Rural Mutual Aid and Cooperation in the Central Soviet Area Demonstrates the Party’s Wisdom

During the period of the Central Soviet Area, the mutual aid and cooperation led by the Communist Party of China among peasants in the revolutionary base areas of southern Jiangxi and western Fujian was both a strategic measure to cope with the economic difficulties of wartime and an early practice in exploring changes in rural relations of production. Rural mutual aid and cooperation played an important role in supporting the revolutionary war, restoring agricultural production, and consolidating Soviet political power.

中央苏区时期，中国共产党在赣南、闽西等革命根据地领导农民开展的互助合作，既是应对战时经济困境的战略举措，也是探索农村生产关系变革的早期实践。农村互助合作在支援革命战争、恢复农业生产以及巩固苏维埃政权等方面发挥了重要作用。

The hardships of war gave rise to mutual aid and cooperation. Mutual aid and cooperation in the Central Soviet Area originated from the special wartime environment and economic difficulties. After land reform in the Central Soviet Area, the broad masses of peasants received land and became its masters. However, the fragility of the individual small-peasant economy became increasingly prominent, and peasants urgently needed to resist risks through mutual aid, which provided a mass base for mutual aid and cooperation.

战争困境催生互助合作。中央苏区互助合作源于特殊的战争环境与经济困境。中央苏区土地改革后，广大农民分得土地，成为土地的主人。但个体小农经济脆弱性日益凸显，农民急需通过互助抵御风险，这为互助合作提供了群众基础。

The blockade and encirclement by the National Government caused an extreme shortage of materials in the Central Soviet Area, with agricultural production lacking labor, farm tools, livestock, and suffering from a severe shortage of funds. To break the Nationalists’ economic blockade and meet the practical needs of the revolutionary ranks and the masses in the Soviet Area, the Communist Party of China realized that the rural revolution could not only not abolish the commodity economy but should also vigorously develop commodity circulation within the Soviet Area and between the Soviet Area and the White Areas.[1]1 “White Areas” (白区) refers to the regions under the control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) during the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949), as opposed to the “Red Areas” controlled by the CPC. At the same time, on the basis of summing up the experience of the local peasants’ original temporary labor mutual aid, the CPC further organized labor mutual aid societies, plow-ox cooperatives, and handicraft production cooperatives, which played an important role in restoring and developing the Soviet Area’s economy, improving the people’s living standards, and supporting the revolutionary war.

国民政府的封锁和围剿造成中央苏区物资奇缺，农业生产缺少劳动力、农具、牲畜，资金严重不足。为了打破国民党的经济封锁，满足革命队伍与苏区群众的现实需求，中国共产党意识到，农村革命不仅不能废除商品经济，还应大力发展苏区内部以及苏区与白区之间的商品流通。同时，中国共产党在总结当地农民原有的临时劳动互助经验的基础上，进一步组织劳动互助社、犁牛合作社以及手工业生产合作社，对恢复和发展苏区经济、改善人民生活水平和支援革命战争发挥了重要作用。

Mutual aid and cooperation was not only conducive to preventing wartime private commercial capital from exploiting the peasants but could also simultaneously meet the needs of the revolutionary ranks and the masses, and, moreover, could strengthen wartime economic cooperation by organizing the peasants. Therefore, developing rural mutual aid and cooperation became an inevitable choice for coping with wartime economic difficulties.

互助合作既有利于防止战时私人商业资本对农民的剥削，又可以同时满足革命队伍与群众需求，更能通过组织农民加强战时经济合作。因此，发展农村互助合作成为应对战时经济困难的必然选择。

Creating a cooperative system with Soviet Area characteristics. In terms of operational mechanisms, the CPC adhered to the working method of “from the masses, to the masses,”[2]2 “From the masses, to the masses” (从群众中来，到群众中去) is a classic formulation of the CPC’s mass line, a working method emphasizing gathering the scattered and unsystematic ideas of the masses, concentrating them into systematic ideas, then taking them back to the masses for propagation and implementation. ensuring the orderly advancement of the mutual aid and cooperation movement. In 1933, the “Measures for Organizing Plow-Ox Stations” issued by the Land and People’s Commissariat of the Provisional Central Government of the Chinese Soviet Republic pointed out that the establishment of plow-ox stations must be organized on the principle of the voluntary consent of the peasant masses, and the Soviet government must absolutely not resort to coercion or commandism; it emphasized “voluntariness, mutual benefit, and exchange at equal value,” opposing coercion and commandism, stipulating, for example, that labor mutual aid be measured by “work points,” which could be cashed out in cash or kind at the year-end settlement, thereby safeguarding the peasants’ interests.

创建苏区特色合作体系。在运作机制上，中国共产党坚持“从群众中来，到群众中去”的工作方法，确保互助合作运动有序推进。1933年，中华苏维埃共和国临时中央政府土地人民委员部发布的《关于组织犁牛站的办法》指出，犁牛站的创立，一定要在农民群众自愿原则之下组织，苏维埃政府绝对不可强迫命令；强调“自愿互利、等价交换”，反对强迫命令，如规定劳动互助以“工分”计量，年终结算时可兑现现金或实物，保障农民利益。

In terms of organizational forms, the CPC creatively constructed a mutual aid and cooperation system suited to the actual conditions of the Soviet Area. The cooperatives in the sphere of circulation in the Central Soviet Area mainly included consumer cooperatives focused on “supply and marketing,” purchasing cooperatives, marketing cooperatives, grain cooperatives, and credit cooperatives focused on money lending. The Jinggangshan Public Sales Office,[3]3 The Jinggangshan Public Sales Office (井冈山公卖处) was an early form of consumer cooperative established in the Jinggangshan revolutionary base area in 1928, where the government purchased goods from outside and sold them to the local population. as a prototype of the consumer cooperative, purchased daily necessities from the areas under Nationalist control and sold them to the masses, distributing surplus according to shares, providing direct experience for the development of consumer cooperatives in the Central Soviet Area. Purchasing cooperatives mainly dealt in means of production such as fertilizer, lime, and farm tools needed for agricultural production. Marketing cooperatives mainly dealt in various agricultural and handicraft products such as tea oil, straw sandals, and grain. Facing the economic blockade and material scarcity, the Central Soviet Area innovatively developed a diverse system of cooperatives in the sphere of circulation, which not only became a key hub for commodity circulation inside and outside the Soviet Area but also consolidated the red political power and improved the lives of workers and peasants by ensuring the supply of materials.

在组织形式上，中国共产党创造性地构建了适应苏区实际的互助合作体系。中央苏区在流通领域的合作社主要包括以“供销”为主的消费合作社、购买合作社、贩卖合作社、粮食合作社和以资金借贷为主的信用合作社。井冈山公卖处作为消费合作社的雏形，通过到国民党统治区购买日用品卖给群众，盈余按照入股情况分红，为中央苏区消费合作社的发展提供了直接经验。购买合作社主要经营农业生产所需的肥料、石灰和农具等生产资料。贩卖合作社主要经营茶油、草鞋、粮食等各种农产品和手工业产品。面对经济封锁和物资匮乏，中央苏区创新性地发展了流通领域形式多样的合作社体系，不仅成为苏区内外商品流通的关键枢纽，更通过保障物资供应巩固红色政权、改善工农生活。

Agricultural production cooperation in the Central Soviet Area mainly included plowing teams, labor mutual aid societies, and plow-ox cooperatives. In 1928, some grassroots cadres and masses in the Soviet Area, summing up past experience with seasonal labor mutual aid, began organizing plowing teams, labor mutual aid groups, and plow-ox stations in the Central Soviet Area. In August 1932, Jiangbei Township in Ruijin organized plowing teams according to the unified organizational structure of the Soviet Area, setting up one brigade for the whole township, one detachment for each village, and groups under the detachments, each group consisting of 10 to 15 people, totaling over 140 people. Every Sunday, all team members were mobilized to cultivate land or do other work for the families of Red Army soldiers, with meals provided by the members themselves. By April 1934, Xingguo County already had 1,206 labor mutual aid societies with 22,118 members; 72 plow-ox cooperatives with share capital of 5,168 yuan and 121 plow oxen. This development trend was universal in the Central Soviet Area; in the same year, the Central Soviet Area had absorbed over 500,000 members in consumer cooperatives, production cooperatives, grain cooperatives, etc., and in some districts and townships, all working people had joined the cooperatives.

中央苏区的农业生产合作主要包括耕田队、劳动互助社和犁牛合作社。1928年，苏区部分基层干部和群众总结过去季节性劳动互助的经验，开始在中央苏区组织耕田队、劳动互助组和犁牛站等。1932年8月，瑞金江背乡按苏区统一建制组织耕田队，设全乡一大队，每村一分队，分队之下设小组，每组10人至15人，共计140余人。每逢星期日动员全体队员给红军家属耕种田地或做其他工作，伙食由队员自给。到1934年4月，兴国县已有1206个劳动互助社，22118名社员；72个犁牛合作社，股金5168元，耕牛121头。这一发展态势在中央苏区具有普遍性，同年中央苏区吸收的消费合作社、生产合作社、粮食合作社等社员已达50万人以上，有些区乡全体劳动群众均加入了合作社。

The industrial base of the Central Soviet Area was weak. To cope with the economic blockade and meet the living needs of the people in the Soviet Area, the Soviet government organized small handicraftsmen, unemployed workers, and peasants to establish handicraft production cooperatives covering various aspects of people’s production and daily life, such as papermaking, salt boiling, and cloth weaving. The development of these cooperatives alleviated the demand for industrial products among residents of the Soviet Area, and the export of some commodities could also be exchanged for urgently needed items in the Soviet Area.

中央苏区的工业基础薄弱，苏维埃政府为应对经济封锁和保障苏区人民生活需求，组织小手工业者、失业工人和农民等创建造纸、煮盐、织布等涉及民众生产和生活各个方面的手工业生产合作社。这些合作社的发展缓解了苏区居民工业品的需求，一些商品的出口还可以换取苏区急需的物品。

In terms of institutional guarantees, to promote the development of the cooperative economy along the correct track, the Central Soviet Area government issued a series of regulations, charters, and directives, including the “Outline for the Organization of Labor Mutual Aid,” the “Resolution on Soviet Economic Construction,” the “Instruction on Organizing Plow-Ox Cooperatives,” and the “General Regulations for Grain Cooperatives,” providing clear guidance for the standardized development of cooperatives.

在制度保障方面，为推动合作经济沿着正确轨道发展，中央苏区政府出台《劳动互助组织纲要》《关于苏维埃经济建设的决议》《关于组织犁牛合作社的训令》《粮食合作社简章》等一系列条例、章程与训令，为合作社的规范化发展提供明确指引。

Mutual aid and cooperation produced positive effects. From the perspective of historical effectiveness, the mutual aid and cooperation movement not only reversed the agricultural decline in the Soviet Area but also produced far-reaching political and social impacts.

互助合作产生积极影响。从历史成效看，互助合作运动不仅扭转了苏区农业颓势，更产生深远的政治与社会影响。

First, it ensured the grain supply for the revolutionary war. In February 1932, the “Instruction on Spring Plowing” of the Provisional Central Government of the Soviet pointed out that the masses, especially under the leadership of the trade unions of hired farm laborers and the poor peasant leagues, should be mobilized to carry out a mutual aid movement in plowing and sowing during the spring plowing, facilitating the smooth progress of cultivation. Mutual aid and cooperation effectively increased grain output; in 1933, the harvest of grain in the Central Soviet Area increased by 15% compared to the previous year; in the Fujian-Zhejiang-Jiangxi Soviet Area, it increased by 20%, with even greater increases in miscellaneous grains.

首先，保障革命战争中的粮食需求。1932年2月，苏维埃临时中央政府《关于春耕问题的训令》指出，要发动群众特别是要由雇农工会贫农团来领导，在春耕中实行耕种互助运动，促成耕种的顺利进行。互助合作有效增加了粮食产量，中央苏区1933年谷子的收成比上一年增加一成半；闽浙赣苏区增加了二成，杂粮则有更多增幅。

Second, through the planned organization and redeployment of labor, agricultural production efficiency was significantly improved. According to statistics from April 1934, Xingguo County had established 1,206 labor mutual aid societies with 22,118 members. Between February and March of that year, these mutual aid societies completed labor redeployment totaling 7,681 person-times, assisting agricultural production. The Soviet government also actively mobilized women to learn plowing, harrowing, and other farm work; for example, in Ruijin, there were 8,987 members of labor mutual aid societies, of whom 1,488 were women participating in production.

其次，通过有计划地组织和调剂劳动力，显著提升了农业生产效率。1934年4月统计，兴国县建立劳动互助社1206个，社员22118人。当年2月至3月间，这些互助社就完成劳动力调剂达7681人次，助力农业生产。苏维埃政府还积极发动妇女学习犁田耙田和其他农事，如瑞金劳动互助社员有8987人，参加生产的妇女就有1488人。

Finally, it contributed to the implementation of the policy of giving preferential treatment to the families of Red Army soldiers. Facing the Nationalists’ encirclement and suppression, the Central Soviet Area put forward the slogan “Expand the million-strong iron Red Army,”[4]4 “Expand the million-strong iron Red Army” (扩大百万铁的红军) was a recruitment slogan used by the CPC in the Central Soviet Area around 1933–1934, aiming to massively increase the size of the Red Army to counter the Nationalists’ military campaigns. which won the support of the broad masses. To ensure that frontline soldiers could fight with peace of mind, it was urgently necessary to establish a system of preferential treatment for the families of Red Army soldiers. During this period, labor mutual aid organizations played a positive role. In July 1932, the “Instruction on War Mobilization and Rear Area Work” of the Central Executive Committee of the Chinese Soviet Republic pointed out that for the families of Red Army soldiers, especially for the public fields of the Red Army, the masses should be mobilized to organize “shock brigades” and “assault teams” to help them harvest grain through revolutionary emulation. In addition, Party, government, rear-area military organs, the Communist Youth League, and other mass organizations, as well as staff of various organs, strictly and universally implemented the Saturday voluntary labor activity for giving preferential treatment to the families of Red Army soldiers. The mutual aid and cooperation measures in the Central Soviet Area promoted the development of agriculture and handicrafts, dealt a heavy blow to the exploitative practices of profiteering merchants, and also became an efficient vehicle for organizing and mobilizing the masses.

最后，有助于优待红军家属政策实施。面对国民党的围剿，中央苏区提出“扩大百万铁的红军”口号，得到广大群众的拥护。为了保障前线战士安心作战，亟须建立优待红军家属制度。其间，劳动互助组织起到积极作用。1932年7月，中华苏维埃共和国中央执行委员会《关于战争动员与后方工作的训令》指出，对于红军家属尤其是对于红军公田，要发动群众组织“突击队”“冲锋队”，以革命竞赛的方法帮助他们收割粮食。此外，党、政府、后方军事机关、青年团以及其他群众组织、各机关工作人员，严格普遍实行优待红军家属的礼拜六义务劳动活动。中央苏区的互助合作举措推动了农业与手工业的发展，沉重打击了投机商人的盘剥行径，同时也成为组织群众、动员群众的高效载体。

The exploratory practice of mutual aid and cooperation in the Central Soviet Area demonstrated the early wisdom of the Communist Party of China in leading peasants to develop the collective economy. Among these, upholding the Party’s centralized and unified leadership was the core guarantee, ensuring that the direction of the movement always resonated with the needs of the revolution; respecting the will and actual interests of the peasants was the fundamental principle, thereby avoiding blind advancement divorced from reality; advancing step by step and seeking truth from facts were important methods, not deliberately pursuing formal perfection but focusing on practical results. These valuable experiences not only provided solid support for the survival and development of the Soviet Area but also became an important source of the CPC’s working methods in rural areas, possessing irreplaceable historical value for understanding the evolutionary trajectory of China’s rural policies.

中央苏区互助合作的探索实践，彰显了中国共产党领导农民发展集体经济的早期智慧。其中，坚持党的集中统一领导是核心保证，以此确保运动方向始终与革命需求同频共振；尊重农民意愿与实际利益是根本原则，从而避免脱离现实的盲目推进；循序渐进与实事求是是重要方法，不刻意追求形式上的完美，而是聚焦实际成效。这些宝贵经验不仅为苏区的存续与发展提供坚实支撑，更成为中国共产党领导农村工作方法的重要源头，对于理解中国农村政策的演变轨迹，具有不可替代的历史价值。

(The author is an associate professor at the School of Marxism, Jilin Agricultural University.)

（作者系吉林农业大学马克思主义学院副教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心