重要范例。西班牙人民的反法西斯斗争一直持续到1939年3月底，1万多名国际纵队成员献出了宝贵的生命。遗憾的是，国际纵队未能有效整合西班牙本土社会力量。这一困境揭示了国际主义实践的局限性，即一旦脱离具体历史环境便难以应对复杂的地方性矛盾。

The Chinese united front of resistance against Japan was a theoretical innovation in localization. The process of forming the Chinese united front of resistance against Japan embodied localized characteristics based on China's national conditions. After Japan occupied Northeast China, it aroused the anti-Japanese fervor of the entire nation.

中国抗日民族统一战线是本土化理论创新。中国抗日民族统一战线的形成过程体现了基于中国国情的本土化特色。日本侵占中国东北后，激起了全国人民的抗日热情。

In July 1935, the Seventh Congress of the Communist International, held in Moscow, adopted the "Resolution on the Establishment of an Anti-Fascist United Front," which clearly proposed the strategic goal of establishing an anti-fascist united front and called on communist parties and social democratic parties of various countries to unite and jointly oppose fascism.

1935年7月，共产国际在莫斯科召开的第七次代表大会上，通过了《关于建立反法西斯统一战线的决议》，明确提出建立反法西斯统一战线的战略目标，并号召各国共产党与社会民主党等力量联合起来，共同反对法西斯主义。

On August 1, 1935, the delegation of the Communist Party of China to the Communist International, in the name of the Central Government of the Chinese Soviet Republic and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, drafted and published the "Letter to All Compatriots on Resisting Japan and Saving the Nation" (the August First Declaration), calling on all strata, parties, and compatriots of all circles across the country to unite, stop the civil war, and resist Japan together. In December of the same year, the Central Committee of the CPC held an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau in Wayaobao, northern Shaanxi. In his keynote speech, Mao Zedong pointed out: "The current situation demands that we courageously discard closed-doorism and adopt a broad united front." The meeting decided to accept the strategic shift of the Seventh Congress of the Communist International, realizing a shift in strategic focus from the domestic revolutionary war to the War of Resistance against Japan. With the peaceful resolution of the Xi'an Incident [1]1 The Xi'an Incident (December 1936) was a crisis in which Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, Kuomintang generals, detained Chiang Kai-shek in Xi'an to force him to end the civil war and form a united front against Japan; it was resolved peacefully through CPC mediation, leading to the second Kuomintang-Communist cooperation. and the issuance of the "Declaration on Kuomintang-Communist Cooperation" in 1937, the second Kuomintang-Communist cooperation was promoted, combining the principles of internationalism with China's actual conditions, establishing the anti-Japanese national united front, and realizing a nationwide war of resistance "whether north or south of the land, whether old or young."

1935年8月1日，中国共产党驻共产国际代表团以中华苏维埃中央政府和中国共产党中央委员会的名义起草并发表了《为抗日救国告全体同胞书》（《八一宣言》），号召全国各阶层、各党派、各界同胞团结起来，停止内战，一致抗日。同年12月，中共中央在陕北瓦窑堡召开政治局扩大会议，毛泽东在主题发言中指出：“目前的时局，要求我们勇敢地抛弃关门主义，采取广泛的统一战线。”会议决定接受共产国际七大的策略转变，实现由国内革命战争向抗日战争的战略重心转移。随着西安事变的和平解决以及1937年《国共合作宣言》的发布，促成了第二次国共合作，将国际主义原则与中国实际相结合，建立抗日民族统一战线，实现了“地无分南北，人无分老幼”的全民抗战。

Interaction between the Western and Eastern theaters. Although Spain and China were geographically distant, there was still ideological exchange and mutual influence between the Spanish Civil War and the Chinese People's War of Resistance against Japan. Chinese Communists closely followed the development of the Spanish Civil War and drew lessons for their anti-Japanese strategy.

西方战场与东方战场的互动。尽管西班牙与中国在地理上相距遥远，但西班牙内战与中国人民抗日战争之间仍存在思想交流与相互影响。中国共产党人密切关注西班牙内战的发展并从中汲取抗战策略。

In his article "Letter to the Spanish People," Zhu De pointed out that the war of the Spanish people "is not only for the liberation of the Spanish people, but also for world peace," and "inspires us to wage a more resolute struggle against our nation's main enemy—Japanese imperialism!" "You have given the most valuable experience to the anti-fascist masses of the whole world; you are the most excellent model of anti-fascism for the whole world!" The Communist Party of China also expressed support for the Spanish Republic through propaganda. In May 1937, Mao Zedong clearly stated in the "Letter from the Chinese Soviet Government to the Spanish People": "The struggle of the Chinese people cannot be separated from your struggle in Spain. The Communist Party of China is now helping and encouraging you, the Spanish people, by opposing Japanese fascism."

朱德在《致西班牙人民书》一文中指出，西班牙人民的战争“不只为西班牙人民的解放，同时也是为了世界和平”，“鼓舞着我们向着中华民族的主要敌人——日本帝国主义作更坚决的斗争！”“你们给予全世界反法西斯的群众最宝贵的经验，你们是全世界反法西斯最优秀的模范！”中国共产党还通过舆论宣传表达对西班牙共和事业的支持。1937年5月，毛泽东在《中华苏维埃政府致西班牙人民书》中明确表示：“中国人民的斗争是不能与你们在西班牙的斗争分开的。中国共产党现在正以反对日本法西斯蒂的斗争来帮助和鼓励你们西班牙的人民”。

The creation and dissemination of the song "Defend Madrid" (later "Defend Madrid") is a typical manifestation of this interaction. In the second half of 1936, when Lü Ji was in charge of the "Song Research Society," he proposed composing a song to support the just struggle of the Spanish people, and Mai Xin wrote the lyrics for "Defend Madrid." Once this song, brimming with internationalist spirit, was released, the "Amateur Choir" actively mobilized workers, students, and other groups to rehearse and perform it, and the song spread from the rear cities all the way to the front-line battlefields.

歌曲《保卫玛德里》（后《保卫马德里》）的创作和传播是这种互动的典型体现。1936年下半年，当时吕骥负责“歌曲研究会”，他提议谱曲一首，来声援西班牙人民的正义斗争，由麦新作词创作了《保卫玛德里》。这首洋溢着国际主义精神的歌曲一经推出，“业余合唱团”便积极发动工人、学生等群体进行排练与公演，歌声从后方城市一路飘扬至前线战场。

This interaction was also bidirectional. The Spanish Republican government, the Communist Party, and left-wing organizations, through open letters, declarations, and statements at international forums, condemned Japan's aggression against China and expressed solidarity with the Chinese people. Although Spain itself was in a difficult situation, this moral support was of great significance. The two theaters jointly constructed the early prototype of the international anti-fascist front.

这种互动也是双向的。西班牙共和国政府、共产党及左翼组织通过公开信、宣言和在国际场合发声，谴责日本对中国的侵略，表达与中国人民的团结。尽管西班牙自身处境艰难，但这种道义支持具有重要意义。两大战场共同构建了国际反法西斯的早期雏形。

Chinese volunteers who participated in the International Brigades, such as Xie Weijin, Zhang Ruishu, Liu Jingtian, Chen Wenrao, Zhang Ji, Yang Chunrong, Chen Agen, and others, either fought bravely on the front lines or served diligently in logistics, embodying the Chinese people's support for the international anti-fascist cause.

参加国际纵队的中国志愿者，如谢唯进、张瑞书、刘景田、陈文饶、张纪、杨春荣、陈阿根等人，或在前线奋勇拼杀，或在后勤积极服务，体现了中国人民对国际反法西斯事业的支持。

After the International Brigades were disbanded, Xie Weijin, Zhang Ruishu, Liu Jingtian, and others, after enduring numerous hardships and dangers, resolutely returned to their homeland to join the War of Resistance. At the same time, some members of the International Brigades, such as Norman Bethune, Flato, and Bela, the "Spanish doctors," traveled to China to support the War of Resistance. Although none of them were Spanish, they brought valuable medical experience and the spirit of anti-fascist struggle.

国际纵队解散后，谢唯进、张瑞书、刘景田等人历经艰难险阻，坚定地回到祖国投身抗战。与此同时，部分国际纵队成员白求恩、傅拉都、白乐夫等“西班牙医生”，辗转来到中国支援抗日战争。虽然他们中没有西班牙人，但带来了珍贵的医疗经验和反法西斯斗争精神。

Deep integration of international solidarity and local mobilization. Both Spain and China, proceeding from their own realities, formed distinctive anti-fascist strategies, while also contributing these experiences to the international anti-fascist cause. The International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War and the Chinese united front of resistance against Japan shared similarities in their formation background, organizational methods, and strategic goals, yet each had its own characteristics.

国际团结与本土动员深度融合。西班牙和中国都从自身实际出发，形成了各具特色的反法西斯策略，同时又将这些经验贡献给国际反法西斯事业。西班牙内战国际纵队与中国抗日民族统一战线在形成背景、组织方式和战略目标上既有相似之处，又各具特色。

From the perspective of internationalism, the International Brigades were composed of volunteers from many countries, with a clear transnational character; the Chinese united front of resistance against Japan was mainly based on the country itself, actively mobilizing forces from all domestic strata. From the perspective of organizational form, the International Brigades followed an "external aid internalized" model, with external forces directly participating in internal combat; the Chinese united front of resistance against Japan was an "endogenous with external linkages" model, seeking international support on the basis of integrating domestic resources.

从国际主义层面来看，国际纵队由来自多个国家的志愿者组成，跨国特征明显；中国抗日民族统一战线主要立足于本国，积极动员国内各阶层力量。从组织形态层面来看，国际纵队属于“外援内化”模式，外部力量直接参与内部战斗；中国抗日民族统一战线是“内生外联”模式，在整合国内资源基础上，再寻求国际支持。

The practices of Spain and China show that effective anti-fascist struggle must achieve a dialectical unity of local consciousness and global vision. The Spanish Republican government, on the one hand, organized local resistance, and on the other hand, called for international support; while forming the anti-Japanese national united front, China also actively sought international assistance, such as the support of the Soviet volunteer air force and the American Flying Tigers.

西班牙和中国的实践表明，有效的反法西斯斗争必须实现本土自觉与全球视野的辩证统一。西班牙共和政府一方面组织本土抵抗，另一方面呼吁国际支持；中国在形成抗日民族统一战线的同时，也积极寻求国际援助，如苏联援华航空队和美国飞虎队的支持。

Although the International Brigades were unable to reverse the fate of the Spanish Republican government, the symbolic significance embodied in their spirit is profound and enduring. It reflected the early awakening and resistance of global progressive forces against fascism, accumulating experience for the subsequent formation of the world anti-fascist united front. The Chinese united front against Japan [2]2 The Chinese united front against Japan (抗日民族统一战线) was a coalition of the CPC, the Kuomintang, and other parties and groups formed in 1937 to resist the Japanese invasion, lasting until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. rallied the strength of 400 million people to confront the national crisis together, building an indestructible eastern pillar for the world anti-fascist war.

国际纵队虽未能扭转西班牙共和政府的命运，但其精神所蕴含的象征意义深远而持久。它体现了全球进步力量对法西斯主义的早期觉醒和抵抗，为后续世界反法西斯统一战线的形成积累了经验。中国抗日民族统一战线凝聚了4亿民众的力量，共赴国难，为世界反法西斯战争筑起了坚不可摧的东方支柱。

The Communist Party of China, taking the Spanish Civil War as a mirror, drew lessons and experiences from this conflict, which was called "a civil war that was not a civil war." In October 1939, Mao Zedong, in his article "Introducing The Communist," [3]3 "Introducing The Communist" (《〈共产党人〉发刊词》) was an article by Mao Zedong published in October 1939 in the inaugural issue of the CPC internal journal *The Communist*. listed the united front as the first of the "three magic weapons," [4]4 The "three magic weapons" (三大法宝) are a Maoist formulation identifying the united front, armed struggle, and Party building as the three key instruments for the CPC's revolutionary victory. summarizing the Spanish experience as the theoretical basis for "defeating the strong with the weak and protracted war," thereby laying the ideological foundation for the War of Liberation. [5]5 The War of Liberation (解放战争) refers to the Chinese Civil War from 1945 to 1949, in which the CPC defeated the Kuomintang and established the People's Republic of China.

中国共产党以西班牙内战为鉴，从这场被称作“不是内战的内战”的冲突中，总结了经验与教训。1939年10月，毛泽东在《〈共产党人〉发刊词》中将统一战线列为“三大法宝”之首，将西班牙经验总结为“以弱胜强、持久战”的理论依据，为解放战争奠定了思想基础。

Facts have proven that for the Chinese people to win the victory in the War of Resistance Against Japan, it was necessary to have a strong and mature political party to lead and maintain internal consolidation and unity; it was necessary to establish the broadest possible domestic and international united front, but the fundamental principle of independence and self-reliance could never be abandoned.

事实证明，中国人民赢得抗日战争的胜利，必须有一个坚强成熟的政党领导，维护内部的巩固团结；必须建立最广泛的国内外统一战线，但绝不能放弃独立自主、自力更生的根本原则。

Historical experience fully demonstrates that only by deeply integrating international solidarity with local mobilization can genuine change be achieved. In the current era, the world faces entirely new challenges, and this wisdom of organically combining global solidarity with local practice is especially necessary. The members of the International Brigades once aspired to "save the freedom of Spain and the whole world," and the Communist Party of China actively advocates the concept of "a community with a shared future for mankind." Although separated by more than eighty years in time, the two are essentially of the same lineage, jointly manifesting humanity's unremitting pursuit of peace and justice.

历史经验充分表明，唯有将国际团结与本土动员深度融合，才能实现真正变革。在当今时代，世界面临着全新挑战，这种将全球团结与本土实践有机结合的智慧尤为必要。国际纵队队员曾立志于“为了拯救西班牙和全世界的自由”，中国共产党积极倡导“人类命运共同体”理念，尽管二者在时间上相隔八十余载，但在本质上一脉相承，共同彰显了人类对于和平与正义的不懈追求。

(The author is a research fellow at the Institute of World History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)

（作者系中国社会科学院世界历史研究所研究员）

Online editor: Huihui

网络编辑：慧慧