Insights from Constructing an Independent Chinese Knowledge System for the History of the 1911 Revolution

At present, accelerating the construction of an independent Chinese knowledge system for historiography has become an important task for the academic community. The study of the history of the 1911 Revolution and the process of forming its independent knowledge system serve as a typical example worthy of reference, offering several insights for constructing an independent Chinese knowledge system for historiography.

当前，加快建构中国自主的历史学知识体系，业已成为史学界的一项重要任务。辛亥革命史研究及其自主知识体系形成过程，则是一个可资借鉴的典型范例，可以为我们建构中国自主的历史学知识体系提供若干启示。

The Course of Constructing an Independent Knowledge System for the History of the 1911 Revolution

自主的辛亥革命史知识体系的建构历程

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the study of the history of the 1911 Revolution has spanned over 70 years, which can be roughly divided into three stages.

新中国成立以来，辛亥革命史研究已走过70余年的历程，大致可划分为三个阶段。

(I) The Emergence Stage (1949–1966)

（一）兴起阶段（1949—1966）

From 1949 to 1966, this period marked the emergence of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution in New China. Compared with the period before 1949, its most important achievement was the initial formation, under the guidance of historical materialism, of an academic system for studying the 1911 Revolution as a “bourgeois revolution.” This was mainly reflected in two aspects: first, the application of class analysis and class struggle theory. Before 1949, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution focused on narrating isolated political events; after 1949, research emphasized exploring economic backgrounds and class relations, viewing the 1911 Revolution as a product of the intensification of the principal contradiction in late Qing society, thereby gaining certain regular and genuine understandings through the bewildering and chaotic historical phenomena of the 1911 period. Second, the introduction of the mass viewpoint. Before 1949, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution focused on the personal activities of a few well-known figures, rarely or never addressing the status and role of the masses. After 1949, research paid more attention to the will and actions of the masses, enriching the content of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution through studies of tax resistance struggles, the New Army, and secret societies.

从1949到1966年，这一时期是新中国辛亥革命史研究的兴起阶段。与1949年以前相比，其最重要的成就，便是在唯物史观指导下，初步形成辛亥革命史研究的“资产阶级革命说”学术体系。这主要体现在两个方面：一是阶级分析和阶级斗争学说的运用。1949年以前的辛亥革命史研究，侧重于对孤立政治事件的叙述；1949年以后的研究，则强调对经济背景和阶级关系的探讨，并把辛亥革命看作清末社会主要矛盾激化的产物，由此透过辛亥时期迷离混沌的历史现象而获得若干规律性的真切认识。二是引入群众史观。1949年以前的辛亥革命史研究，侧重于少数知名人士的个人活动，很少甚至没有涉及人民群众的地位和作用。1949年以后的研究则较注重人民群众的意愿和行动，并通过研究抗捐抗税斗争、新军和会党等丰富了辛亥革命史研究的内容。

(II) The Flourishing Stage (1978–1989)

（二）兴盛阶段（1978—1989）

From 1978 to 1989, this period marked the recovery and rise of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution. Over more than a decade, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution achieved a series of major advances. The “bourgeois revolution” thesis of the 1911 Revolution, upheld by mainland scholars, became increasingly systematic and mature through intense debates with the “universal revolution” thesis advocated by scholars in Taiwan, China, and the “gentry movement” thesis advocated by overseas scholars.

从1978到1989年，这一时期是辛亥革命史研究复苏和崛起的阶段。10余年间，辛亥革命史研究取得一系列重大进展。大陆学者坚持的辛亥革命“资产阶级革命说”，在同中国台湾学者主张的“全民革命说”、海外学者主张的“绅士运动说”的激烈论辩中，日益走向系统和成熟。

The “bourgeois revolution” thesis of the 1911 Revolution encompasses multiple aspects: first, the initial development of a national capitalist economy laid the socio-economic foundation for the 1911 Revolution; second, the bourgeoisie began to form an independent class politically, putting forward its own political propositions; third, a series of programs and propositions by Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries represented the developmental demands of emerging capitalism and the bourgeoisie; fourth, the political line of Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries, which used violent means to overthrow the Qing dynasty and establish a republican system, fundamentally differed from the reformist path of the constitutional monarchists and fell within the category of a bourgeois revolutionary movement; fifth, it was precisely the initial but insufficient development of the national bourgeoisie that led to the dual outcome of the 1911 Revolution—both achieving victory and ultimately failing.

辛亥革命“资产阶级革命说”包含多方面内容：其一，民族资本主义经济的初步发展，为辛亥革命奠定社会经济基础；其二，资产阶级在政治上开始成为一个独立的阶级，提出了自己的政治主张；其三，孙中山等革命派的一系列纲领和主张，代表的正是新兴资本主义和资产阶级的发展诉求；其四，孙中山等革命派以暴力手段推翻清王朝，建立共和制度的政治路线，从根本上有别于立宪派的改良主义道路，当属资产阶级革命运动的范畴；其五，正是民族资产阶级有初步发展又发展不足，导致辛亥革命既取得胜利又最终失败的双重结局。

(III) The Deepening Stage (1990 to the Present)

（三）深化阶段（1990年至今）

After 1990, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution entered a phase of continuous deepening. Influenced by the rising trends of social history and modernization studies, the direction of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution in the 1990s expanded. In summary, it moved “from revolution to society,” shifting from the study of purely political events to a more comprehensive study of social transformation. A prominent manifestation was the strengthened research on social organizations and social groups during the 1911 Revolution. Some scholars also examined the 1911 Revolution within the context of China’s modernization process, making the “modernization paradigm” a new paradigm alongside the “revolutionary history paradigm.”

1990年以后，辛亥革命史研究开始进入持续深化的阶段。受日益兴起的社会史和现代化史研究潮流的影响，20世纪90年代的辛亥革命史研究方向有所拓展，概言之，即“从革命走向社会”，从单纯政治事件史研究转向更为全面的社会转型研究。其突出表现，是加强了对辛亥革命期间社会组织和社会群体的研究。也有学者将辛亥革命置于中国现代化历程中进行考察，“现代化范式”遂成为“革命史范式”之外的新范式。

In the last 20-plus years, another new trend in constructing an independent knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution is that, under the influence of the “post-modernization paradigm,” some scholars have used methods from new social history and new cultural history to reinterpret the 1911 Revolution, presenting it in another light and revealing another facet of history, thereby supplementing the inadequacies of macro-revolutionary narratives.

最近20余年来，自主的辛亥革命史知识体系建构的另一个新动向是，在“后现代化范式”影响下，一些学者运用新社会史和新文化史的方法对辛亥革命进行重新阐释，使之呈现另一重意义，揭示历史的另一种面相，以补宏观革命叙事之不足。

The above brief review of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution at various stages shows that, despite twists and turns, over the past 70 years, the construction of an independent Chinese knowledge system for historiography has always advanced tenaciously, forming the foundation and starting point for constructing an independent Chinese knowledge system for historiography today.

以上对各阶段辛亥革命史研究的简要回顾说明，尽管历经坎坷，但70余年来，中国自主的历史学知识体系建构始终在坚韧前行，并构成今天建构中国自主的历史学知识体系的基础和出发点。

Prominent Features of the Independent Knowledge System for the History of the 1911 Revolution

自主的辛亥革命史知识体系的突出特征

Reviewing and reflecting on the construction process of the independent knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution over the past 70 years can yield many insights.

回顾和反思70余年来辛亥革命史自主知识体系的建构过程，可以从中获得许多启迪。

(I) Guided by Historical Materialism, Forge the “Soul” of the Independent Knowledge System

（一）以唯物史观为指导，熔铸自主知识体系之“魂”

Historical research must not only “know what it is” but also “know why it is so.” In the intellectual exploration of “knowing why it is so” in history, historical materialism provides a sharp ideological weapon for the Chinese Marxist school of history and is an indispensable spiritual “soul” running through the independent knowledge system of historiography.

历史研究不仅要“知其然”，而且必须“知其所以然”，在对历史进行“知其所以然”的思想探索过程中，历史唯物主义为中国马克思主义历史学派提供了锐利的思想武器，是贯穿自主的历史学知识体系中不可或缺的精神之“魂”。

The guiding role of historical materialism in the study of the history of the 1911 Revolution is reflected in many aspects: first, starting from the basic principles that social being determines social consciousness and that productive forces determine relations of production, it demonstrates the fundamental causes of the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution, thereby revealing the socio-economic basis and inherent necessity of this revolution. Second, through the application of class and class struggle theory, it determines the bourgeois democratic revolutionary nature of the 1911 Revolution, thereby grasping the essential characteristics of this revolution. Third, through the application of “concrete analysis of concrete conditions” and “placing the problem within a certain historical scope,” it clearly explains many complex historical phenomena of the 1911 Revolution.

唯物史观对辛亥革命史研究的指导作用，体现在诸多方面：一是从社会存在决定社会意识、生产力决定生产关系的基本原理出发，论证辛亥革命爆发的根本原因，从而揭示这场革命的社会经济基础及其内在必然性。二是通过运用阶级与阶级斗争的理论，判明了辛亥革命所具有的资产阶级民主革命性质，从而把握住这场革命的本质特征。三是通过运用“对具体情况作具体分析”，“把问题提到一定的历史范围之内”，清楚阐释辛亥革命中的许多复杂历史现象。

(II) Based on Historical Sources, Strengthen the “Foundation” of the Independent Knowledge System

（二）以史料为依据，筑牢自主知识体系之“基”

Historiography is a highly empirical discipline. Therefore, the construction of an independent knowledge system must proceed from historical facts and be built on a foundation of a large number of true and reliable historical sources.

历史学是一门实证性很强的学科，因此，自主知识体系的建构，势必要从历史事实出发，建立在大量真实可靠的史料基础上。

The reason why research on the history of the 1911 Revolution has achieved considerable success is always premised on and based on the development and utilization of a large number of historical sources. In the 1950s, the People’s Publishing House published *Selected Works of Sun Yat-sen* (Volumes I and II), pioneering the compilation of historical sources on Sun Yat-sen and the 1911 Revolution in New China. Subsequently, a series of large-scale collections of sources were published, laying a solid foundation of historical sources for research on the history of the 1911 Revolution in early New China. Since reform and opening up, the further development of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution has also been closely related to the development and utilization of a large number of sources. Since the 1980s, significant progress has been made in the collation and publication of archival sources on the 1911 Revolution, with important archival compilations including *Archival Sources on the Preparation for Constitutionalism in the Late Qing* and *Compilation of Archival Sources on the History of the Republic of China*.

辛亥革命史研究之所以能取得较大成就，始终是以大量史料的开发、利用为前提和基础。20世纪50年代，人民出版社出版《孙中山选集》（上、下卷），开新中国孙中山与辛亥革命史料编纂之先河。此后，一系列大型资料相继出版，为新中国初期的辛亥革命史研究奠定了扎实的史料基础。改革开放以来，辛亥革命史研究的进一步发展，同样与大量资料的开发利用密切相关。自20世纪80年代以来，辛亥革命档案资料的整理出版工作取得很大进展，重要档案汇编包括《清末筹备立宪档案史料》《中华民国史档案资料汇编》等。

(III) Centered on the Construction of the Academic System, Establish the “Rationale” of the Independent Knowledge System

（三）以学术体系建设为核心，建构自主知识体系之“理”

Constructing an independent Chinese knowledge system for historiography involves the holistic construction of the “three major systems” [1]1 The “three major systems” refer to the disciplinary system, academic system, and discourse system, a framework for knowledge construction in Chinese academia.. Among them, the construction of the academic system, composed of concepts, theories, viewpoints, doctrines, and achievements, has always been the core and foundation.

建构中国自主的历史学知识体系涉及“三大体系”整体性建设，其中，由概念、理论、观点、学说和成果所构成的学术体系建设，始终是核心和基点。

The localized academic system for the history of the 1911 Revolution, centered on the “bourgeois revolution” thesis, certainly includes a systematic discourse on the 1911 Revolution covering the causes of the revolution, the leading forces, the nature, process, success or failure, significance, and evaluations of figures from the 1911 period. However, in the sense of a complete “system,” it should be subordinate to a larger theoretical system, namely, the localized Marxist theoretical system of modern Chinese history. This theoretical system is closely linked to the revolutionary practice of modern China, forming a complete set of discursive systems for “modern Chinese history,” such as the “two halves (semi-colonial and semi-feudal society)” thesis concerning the nature of modern Chinese society, the “two processes” thesis concerning the nature and tasks of the Chinese revolution, and the “three high tides” thesis concerning the developmental thread of modern Chinese history [2]2 The “two processes” thesis refers to the view that modern Chinese history involves the process of China’s gradual sinking into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and the process of the Chinese people’s struggle against imperialism and feudalism. The “three high tides” thesis refers to the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Boxer Rebellion, and the 1911 Revolution as major revolutionary upsurges.. The independent academic system and even discursive system for the history of the 1911 Revolution largely derive from these higher-level, more encompassing theoretical doctrines.

以“资产阶级革命说”为核心的本土化辛亥革命史学术体系，固然有从革命爆发原因、领导力量，到革命性质、过程、成败、意义，以及辛亥人物评价等一系列有关辛亥革命的系统论说，但在完整“体系”意义上，它当从属于一个更大的理论体系，即立足本土的马克思主义中国近代史理论体系。该理论体系同近代中国革命实践紧密关联，形成一整套“中国近代史”话语系统，如有关近代中国社会性质的“两半（半殖民地半封建社会）”论、有关中国革命性质和任务的“两个过程”论、有关中国近代历史发展线索的“三次高潮”论等。自主的辛亥革命史学术体系乃至话语体系，很大程度上便来源于这些层次更高、包容量更大的理论学说。

Although it bears distinct indigenous characteristics, the academic system of the history of the 1911 Revolution is by no means self-enclosed; rather, it possesses qualities of openness and inclusiveness. Especially in the period after reform and opening up, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution was profoundly influenced by Western historiography in terms of both research paradigms and knowledge systems. For instance, while the “revolutionary history paradigm” remained dominant, it also absorbed theories and methods derived from the Western “modernization paradigm” and “postmodern paradigm,” and drew on research results on the history of the 1911 Revolution from Europe, the United States, Japan, and the regions of Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. Therefore, the formation of an autonomous knowledge system is actually the result of interaction and exchange between indigenous knowledge and extraterritorial knowledge. While emphasizing “autonomy,” one must by no means neglect reasonable “borrowing.”

尽管带有明显的本土特征，但辛亥革命史学术体系绝非自我封闭的，而是具有开放性、包容性等特点。尤其改革开放后的辛亥革命史研究，在研究范式和知识体系上，都曾受到西方史学的深刻影响。譬如，在以“革命史范式”为主导的前提下，它又吸取了源自西方的“现代化范式”“后现代范式”等理论及其方法，借鉴了欧美、日本和中国港、澳、台地区辛亥革命史研究成果。因此，自主知识体系的形成，其实是本土知识与域外知识互动交流的结果，在强调“自主”的同时，切不可忽略合理的“借鉴”。

(4) Using the publication of large-scale monographs as a marker to display the “form” of the autonomous knowledge system

（四）以大型专著出版为标志，展示自主知识体系之“形”

An autonomous knowledge system must be demonstrated through a large number of innovative academic achievements rich in insight. The most crucial among these is the emergence of authoritative large-scale academic monographs recognized by the academic community. These may be the crystallization of individual scholarly research, but more likely they are the result of long-term cooperation and collective effort by a group of scholars, embodying the collective wisdom of researchers.

自主知识体系必须通过一大批富有见解的创新性学术成果来展示，其中最关键的，便是要有学界公认的权威性大型学术专著问世。它们可能是个人学术研究的结晶，更大可能是一批学者长期合作、集体攻关的成果，体现了研究者的集体智慧。

The reason we are confident that research on the history of the 1911 Revolution has already formed an autonomous knowledge system lies mainly in the fact that from the 1980s to the early 1990s, research on the history of the 1911 Revolution ended the era of “pamphlets.” Academic works with distinctive features were published one after another, and especially the appearance of several comprehensive large-scale works on the history of the 1911 Revolution marked the achievement of a relatively high academic level. These include: *The History of the 1911 Revolution* edited by Zhang Kaiyuan and Lin Zengping, and *The History of the Republic of China* edited by Li Xin. [3]3 Zhang Kaiyuan (1926–2023) was a leading Chinese historian of the 1911 Revolution; Lin Zengping (1924–2018) was a historian of modern China; Li Xin (1918–2004) was a historian of the Republic of China period. These three large-scale works are all masterpieces meticulously crafted by their authors after long-term systematic research, and they have become landmark achievements in the study of the history of the 1911 Revolution.

我们之所以有信心认为，辛亥革命史研究业已形成自主的知识体系，主要在于20世纪80年代至90年代初，辛亥革命史研究结束了“小册子”时代，各具特色的学术著作陆续出版，尤其是几部通论性大型辛亥革命史著作的问世，更标志着辛亥革命史研究达到较高的学术水平，包括：章开沅、林增平主编《辛亥革命史》，李新主编《中华民国史》。这三部大型著作都是作者经过长期系统研究和精心打磨的力作，成为辛亥革命史研究的标志性成果。

(5) Relying on academic institutions and academic journals to weave the “net” of the autonomous knowledge system

（五）以学术机构和学术期刊为依托，编织自主知识体系之“网”

Modern academic activities cannot be separated from meticulous organizational planning and careful operation, which may be called “organized scholarship.” The relatively rapid formation of an autonomous knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution is indeed closely related to “organized scholarship.” Since the late 1970s, mainland academic circles have gradually changed the situation of individual scholars working alone, and a number of research institutions and research groups focusing on the history of the 1911 Revolution have emerged. The Institute of Modern History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Institute of Qing History of Renmin University of China, the Institute of History of Central China Normal University, the Sun Yat-sen Research Institute of Sun Yat-sen University, and the Sun Yat-sen Research Institute of the Guangdong Academy of Social Sciences are all specialized research institutions with relatively concentrated researchers and rich achievements in the history of the 1911 Revolution.

现代学术活动离不开周密的组织筹划和精心运作，或可称为“有组织的学术”。辛亥革命史研究能够较快形成自主知识体系，实同“有组织的学术”密切相关。20世纪70年代末以来，大陆学界逐渐改变单兵作战的状况，涌现出一批以辛亥革命史为主要研究方向的研究机构和研究群体。中国社会科学院近代史研究所、中国人民大学清史研究所、华中师范大学历史研究所、中山大学孙中山研究所、广东省社会科学院孙中山研究所等，都是辛亥革命史研究人员比较集中、成果比较丰富的专门研究机构。

Academic journals have made indelible contributions to promoting the construction of an autonomous knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution. Publications such as *The Collected Papers on the History of the 1911 Revolution*, *The Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the History of the 1911 Revolution*, *Research Trends in the History of the 1911 Revolution Abroad*, and *The Collected Essays on Sun Yat-sen Studies* served as academic gardens and spiritual homes for researchers of the history of the 1911 Revolution, attracting attention from academic circles at home and abroad. Some famous domestic historical journals, such as *Historical Research* and *Modern Chinese History Studies*, also published a large number of high-quality articles on the history of the 1911 Revolution, jointly promoting the formation of an autonomous knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution.

学术期刊对推动自主的辛亥革命史知识体系的建构功不可没。《辛亥革命史丛刊》《辛亥革命史研究会通讯》《国外辛亥革命史研究动态》《孙中山研究论丛》等刊物，作为辛亥革命史研究者的学术园地和精神家园，受到海内外学术界关注。一些国内著名史学杂志如《历史研究》《近代史研究》等，也刊载大量有关辛亥革命史的高质量文章，共同推动自主的辛亥革命史知识体系的形成。

Prospects for Research on the Autonomous Knowledge System of the History of the 1911 Revolution

自主的辛亥革命史知识体系研究前瞻

Under the conditions of the New Era, the renewed departure and reconstruction of the autonomous knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution must further broaden its horizons. Through creative transformation and innovative development, it should promote the “upgrading and replacement” of research on the history of the 1911 Revolution.

在新的时代条件下，自主的辛亥革命史知识体系的再出发、再建构，须进一步拓宽视野，通过创造性转化和创新性发展，推动辛亥革命史研究的“升级换代”。

First, the expansion of the temporal horizon. In the past, people were accustomed to thinking about the 1911 Revolution in terms of the revolution itself, and the temporal horizon was often limited to the few years before and after the 1911 Revolution, with little long-term historical reflection. On the centenary of the 1911 Revolution, Zhang Kaiyuan proposed the grand concept of “three one-hundred-year periods,” advocating a comprehensive, long-term investigation of the hundred-year historical background before the 1911 Revolution, the hundred-year history of the 1911 Revolution itself, and the prospects for the next hundred years. [4]4 The “three one-hundred-year periods” (三个一百年) refers to Zhang Kaiyuan’s proposal to study the 1911 Revolution by examining the hundred years before it (the long-term background), the hundred years since it (its consequences and legacy), and the coming hundred years (future prospects). This provides a reference-worthy approach for accelerating the construction of an autonomous knowledge system for the history of the 1911 Revolution.

第一，时间视野的拓展。过去，人们习惯于就辛亥革命本身来思考辛亥革命，时间视野往往局限于辛亥革命前后几年，很少对其进行长时段的历史思考。在纪念辛亥革命一百周年之际，章开沅提出“三个一百年”的宏大构想，主张对辛亥革命之前百年历史背景、辛亥革命以来百年历史本身以及未来百年展望进行通盘性、长时段的考察。这为加快建构自主的辛亥革命史知识体系提供了一个可资借鉴的思路。

The author believes that within the “three one-hundred-year periods,” on the shorter-term historical “extension line,” we should pay special attention to the vertical connections among the Hundred Days’ Reform, the New Policies of the late Qing, the 1911 Revolution, the May Fourth Movement, and the founding of the Communist Party of China. [5]5 The Hundred Days’ Reform (1898) was a failed reform movement led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao; the New Policies of the late Qing (1901–1911) were a series of modernizing reforms undertaken by the Qing court after the Boxer Rebellion; the May Fourth Movement (1919) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal cultural and political movement. That is, taking the year 1911 as the origin point, we should at least trace back and extend forward by more than ten years respectively, examining the interconnections and mutual influences among these major historical events, in order to reveal their potential historical causal chain.

笔者认为，“三个一百年”中，在较短时段的历史“延长线”上，我们应特别关注戊戌变法、清末新政、辛亥革命、五四运动、中国共产党成立之间的纵向联系。也就是说，以辛亥年为原点，至少应分别向前追溯和向后延伸十余年，考察这些重大历史事件之间的相互勾连、相互影响，以揭示其潜在的历史因果之链。

On the longer-term historical “extension line,” in addition to long-range historical factors such as the eastward spread of Western influence, social transformation, and modernization, the 1911 Revolution should also be examined within the grand historical perspective of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. From the Opium War of 1840 to the present, national rejuvenation has been the theme and main line of modern Chinese history. Following this theme and main line, it may be possible to break down the boundaries between different fields of modern Chinese historical research, conducting a comprehensive and holistic investigation of the national movements, reform movements, revolutionary movements, and even the ongoing Chinese-path modernization construction since modern times, thereby grasping the laws and direction of historical development.

而在长时段意义的历史“延长线”上，除西潮东渐、社会转型、现代化这些长程历史因素外，还应将辛亥革命置于中华民族复兴的历史大视野中进行考察。自1840年鸦片战争至今，民族复兴一直是近现代中国历史的主题和主线，循此主题和主线，或可打破中国近现代史研究之间的界限，将近代以来的民族运动、改良运动、革命运动，乃至今天还在进行的中国式现代化建设等，做通盘性、全局性的考察，从而把握历史发展的规律和方向。

Second, the expansion of the spatial horizon. Zhang Kaiyuan once pointed out that to further deepen research on the history of the 1911 Revolution, in addition to “extending upward and downward,” it is also necessary to achieve “horizontal integration” and “to examine Chinese history from the perspective of world history.” Examining the 1911 Revolution from the perspective of world history first requires examining the relationship between the 1911 Revolution and Asia, or the “Asian perspective” on the 1911 Revolution. From an Asian perspective, the close relationship between the 1911 Revolution and Japan goes without saying, and the overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia can be called the “mother of the revolution,” serving as an important supporting force for the 1911 Revolution. The national liberation movements of Asian countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Myanmar, and Thailand were also influenced and inspired by the 1911 Revolution.

第二，空间视野的拓展。章开沅曾指出，辛亥革命史研究的继续深入，除“上下延伸”外，还要做到“横向会通”，要“从世界史的角度来考察中国历史”。从世界史角度考察辛亥革命，首先要考察辛亥革命与亚洲的关系，或称辛亥革命的“亚洲视角”。从亚洲视角看，辛亥革命与日本的密切关系自不待言，东南亚地区的华侨更可谓“革命之母”，是辛亥革命重要的支持力量。亚洲各国如越南、菲律宾、印度尼西亚、缅甸、泰国的民族解放运动，也都曾受到辛亥革命的影响和启迪。

Studying the history of the 1911 Revolution requires not only an Asian consciousness but also a global consciousness. The Chinese perspective, the Asian perspective, and the global perspective are mutually reflective and intersecting. The 1911 Revolution was essentially a political revolution with a strong international background. The revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen and others were deeply influenced by the American Revolution and the French Revolution; Sun Yat-sen and others sought support from overseas Chinese not only in Japan and Southeast Asia but also extended it to the Americas, Europe, and all places where Chinese people lived; the branches of the Tongmenghui were spread across all continents, with a very strong overseas character. [6]6 The Tongmenghui (Chinese United League) was the revolutionary organization founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1905 in Tokyo, which later became the core of the Kuomintang. Clearly, with the expansion of the spatial horizon, the 1911 Revolution will reveal even more far-reaching world-historical significance.

研究辛亥革命史不仅要有亚洲意识，还须有全球意识。中国视角、亚洲视角与全球视角是相互映射、互有交集的。辛亥革命实质是一场国际背景浓厚的政治革命。孙中山等人的革命思想深受美国革命和法国大革命影响；孙中山等寻求华侨的支援，不限于日本和东南亚，也扩展到美洲、欧洲及一切有华人的地方；同盟会的分支机构更是遍及各大洲，海外色彩甚为浓厚。显然，随着空间视野拓展，辛亥革命将呈现更为深远的世界性意义。

The expansion of the spatial horizon is not limited to the international perspective; it also includes, based on the actual situation of unbalanced regional development in modern China, conducting larger-scale regional studies beyond provincial studies, such as the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the southeastern coast, the northwestern frontier, and the southwestern region.

空间视野的扩展，不限于国际视野，也包括根据近代中国区域发展不平衡的实际情况，在分省研究之外展开更大范围的区域研究，如长江中下游、东南沿海、西北边疆、西南地区等。

Third, the expansion of the social horizon. One of the most important advances in the study of the history of the 1911 Revolution in recent decades has been “moving from revolution to society,” and reflecting back on the 1911 Revolution from social changes, recognizing that the 1911 Revolution was not only a political revolution but also a social revolution, a broad social transformation with wide-ranging influence. Therefore, it is truly necessary to closely integrate the study of revolutionary history with the study of social history, endowing the 1911 Revolution with a more three-dimensional interpretation.

第三，社会视野的拓展。最近几十年中，辛亥革命史研究最重要的进展之一便是“从革命走向社会”，并从社会变化反观辛亥革命，认识到辛亥革命不仅是一场政治意义上的革命，更是一场社会意义上的革命，是影响广泛的社会大变革。因此，将革命史研究与社会史研究密切结合，赋予辛亥革命更立体化的诠释，实属必要。

The study of society during the period of the 1911 Revolution should not only explore the social environment, social structure, groups, strata, and customs of the time, but also pay attention to areas and issues that have received insufficient attention in the past, or that today’s social development particularly needs to focus on. These include: the formation of the concept of the “Chinese nation” (Zhonghua minzu) and the development process of the Chinese national community during the 1911 Revolution period; economic and social construction centered on “people’s livelihood”; the “loss of order” in local grassroots social governance; the deterioration and “decentering” of the gentry stratum; the channels for the social dissemination of science and technology and knowledge; changes in the social mentality of the revolutionaries themselves and the populace; and the development of urban public spaces and public spheres.

对辛亥革命时期社会的研究，不仅要探讨当时的社会环境、社会结构、团体、阶层、风俗等，还要注意过去关注不够，或今天社会发展特别需要关注的领域和问题，如辛亥革命时期“中华民族”概念的形成及中华民族共同体的发展过程、以“民生”为中心的经济和社会建设、地方基层社会治理的“脱序”、绅士阶层的劣化和“去中心化”、科技与知识的社会传播途径、革命者自身和民众社会心态变迁、城市公共空间和公共领域发展等。

In terms of research methods, attention should be paid to moving as far as possible from the “abstract” to the “concrete,” from the “coarse” to the “fine,” and, within a grand historical perspective, to conducting more meticulous and in-depth empirical research. For example, the actual circumstances and real impact of the 1911 Revolution in some small localities — the “localized” 1911 Revolution; the 1911 Revolution in images and film — the “visualized” 1911 Revolution; individual life experiences during the 1911 Revolution — the 1911 Revolution as “a living, tangible component of life”; the “opposing side” of the 1911 Revolution — the “holographic” 1911 Revolution; and so forth.

在研究方法上，则应注意尽可能由“虚”趋“实”、由“粗”趋“细”，在大历史视野下，多做一些精细深入的实证研究。比如，辛亥革命在一些小地方的实际情形和真实影响——“在地化”的辛亥革命；图像、影视中的辛亥革命——“具象化”的辛亥革命；辛亥革命中的个体生命体验——“作为‘生命切实组成部分’”的辛亥革命；辛亥革命的“对手方”——“全息化”的辛亥革命；等等。

Broadening the perspective from the above several aspects may help to explore how to achieve the “upgrading and replacement” of the history of the 1911 Revolution and even of the entire independent Chinese knowledge system of modern and contemporary history. This includes “innovative development” premised on the application of new thinking and new paradigms, but perhaps more of it involves “creative transformation” based on the discovery of new materials and the raising of new questions — breaking habitual thought patterns, constantly seeking new academic growth points, and realizing the self-renewal and self-revolution of the “revolutionary history” narrative. This may be regarded as a “new revolutionary history” in another sense: a broader “1911 Revolution” with a greater spatiotemporal perspective and full of life tension.

从以上几方面去拓宽视野，或可有助于探索如何实现辛亥革命史乃至整个中国自主的近现代史知识体系的“升级换代”。其中有以新思维、新范式运用为前提的“创新性发展”，但可能更多的还是在发掘新材料、提出新问题基础上的“创造性转化”——打破惯有的思维定式，不断寻求新的学术增长点，实现“革命史”叙事的自我更新、自我革命。这或可被视为另一种意义上的“新革命史”：一种更为广义的、有着更大时空视距、充满生命张力的“辛亥革命”。

(Author: Ma Min, Professor at the Institute of Modern Chinese History, Central China Normal University)

（作者：马敏，华中师范大学中国近代史研究所教授）

Online Editor: Jing Mu

网络编辑：静穆