A Historical Examination of the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership in Cultural Construction during the War of Resistance against Japan

The War of Resistance against Japan was the longest, largest, and most costly national liberation struggle waged by the Chinese people against foreign aggression in modern times, and it was also the first national liberation struggle to achieve complete victory in modern times. General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out that during the arduous War of Resistance, “the breadth of social mobilization, the depth of national awakening, the tenacity of the will to fight, and the firmness of the conviction in victory all reached an unprecedented height.” This was inseparable from the cultural construction led by the Party. During the great War of Resistance, at a critical moment of national peril, the Chinese Communists recognized that to win the war, “cultural mobilization was indispensable.” In this period, the Party promoted and launched the anti-Japanese war cultural movement, gradually formed the theory of New Democratic culture, built a cultural army under the Party’s leadership, explored the construction of a philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics, established a revolutionary literary and artistic policy oriented toward the masses, advanced the anti-Japanese war education movement, and enriched the spiritual life of the people. The Party’s practical exploration of leading cultural construction during the War of Resistance provides important inspiration for promoting cultural prosperity and building a culturally strong country at a new historical starting point.

抗日战争是近代以来中国人民反抗外敌侵略持续时间最长、规模最大、牺牲最多的民族解放斗争，也是近代以来第一次取得完全胜利的民族解放斗争。习近平总书记指出，在艰苦卓绝的抗日战争中，“社会动员之广泛，民族觉醒之深刻，战斗意志之顽强，必胜信念之坚定，都达到了空前的高度”。这与党领导的文化建设是密不可分的。在伟大抗日战争中，在民族危亡的重要关头，中国共产党人认识到要赢得抗战胜利，“离不开文化的动员”。这一时期，党推动开展了抗战文化运动，逐步形成了新民主主义文化理论，建设了一支党领导下的文化军队，探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学，确立了面向大众的革命文艺方针，推动了抗战教育运动，丰富了人民群众的精神生活。党在抗日战争时期领导文化建设的实践探索，为在新的历史起点上推动文化繁荣、建设文化强国提供了重要启示。

I. Historical Background of the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership in Cultural Construction during the War of Resistance against Japan

一、抗日战争时期中国共产党领导文化建设的历史背景

Culture is the conceptual reflection of a given economy and politics. The complex economic and political situation during the War of Resistance gave rise to cultures of different natures: there was the “old culture” of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, the decadent and powerless culture of the bourgeoisie, and the New Democratic culture with revolutionary characteristics. In cultural construction, the Party had to resist the cultural colonization of Japanese militarism, oppose the cultural despotism of the Kuomintang diehards, and at the same time promote cultural development in the revolutionary base areas. Therefore, strengthening the will to resist Japan, guiding the direction of anti-Japanese war culture, and building a New Democratic culture became the Party’s cultural mission at that time.

文化是一定经济政治的观念反映。抗日战争时期的复杂经济政治形势造就了不同性质的文化，既有半殖民地半封建社会的“旧文化”，也有腐化无力的资产阶级文化，还有具有革命性特征的新民主主义文化。党在文化建设上既要抵御日本军国主义的文化殖民，也要反抗国民党顽固派的文化专制，同时还要推动革命根据地的文化发展。因此坚定抗战意志，引领抗战文化方向，建设新民主主义文化，成为当时党的文化使命。

1. The Cultural Enslavement of Japanese Militarism

1.日本军国主义的文化奴役

During the strategic stalemate phase of the War of Resistance, Japanese militarism pursued a “total war” in its aggression against China. In the cultural sphere, this manifested as promoting a fascist view of history to whitewash its acts of aggression, implementing a policy of cultural colonization in the occupied areas, vigorously promoting enslavement education and propaganda, destroying Chinese culture, and attempting to conquer the Chinese nation culturally.

在抗日战争的战略相持阶段，日本军国主义对华侵略奉行“总力战”，在文化领域表现为通过宣扬法西斯主义史观，美化其侵略行径，在沦陷区推行文化殖民政策，大力推行奴化教育、进行奴化宣传，摧残中国文化，妄图在文化上征服中华民族。

In terms of theory, it distorted Chinese history and beautified its acts of aggression. Some hired literati of Japanese fascism used their fascist view of history to distort the history of the Chinese nation, twisting the history of interaction, exchange, and integration among the Chinese nationalities into a history of foreign invasion, claiming that “the long duration of the life of the Chinese nation is due to the tough and resilient power it gained under the repeated invasions of foreign nationalities.” Moreover, they further fabricated the stagnation of Chinese historical development, arguing that the cyclical pattern of order and chaos, rise and decline in Chinese history meant it could not progress, and that “within the development of Chinese society itself, without external forces, it could not develop into capitalist capital.” They asserted that Japan’s aggression would sweep away this historical stagnation and cycle, bringing so-called progress and light to China, shamelessly declaring that “in culture, Japan guides East Asia,” that “Japanese culture must develop beyond its national borders,” and brazenly likened the invasion of China to “an injection of Hormone,” claiming it would “enrich the blood” of China and “increase its new vitality,” using every means to whitewash their atrocities.

在理论方面，歪曲中国的历史，美化其侵略行径。日本法西斯的一些御用文人以其法西斯史观歪曲中华民族的历史，把中华民族交往交流交融的历史歪曲为一部外敌入侵史，认为“中国民族生命的悠久，却是由于外民族交侵之下而有了强韧的绵延力量”。不仅如此，他们进一步捏造中国历史发展的停滞性，认为中国历史治乱兴衰的循环往复，是不能发展进步的，“在中国社会本身的发展中，没有从外部而来的作用，就不能够发展成资本主义的资本”，而日本的侵略会扫除这种历史的停滞与循环，给中国带来所谓的进步和光明，妄言“在文化方面，日本指导东亚”，“日本的文化必须越出国境去发展”，恬不知耻地称对中国的侵略“犹如行霍尔孟之注射”，是给中国“补血”“增长其新的元气”，百般粉饰其暴行。

In terms of practice, it promoted fascist culture and destroyed Chinese culture. The Japanese aggressors implemented a policy of cultural enslavement in the occupied areas, stepped up the destruction of the ideology and culture of the Chinese nation, plundered and destroyed China’s tangible cultural heritage, and confiscated and burned all books with patriotic content or related to Chinese history and geography. In education, the puppet regimes under Japan, following the enslavement policy, instilled anti-communist, pro-Japanese, and traitorous education. The content of textbooks was filled with deceptive talk such as “the goodwill of China, Japan, and Manchukuo,” and they vigorously excluded modern and contemporary social sciences. The British physicist William Band and his wife, who witnessed the Japanese enslavement policy in North China, wrote: “The Xinmin Hui [n], under the guidance of Japanese advisors, was responsible for the task of spiritually enslaving the Chinese people. The methods used were so base as to be almost unbelievable. Rumor-mongering and deception, blackmail and extortion, corruption and strife, torture and terror, poisoning, prostitution, depravity—every kind of the world’s most despicable behavior was cultivated in this organization, specifically to destroy the people’s morality and shake the faith of the masses.” Japan’s actions placed Chinese culture in a crisis where its subject was at risk of being replaced, its substance of being destroyed, and its carrier of being negated.

在实践方面，推行法西斯文化，摧残中华文化。日本侵略者在沦陷区推行文化奴役政策，加紧摧残中华民族思想文化，掠夺、毁坏中国物质文化遗产，收缴焚毁一切具有爱国思想及有关中国历史、地理的书籍。在教育上，日伪政府依据奴化方针灌输反共、媚日、卖国教育，课本内容充斥“中日满亲善”等欺人之谈，极力排斥近现代社会科学。英国物理学家班威廉夫妇曾目睹日军在华北地区的奴化政策，写道：“新民会在日本顾问指导之下，负责精神上奴化中国人的任务。所用方法的卑劣几乎令人不能置信。造谣和欺骗，敲诈和勒索，腐败和争夺，酷刑和恐怖，毒化，娼妓，邪行，凡是世界上种种最下流的行为都在这种机构里培养出来，专为破坏人民道德，动摇大众的信念。”日本的行为使中华文化面临着主体被取代、实体被灭亡、载体被否定的危机。

2. The Cultural Despotism of the Kuomintang Diehards

2.国民党顽固派的文化专制

During the War of Resistance, the Kuomintang diehards continued to implement a policy of cultural despotism, promoted cultural restorationism, suppressed progressive culture, and attempted to abolish the Chinese Communist Party and establish a cultural dictatorship.

抗日战争时期，国民党顽固派继续执行文化专制政策，推行文化复古主义，打压进步文化，企图取消中国共产党，建立文化独裁统治。

First, they strengthened cultural control and promoted cultural restoration. After the outbreak of the War of Resistance, to further consolidate their ruling position, the Kuomintang diehards launched a series of cultural movements. In 1933, the National Government established the Chinese Cultural Society in Nanchang, which professed to “revive Chinese culture,” advocating that “the Three People’s Principles are the highest principle of China’s cultural movement, to promote China’s inherent culture, absorb progressive cultures from various countries, and create a new Chinese culture.” In 1934, the National Government established the China Cultural Construction Association in Shanghai, which held that “the rise and fall of the state, the prosperity and decline of the nation, are tied to culture,” that the current cultural decline and national fortunes were in decay, and that “to complete the great task of reviving the state and nation, what is needed is the active construction of culture.” Although the National Government’s attitude toward Chinese and Western cultures appeared impartial, in fact it still bore a color of restorationist conservatism and even regression, such as launching the New Life Movement aimed at restoring old ethical morals like “propriety, righteousness, integrity, and a sense of shame,” vigorously promoting the veneration of Confucius, and holding large-scale Confucian worship ceremonies. In March 1943, *China’s Destiny*, published under the name of Chiang Kai-shek, lavishly praised ancient Chinese social ethics and morality, propagating feudalism and fascism—a concentrated expression of the restorationist discourse.

一是加强文化统制，宣扬文化复古。抗日战争爆发后，国民党顽固派为进一步巩固统治地位，先后发动了一系列文化运动。1933年，国民政府在南昌成立中国文化学会，标榜“复兴中华文化”，主张“三民主义为中国文化运动之最高原则，发扬中国固有文化，吸收各国进步文化，创建新中国文化”。1934年，国民政府在上海成立中国文化建设协会，认为“国家兴替，民族盛衰，系于文化”，当下文化中落，国运衰颓，“欲完成复兴国家民族之大业，所需乎文化之积极的建设者”。虽然看起来国民政府对于中西文化的态度是不偏不倚的，但在事实上仍有着复古保守甚至是倒退的色彩，如开展以恢复“礼义廉耻”等旧伦理道德为目标的新生活运动，大力提倡尊孔，举行大规模祭孔活动。1943年3月，以蒋介石名义出版的《中国之命运》，盛赞中国古代社会伦理道德，宣扬封建主义和法西斯主义，这是复古论调的集中表现。

Second, they suppressed the development of progressive culture. After the September 18th Incident [n], the Japanese aggressors continued to encroach upon and invade North China, instigating the North China Incident [n]. At the critical moment of national peril, led by the December 9th Movement [n], the cultural circles’ national salvation movement flourished across the country. In December 1935, the Shanghai cultural circles issued the “Manifesto of the Shanghai Cultural Circles’ National Salvation Movement,” established the Shanghai Cultural Circles National Salvation Association, and launched a series of anti-Japanese national salvation and democratic movements. The Kuomintang authorities responded with repressive measures, fabricating the world-shaking “Seven Gentlemen Incident” [n], which was vehemently opposed by patriots. After the full-scale outbreak of the War of Resistance, with the realization of Kuomintang-Communist cooperation, the National Government’s Military Commission restored the Political Department from the Northern Expedition period, under which the Third Bureau was established to be in charge of propaganda and cultural work. The leadership of the Third Bureau fell into the hands of progressive forces under the leadership of the Communist Party, and the cultural movement flourished. However, after the fall of Wuhan, the National Government became passive in resisting Japan and adopted control measures against progressive culture. In February 1941, the National Government established the Central Cultural Movement Committee, strengthening cultural despotism, persecuting progressive newspapers and periodicals, and tightening control over public opinion. Many newspapers and periodicals promoting resistance against Japan and progress were banned, and cultural figures who persisted in struggle were persecuted, such as Zou Taofen, who was forced to flee to Hong Kong.

二是压制进步文化发展。九一八事变后，日本侵略者继续蚕食和侵犯华北地区，策动华北事变。在民族危亡的紧急关头，以一二九运动为先导，文化界救国运动在全国各地蓬勃发展。1935年12月，上海文化界发出《上海文化界救国运动宣言》，成立上海文化界救国会，开展了一系列抗日救亡民主运动。国民党当局对此采取了镇压手段，制造了震惊中外的“七君子”事件，遭到了爱国人士的极力反对。全面抗战爆发后，随着国共合作的实现，国民政府军事委员会恢复北伐战争时期的政治部，下设第三厅主管宣传文化工作，第三厅的领导权掌握在共产党领导下的进步力量手中，文化运动得到蓬勃发展。但武汉失守后，国民政府消极抗战，对进步文化采取了控制措施。1941年2月，国民政府成立中央文化运动委员会，加强文化专制，迫害进步报刊，加强舆论管控，许多宣传抗日、宣传进步的报刊被查禁，坚持斗争的文化人士被迫害，如邹韬奋被迫出走香港。

Third, attacking and slandering Marxism. During the War of Resistance against Japan, the die-hard Kuomintang faction reinterpreted Sun Yat-sen’s “Three Principles of the People,” put forward the so-called “philosophy of action,” promoted the Confucianization of the “Three Principles of the People,” and ideologically attacked the Chinese Communist Party. In February 1937, although the Kuomintang’s Fifth Plenary Session of the Third Central Executive Committee accepted the Communist Party’s proposal for cooperation between the two parties in the war of resistance, it still had not fundamentally abandoned its anti-Communist stance. In January 1939, the Kuomintang’s Fifth Plenary Session of the Fifth Central Executive Committee explicitly formulated an anti-Communist policy, established an “Anti-Communist Committee,” and vainly attempted to use the “Three Principles of the People” to dissolve communism. Thereafter, the anti-Communist theorists of the Kuomintang die-hard faction compiled numerous anti-Communist writings. For example, Ye Qing distorted “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context,” arguing that adapting Marxism to the Chinese context meant decomposing Marxism according to Chinese laws, thereby eliminating Marxism’s original characteristics: “After Marxism is adapted to the Chinese context, on the one hand little remains, on the other hand it loses its distinctive features; it can be said to be completely unrecognizable.” [2]2 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 707. They clamored that Marxism was unsuitable for China and attempted to use the “Three Principles of the People” to unify the thinking of the entire nation.

三是攻击污蔑马克思主义。在抗日战争时期，国民党顽固派重释孙中山的“三民主义”，提出所谓“力行哲学”，推动“三民主义”儒家化，并在思想上攻击中国共产党。1937年2月，国民党的五届三中全会虽然接受了共产党提出的国共两党合作抗日的主张，但仍没有从根本上放弃反共立场。1939年1月，国民党的五届五中全会明确制定反共政策，成立“防共委员会”，妄图借“三民主义”之手消融共产主义。此后，国民党顽固派的反共理论家编写了众多反共论著，如叶青就对“马克思主义中国化”进行歪曲，认为马克思主义中国化是根据中国的法则分解马克思主义，从而消弭了马克思主义的原有特性，“马克思主义在中国化后，一方面所剩无几，一方面失掉特征，可说面目全非了”，叫嚣马克思主义不适合中国，试图用“三民主义”统一全国人民思想。

3. The Chinese Communist Party’s Cultural Awakening

3.中国共产党的文化觉醒

The Chinese Communist Party is a party with a high degree of cultural consciousness. During the New Culture Movement, early Communists pointed out that “creating culture is a great responsibility of a nation, a difficult undertaking, and requires unremitting effort.” In the early period of the Party’s founding, the Chinese Communist Party strove to build a proletarian mass culture, carrying out a profound critique of the feudal patriarchal system, and believed that “to fundamentally eliminate feudal culture, to ensure the continuous emergence of revolutionary talent, and to democratize popular knowledge,” it was necessary to “build a revolutionary culture.” During the War of Resistance against Japan, in the process of criticizing old culture, the Party’s cultural awareness further awakened, and its understanding of the necessity of cultural construction deepened, recognizing that cultural construction played a special and important role in winning the war of resistance.

中国共产党是一个具有高度文化自觉的政党。在新文化运动时期，早期共产党人就指出“创造文化，本是一民族重大的责任，艰难的事业，必须有不断的努力”。在中国共产党成立初期，中国共产党力图建设无产阶级的大众文化，对封建宗法制度进行深刻批判，认为“要使封建文化之根本消灭，革命的建设的人才之层出不穷，民众知识之民主化”，非“建设革命文化不可”。在抗日战争时期，党在批判旧文化中，文化意识进一步觉醒，对文化建设的必要性认识更加深刻，认为文化建设对于赢得抗战胜利具有特殊而重要的作用。

First, the awakening of cultural subject consciousness. During the war of resistance, in the face of the Japanese aggressors’ fascist view of history, Marxist historian Lü Zhenyu successively wrote articles such as “The Japanese Fascist View of Chinese History and the Three Principles of the People’s Chinese Revolution” and “The ‘Asiatic Mode of Production’ and the So-Called ‘Stagnation’ of Chinese Society,” while Hua Gang’s “A Critique of the Aggressionist View of Chinese History” collectively refuted the violent historical views of Japanese fascist literati. In the face of the Kuomintang die-hard faction’s cultural authoritarianism, Communists met it head-on, insisting on combining ideological debate with theoretical innovation, and launched a debate on the “Three Principles of the People.” Zhang Wentian’s “Upholding the True Three Principles of the People and Opposing the False Three Principles of the People,” Wang Jiaxiang’s “On the Three Principles of the People and Communism,” Ai Siqi’s “Understanding of the Three Principles of the People,” and Wu Liping’s “Ye Qing’s False Three Principles of the People Is Nothing but Eliminationism” systematically refuted the clichés of the Kuomintang reactionary literati, clarified the internal relationship between the Three Principles of the People and communism, and explained the rationality and development process of Marxism adapted to the Chinese context.

一是文化主体意识的觉醒。在抗战时期，面对日本侵略者的法西斯史观，马克思主义史学家吕振羽先后撰写的《日本法西斯的中国历史观与三民主义的中国革命》《“亚细亚生产方式”和所谓中国社会的“停滞性”问题》等文章、华岗的《评侵略主义的中国历史观》集中批驳了日本法西斯文人的暴力史观。面对国民党顽固派的文化专制主义，共产党人针锋相对，坚持把思想论战与理论创新相结合，发起“三民主义”论战，张闻天的《拥护真三民主义反对假三民主义》、王稼祥的《关于三民主义与共产主义》、艾思奇的《关于三民主义的认识》、吴黎平的《叶青的假三民主义就是取消主义》等文章，系统批驳了国民党反动文人的陈词滥调，厘清了三民主义与共产主义的内在联系，阐释了中国化马克思主义的合理性及其发展历程。

Moreover, during the War of Resistance against Japan, the Party’s attitude toward Marxism underwent a transformation from dogmatism to concretization and adaptation to the Chinese context, and its attitude toward traditional culture underwent a transformation from fierce attack to critical inheritance. During this period, “our Party has been consolidated and strengthened through the struggle on two fronts.” The Party deeply recognized that Communists were “not ‘holy believers’ who talk abstractly about communist principles.” This was prominently manifested in the formation of the consciousness of “adaptation to the Chinese context.” For example, Hu Sheng emphasized, “Using concrete Chinese facts to elucidate theory—this should be the other side of the meaning of so-called ‘adaptation to the Chinese context.’” Ji Wenfu made a profound exploration of “adaptation to the Chinese context,” pointing out that “so-called ‘adaptation to the Chinese context’ is fusion, not piecing together; it is combination, not mixing; it is thoroughgoing, from top to bottom, not fragmented and patched up.” Ai Siqi even put forward the task of “the adaptation of philosophy to the Chinese context.” Hou Wailu, Pan Zinian, and others raised the banner of “the adaptation of scholarship to the Chinese context.” These explorations and discussions played a positive role in boosting national self-confidence and also provided the historical context for the proposal of “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context.”

不仅如此，在抗日战争时期，党对待马克思主义的态度实现了从教条主义到具体化、中国化的转变，对传统文化经历了从猛烈抨击到批判继承的转变。这一时期，“我们的党已经从两条战线斗争中巩固和壮大起来”。党深刻认识到，共产党员“不是空谈抽象的共产主义原则的‘圣洁的教徒’”。这突出表现在“中国化”意识的形成上。如胡绳强调，“用现实的中国的具体事实来阐明理论，这应该是所谓‘中国化’的意义的另一面”。嵇文甫对“中国化”作出了深刻探讨，指出“所谓‘中国化’，是融化不是拼凑，是化合不是混合，是彻头彻尾，彻上彻下的，不是割裂补缀的”艾思奇更是提出了“哲学中国化”的任务。侯外庐、潘梓年等举起“学术中国化”的旗帜。这些探索和讨论，对于提振民族自信心具有积极作用，也为“马克思主义中国化”的提出提供了历史语境。

Second, the conscious promotion of fine traditional Chinese culture. In May 1938, the Cultural Circles National Salvation Association of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region publicly stated, “Chinese culture, like our nation itself, is encountering an unprecedented great calamity,” and that the new cultural construction “must not only ‘open up the future,’ but also ‘carry on the past.’” During this period, Chinese Communists recognized that tradition could neither be fully inherited nor completely negated: “New culture does not fall from the sky as some strange thing, but is a higher development of past human culture,” and it must be critically inherited using Marxist methods. At a time of national crisis, the Chinese people should even more so promote the traditional spirit of patriotism: “We should use all the great deeds and figures in China’s past history to propagate the greatness of the Chinese nation, so as to foster national self-respect.” During this period, Fan Wenlan’s *Da Zhangfu* (Great Men) [3]3 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 705. collected the patriotic deeds of national heroes, and Guo Moruo’s historical play *The Flower of the Tangdi Tree* [4]4 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 708. depicted the lofty spirit of Nie Zheng and his sister sacrificing themselves for the national interest, playing a role in consolidating the national spirit and inspiring the determination to resist Japan.

二是对中华优秀传统文化的自觉发扬。1938年5月，陕甘宁边区文化界救亡协会公开指出，“中国文化正如自己民族一样，是遭逢着旷古未有的大灾难”，新的文化建设“不但要‘开来’，而且是要‘继往’的”。这一时期，中国共产党人认识到对传统既不能全面继承，更不应该全盘否定，“新文化不是从天上掉下来的奇怪的东西，而是过去人类文化的更高的发展”，要以马克思主义的方法加以批判继承。在民族危亡之际，中国人民更要发扬传统爱国主义精神，“应该利用中华民族过去历史上一切伟大的事迹与人物，宣传中华民族的伟大，以造成民族自尊心”。这一时期，范文澜编写的《大丈夫》收录民族英雄的爱国事迹，郭沫若创作的历史剧《棠棣之花》展现聂政姐弟为了国家利益自我牺牲的崇高精神，为凝聚民族精神、激励抗战决心发挥了作用。

Third, a highly conscious understanding of the importance of cultural construction. During the War of Resistance against Japan, Mao Zedong pointed out that “culture is indispensable; no society can be built without culture.” On the one hand, cultural construction was an important component of the great war of resistance. “The long and extensive War of Resistance against Japan is a war of interlocking military, political, economic, and cultural aspects.” For example, the Taihang Military Region emphasized in its operations that “it is also necessary, in cultural construction, to enhance the self-confidence and self-respect of the military and civilian population in the war of resistance, especially their combativeness and tenacity, and to expose the enemy’s enslavement and deception.” Resisting the policy of enslavement, strengthening confidence in the war of resistance, and enhancing the confidence in victory were important links in the anti-Japanese struggle and also important contents of cultural construction. On the other hand, cultural construction was a necessary step to lead the direction of cultural progress. During the war of resistance, cultural and ideological trends were diverse and colorful: New Confucianism, New Confucianism (in a different sense), New Philosophy of Mind, the Zhanguoce School, [5]5 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 708. “Vitalism” and the “Philosophy of Action” engaged in fierce debates around the issues of personal survival and national salvation. How to lead the progressive direction of cultural development became an important issue for the Chinese Communist Party in leading cultural construction. During this period, the Party insisted on taking Marxism as its guide, and in the process of promoting the integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the fine traditional Chinese culture, it created the theory of New Democratic culture, leading the direction of cultural development.

三是对文化建设的重要性有了高度自觉的认识。在抗日战争时期，毛泽东就指出“文化是不可少的，任何社会没有文化就建设不起来”。一方面，文化建设是伟大抗战斗争的重要组成部分。“长期而又广大的抗日战争，是军事、政治、经济、文化各方面犬牙交错的战争”，如太行军区在作战中强调，“还要在文化建设上，提高抗战军民的自信心、自尊心，尤其是斗争性与顽强性，并揭穿敌人的奴化欺骗”。抵御奴化政策，坚定抗战信心，增强胜利底气，是抗日斗争的重要一环，也是文化建设的重要内容。另一方面，文化建设是引领文化进步方向的必要之举。抗战时期的文化思想异彩纷呈，新理学、新儒学、新心学、战国策派、“唯生论”与“力行哲学”等围绕着人生出路与救国道路展开激烈论争。如何引领文化发展的进步方向，成为中国共产党领导文化建设的重要课题。这一时期，党坚持以马克思主义为指导，在推动马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合的过程中，创立了新民主主义文化理论，引领了文化发展方向。

II. The Practical Path of the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership in Cultural Construction during the War of Resistance against Japan

二、抗日战争时期中国共产党领导文化建设的实践路径

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Party gradually established the development direction of Chinese culture, built its own cultural contingent, explored the construction of philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics, formed a literary and artistic policy oriented toward the masses, developed anti-Japanese cultural education, and provided a powerful spiritual force for the victory of the war of resistance.

抗日战争时期，党逐步确立了中华文化的发展方向，打造了自己的文化队伍，探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学，形成了面向大众的文艺方针，发展了抗日文化教育，为抗战胜利提供了强大的精神力量。

1. Raising High the Banner of New Democratic Culture and Establishing the Basic Direction of Cultural Construction

1.高举新民主主义文化旗帜，确立文化建设的基本方向

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the national crisis intensified daily. Regarding the question of where Chinese culture should go, different views emerged in society: some advocated holding fast, insisting on the theory of a Chinese standard, and promoting cultural restoration; others advocated elimination, insisting on the theory of a Western center, and proposing wholesale Westernization. In response, on the basis of summing up historical experience, Chinese Communists proposed building a “new culture of the Chinese nation,” holding that “a national, scientific, and mass culture is the culture of the people’s masses against imperialism and feudalism; it is the New Democratic culture,” thereby pointing out the development direction of cultural construction.

抗日战争时期，民族危机日益加剧，关于中华文化该何去何从的问题，当时社会上出现不同主张：有的主张固守，坚持中国本位论，提倡文化复古；有的主张革除，坚持西方中心论，提出全盘西化。对此，中国共产党人在总结历史经验的基础上，提出要建设“中华民族的新文化”，认为“民族的科学的大众的文化，就是人民大众反帝反封建的文化，就是新民主主义的文化”，指明了文化建设的发展方向。

National character is the subjective dimension of cultural construction. During the War of Resistance against Japan, national contradiction was the principal contradiction in Chinese society, and therefore the core task of cultural construction was “to oppose imperialist oppression and to assert the dignity and independence of the Chinese nation.” [1]1 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy” (January 1940), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2, p. 706. Adhering to national character meant, on the one hand, developing a “revolutionary national culture,” resolutely eliminating imperialist enslavement and oppression, and insisting on “putting resistance first, opposing imperialism, opposing national oppression, advocating national independence and liberation, and promoting national self-confidence”; on the other hand, it meant treating foreign culture dialectically, adhering to the cultural development approach of “taking the essence and discarding the dross,” absorbing advanced foreign culture with an open and inclusive attitude, integrating it with national characteristics, and continuously consolidating cultural subjectivity.

民族性是文化建设的主体向度。抗日战争时期，民族矛盾是中国社会的主要矛盾，因而文化建设的核心任务“是反对帝国主义压迫，主张中华民族的尊严和独立”。坚持民族性，一方面是要发展“革命的民族文化”，坚决革除帝国主义的奴役和压迫，坚持“抗日第一、反帝、反抗民族压迫，主张民族独立与解放，提倡民族的自信心”；另一方面是要辩证对待外来文化，坚持“取其精华，去其糟粕”的文化发展理路，以开放包容的心态吸收外来先进文化，使之与民族特点相结合，不断巩固文化主体性。

Scientific character is the intellectual dimension of cultural construction. “It is opposed to all feudal and superstitious ideas; it advocates seeking truth from facts, objective truth, and the unity of theory and practice.” [2]2 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 707. Adhering to scientific character meant, on the one hand, the scientific character of the guiding ideology, that is, taking communism as the guide. “As the guiding principle of the national culture, the communist ideology occupies the leading position.” [3]3 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 705. Adhering to the guidance of communist ideology in the construction of New Democratic culture was not only an inevitable choice for breaking out of the path dependence of “learning from the West” and changing the passive situation, but also an inevitable requirement for manifesting the value of Chinese culture itself and raising cultural horizons. On the other hand, it meant the scientific character of methods and principles, that is, conducting a comprehensive sorting and evaluation of ancient culture. “Critically accept China’s long tradition, inherit the good traditions, and discard the bad ones,” [4]4 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 708. adhere to the dialectics of history, discard the decadent factors in traditional culture that are unsuitable for the development of the times, optimize the value orientation of traditional culture, remove the rigid factors that suppress vitality, and restore the innovative essence of Chinese culture.

科学性是文化建设的思维向度。“它是反对一切封建思想和迷信思想，主张实事求是，主张客观真理，主张理论和实践一致的。”坚持科学性，一方面是指导思想的科学性，即以共产主义思想为指导。“当作国民文化的方针来说，居于指导地位的是共产主义的思想”。在新民主主义文化建设中坚持共产主义思想指导，这既是跳出“向西方学习”的路径依赖，改变被动境遇的必然选择，也是彰显中华文化自身价值、提升文化眼界的必然要求。另一方面是方法原则的科学性，即对古代文化进行全面清理和评估。“批判地接收中国长期的传统，继承那些好的传统，而抛弃那些坏的传统”，坚持历史的辩证法，摒弃传统文化中不适应时代发展的腐朽因子，优化传统文化的价值取向，祛除压制活力的固化因素，还原中华文化的创新本质。

Mass character is the value dimension of cultural construction. Cultural construction “should serve the more than 90 percent of the working and laboring masses of the whole nation and gradually become their culture.” [5]5 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” p. 708. The practice of the masses is the living source of culture; only a culture rooted in the people can stand firm and go far. Adhering to mass character meant, on the one hand, upholding the fundamental stance of cultural construction serving the people, reflecting the real life of the people, insisting on the people’s songs and fine arts, insisting on the dialectical unity of raising standards and popularizing, combining “highbrow art” (阳春白雪) with “popular art” (下里巴人), and developing the people’s culture. On the other hand, it meant establishing a revolutionary cultural front, arming the people with revolutionary culture, enabling the masses to participate in cultural construction, and achieving spiritual independence and self-reliance.

大众性是文化建设的价值向度。文化建设“应为全民族中百分之九十以上的工农劳苦民众服务，并逐渐成为他们的文化”。人民群众的实践是文化的活的源泉，只有扎根于人民的文化，才能立得住、走得远。坚持大众性，一方面就是坚持文化建设为人民服务的根本立场，反映人民现实生活，坚持群众的歌唱和美术，坚持提高与普及的辩证统一，“阳春白雪”与“下里巴人”相结合，发展人民的文化。另一方面，建立革命文化战线，用革命文化武装人民，使人民群众参与到文化建设中，实现精神上的独立自主。

The proposal of New Democratic culture marked the Party’s mature understanding of cultural construction, signifying that the Party thought about and viewed tradition and modernity in a dialectical manner, and made foreign culture a part of local culture through integration, thereby achieving a new development of cultural theory. Among these, the cultural attitudes of “national” and “scientific” focused on solving the problem of “old bottles” and “new wine,” while “mass” culture advocated the unity of the people’s character and class character, highlighting the value stance of culture, which was also the distinctive quality of New Democratic culture.

新民主主义文化的提出，标志着党对文化建设的认识走向成熟，意味着党以辩证的方式思考和看待传统与现代，并以融合的方式使异域文化成为本土文化的一部分，从而实现了文化理论的新发展。其中，“民族的”与“科学的”文化态度，着力解决了“旧瓶”与“新酒”的问题，“大众的”文化，则是主张人民性与阶级性的统一，凸显了文化的价值立场，这也是新民主主义文化的特质所在。

2. Forging a “cultural army” to provide talent support for cultural construction

2.打造“文化的军队”，为文化建设提供人才支撑

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Chinese Communist Party attached great importance to talent work. Mao Zedong pointed out, “To defeat the enemy, we must first rely on the army that carries guns. But having only such an army is not enough; we also need a cultural army, which is an indispensable army for uniting ourselves and defeating the enemy.” [6]6 Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art” (May 1942), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 3, p. 847. To forge its own “cultural army,” the Party timely adjusted its policy toward intellectuals, united cultural figures, established a united front in cultural work, organized various cultural groups, and united all cultural forces for resistance, providing talent support for cultural construction.

抗日战争时期，中国共产党高度重视人才工作。毛泽东指出，“我们要战胜敌人，首先要依靠手里拿枪的军队。但是仅仅有这种军队是不够的，我们还要有文化的军队，这是团结自己、战胜敌人必不可少的一支军队”。为打造自己的“文化的军队”，党适时调整知识分子政策，团结文化人，建立文化工作中的统一战线，组建各种文化团体，联合一切文化抗战力量，为文化建设提供了人才支撑。

First, the Party attached great importance to work with intellectuals. During the War of Resistance, Chinese intellectuals, bearing the academic mission of saving the nation through resistance, came to Yan’an. Absorbing, organizing, and using cultural figures was an important task for the Party in the cultural field. To this end, the Party adopted the decision “On Absorbing Large Numbers of Intellectuals,” pointing out that “in the long and cruel national liberation war, in the great struggle to build a new China, the Communist Party must be good at absorbing intellectuals in order to organize a great force for resistance.” [7]7 Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, “On Absorbing Large Numbers of Intellectuals” (December 1939), *Selected Documents of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party*, Vol. 12, p. 198. Moreover, the Party advocated caring for cultural figures in their daily lives and helping them politically. Under conditions of material shortage in the border regions, the Party successively formulated and promulgated the “Regulations on the Treatment of Cultural and Technical Cadres” and the “Standards for the Treatment of Technical Personnel,” granting cultural figures preferential treatment in daily life. In October 1940, the Party issued the “Directive on Cultural Figures and Cultural Groups in the Anti-Japanese Base Areas,” which further emphasized the need to correct the backward psychology within the Party of despising, detesting, and suspecting cultural figures, to evaluate the works of cultural figures strictly and generously, and “especially for newly arrived and non-Party cultural figures, to adopt more methods of sympathy, guidance, and help to influence their progress, enabling them to approach the masses, approach reality, approach the Communist Party, respect revolutionary order, and obey revolutionary discipline.” [8]8 Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, “Directive on Cultural Figures and Cultural Groups in the Anti-Japanese Base Areas” (October 1940), *Selected Documents of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party*, Vol. 12, p. 487. The Party also focused on guiding cultural figures to integrate with the workers and peasants, guiding them to actively participate in the fiery struggle, and striving to cultivate “new cultural figures.”

一是党高度重视知识分子工作。抗战时期，中国的知识分子怀抱抗战救国的学术使命，来到延安。吸收、组织和使用文化人，是党在文化领域的一项重要任务。为此，党通过了《大量吸收知识分子》的决定，指出“在长期的和残酷的民族解放战争中，在建立新中国的伟大斗争中，共产党必须善于吸收知识分子，才能组织伟大的抗战力量”。不仅如此，党主张在生活上关心、政治上帮助文化人。在边区物资短缺的条件下，党先后制定颁布了《文化技术干部待遇条例》和《技术人员待遇标准》，对文化人给予生活上的优待。1940年10月，党发布《关于各抗日根据地文化人与文化团体的指示》，更是强调要纠正党内轻视、厌恶、猜疑文化人的落后心理，要严正、宽大评价文化人的作品，“特别对于新来的及非党的文化人，应更多的采取同情、诱导、帮助的方式去影响他们进步，使他们接近大众、接近现实、接近共产党、尊重革命秩序、服从革命纪律”。党也注重引导文化人与工农群众相结合，引导文化人积极投身火热的斗争之中，着力培养“新的文化人”。

Second, a broad anti-Japanese cultural united front was established. The united front in the anti-Japanese national cultural movement referred to a united front led by the Chinese Communist Party, with the Party’s cultural workers as the main force, uniting and allying with progressive cultural figures to jointly oppose Japanese imperialism, national capitulationism, and dark restorationism. After the outbreak of the full-scale War of Resistance, on March 15, 1938, the *New China Daily* (新中华报) called for “establishing a national cultural united front,” proposing to “urgently convene representative conferences of cultural salvation groups from all over the country and formally establish a national ‘Cultural Association’ (文协) general assembly,” arguing that establishing a cultural united front would help form a cultural center, strengthen cultural ties across regions, systematically participate in international cultural activities, and promote cultural salvation work. On April 28, 1938, in his speech at the Lu Xun Academy of Arts, Mao Zedong pointed out that “for the sake of jointly resisting Japan, a united front is also needed in the art world,” emphasizing that “each school in art has its own class stance; we stand on the side of the proletariat and the laboring masses, but under the principle of the united front, we do not use Marxism to exclude others,” [9]9 Mao Zedong, “Speech at the Lu Xun Academy of Arts” (April 28, 1938), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2, p. 122. opposing cultural sectarianism and establishing the basic principles of the cultural united front.

二是建立广泛的抗日文化统一战线。抗日民族文化运动中的统一战线，是指在中国共产党领导下的，以党的文化工作者为主体力量，以团结联合进步文化人士，共同反对日本帝国主义、民族投降主义和黑暗复古主义的联合阵线。全面抗战爆发后，1938年3月15日，《新中华报》呼吁“确立全国文化界统一战线”，提议“赶紧召集各地文化界救亡团体代表大会，正式成立全国‘文协’总会”，认为建立文化界的统一战线有利于形成文化中心，加紧各地文化联系，可以有系统地参加国际文化活动，推动文化救亡工作。1938年4月28日，毛泽东在鲁迅艺术学院的讲话中指出，“为了共同抗日在艺术界也需要统一战线”，强调“艺术上每一派都有自己的阶级立场，我们是站在无产阶级劳苦大众方面的，但在统一战线原则之下，我们并不用马克思主义来排斥别人”，反对文化关门主义，确立了文化统一战线的基本原则。

Third, leading the establishment of various cultural organizations. Cultural organizations were an important vehicle for building a cultural united front. In November 1936, the Party established the Chinese Literary and Art Association in northern Shaanxi, the first literary and art organization led by the Party during the War of Resistance. Mao Zedong pointed out at the founding meeting, “Now we need not only the military, but also the cultural; we must be proficient in both the pen and the sword,” emphasizing that “we must use the cultural front to educate and mobilize the whole nation for united resistance against Japan.” Subsequently, organizations such as the People’s Anti-Japanese Drama Society, the Northwest Battlefield Service Corps, the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region Cultural Circles National Salvation Association (which included the Social Science Research Society, the War Song Society, the Haiyan Society, the Music Circles National Salvation Association, the Literary and Artistic Assault Society, the Poetry Association, the Theatre Circles Anti-Japanese United Association, etc.), and the military art troupe the Beacon Fire Drama Troupe were successively established. These cultural organizations took root in the border regions to carry out literary and artistic propaganda, playing an important role in boosting the morale of the anti-Japanese army and civilians. In addition, in the Kuomintang-controlled areas and the occupied areas, the Party also emphasized strengthening the construction of cultural organizations, requiring that “propaganda departments at all levels must constantly pay attention to leading the cultural movement, actively participate in cultural movements in all areas, and strive to gain influence over various cultural organizations and institutions, especially over various cultural work groups.” On March 27, 1938, under the Party’s leadership, the All-China Literary and Art Circles Anti-Japanese Association was established in Hankou, an important organizational body for the Party to carry out cultural work in the Kuomintang-controlled areas. The association held high the banner of “resisting Japan to save the nation,” demanding internally “to create a nationwide serious anti-war sentiment and life for the entire nation, in order to sustain prolonged resistance and strive for final victory,” and externally “to expose Japan’s ambitions and atrocities, arousing the sense of justice of all humanity to jointly sanction the aggressors,” advocating that “we must follow the national policy of resisting to the end and widely instill the determination to resist the enemy and eliminate violence among the common people.” Subsequently, the association established branches in Kunming, Chengdu, Hong Kong, Yan’an, Guilin, and other places, broadly uniting patriotic cultural figures and actively carrying out anti-Japanese national salvation cultural activities. Under the Party’s leadership, these cultural organizations demonstrated unprecedented organizational capacity and cohesion.

三是领导建立各种文化团体。文化团体是建立文化统一战线的重要载体。1936年11月，党在陕北成立了中国文艺协会，这是党在抗战时期领导建立的第一个文艺团体。毛泽东在成立大会上指出，“现在我们不但要武的，我们也要文的了，我们要文武双全”，强调“从文的方面去宣传教育全国民众团结抗日”。随后，人民抗日剧社、西北战地服务团、陕甘宁边区文化界救亡协会（包括社会科学研究会、战歌社、海燕社、音乐界救亡协会、文艺突击社、诗歌总会、戏剧界抗战联合总会等）和部队艺术团体烽火剧团等相继成立。这些文化团体扎根边区进行文艺宣传，为鼓舞抗战军民士气发挥了重要作用。此外，在国统区和沦陷区，党也注重加强文化团体建设，要求“各级宣传部必须经常注意对于文化运动的领导，积极参加各方面的文化运动，争取对于各种文化团体与机关的影响，特别对于各种文化工作团”。1938年3月27日，在党的领导下，中华全国文艺界抗敌协会在汉口成立，这是党在国统区开展文化工作的重要组织团体。该协会高举“抗战救国”的旗号，要求对内“造成全民族严肃的抗战情绪生活，以求持久的抵抗，争取最后胜利”，对外“揭露日本的野心与暴行，引起全人类的正义感，以共同制裁侵略者”，主张“必须沿着抗战到底的国策，把抗敌除暴的决心普遍的打入民间”。随后该协会在昆明、成都、香港、延安、桂林等地建立了分会，广泛团结爱国文化人士，积极开展抗日救亡文化活动。这些文化团体在党的领导下展现出了前所未有的组织力和凝聚力。

3. Promoting the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context, and exploring the construction of a philosophy and social science with Chinese characteristics

3.推动马克思主义中国化，探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Chinese Communist Party placed great emphasis on philosophy and social science work. Mao Zedong pointed out: “For people to gain freedom in society, they must use social science to understand society, transform society, and carry out social revolution.” The Party promoted the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context, using Marxist positions, viewpoints, and methods to summarize the experience of the Chinese revolution, critically absorb historical legacies, organize research on Chinese history and reality, and initially explore the construction of a philosophy and social science with Chinese characteristics.

抗日战争时期，中国共产党十分注重哲学社会科学工作。毛泽东指出：“人们为着要在社会上得到自由，就要用社会科学了解社会，改造社会，进行社会革命。”党推动马克思主义中国化，用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法总结中国革命经验，批判吸收历史遗产，组织研究中国历史与现实，初步探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学。

First, adhering to the guidance of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context, “to make the rich reality of the Chinese revolution Marxist.” The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, used Marxism as a “telescope” and “microscope” to observe China, analyze the reality of the Chinese revolution, analyze the principal contradictions in Chinese society, grasp the laws of the Chinese revolution, explore a revolutionary path suited to China’s actual conditions, theorize Chinese experience, and create a Chinese Marxism. The New Democracy theory formed by the Party during this period was a major theoretical achievement of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. Moreover, in the military field, Mao Zedong, applying dialectical materialism and historical materialism and basing himself on various actual conditions, wrote *Problems of Strategy in China’s Revolutionary War* and *On Protracted War*, greatly enriching Marxist military theory. In the field of Party building, the Party emphasized ideological Party building, creating a form of resolving inner-Party contradictions through criticism and self-criticism; creatively combining the Marxist theory of Party spirit with the cultivation theory of fine traditional Chinese culture to form the Chinese Communist Party’s theory of Party spirit cultivation; and creatively applying democratic centralism to maintain Party unity and centralized, unified leadership, establishing a Sinicized Marxist theory of Party building.

一是坚持以马克思主义中国化为指导，“使中国革命丰富的实际马克思主义化”。以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人，运用马克思主义作为观察中国的“望远镜”和“显微镜”，剖析中国革命现实，分析中国社会主要矛盾，把握中国革命规律，探索符合中国实际的革命道路，使中国经验理论化，创立了中国的马克思主义。这一时期党形成的新民主主义理论是马克思主义中国化的重大理论成果。不仅如此，在军事方面，毛泽东运用辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义，立足各种现实条件，写就了《中国革命战争的战略问题》和《论持久战》，极大丰富了马克思主义军事理论。在党的建设领域，党注重思想建党，创造了用批评和自我批评解决党内矛盾的形式；创造性地将马克思主义党性学说与中华优秀传统文化的修养学说相结合，形成了中国共产党的党性修养理论；创造性地运用民主集中制维护党的团结和集中统一领导，建立了中国化马克思主义党建理论。

Second, adhering to taking China as the center, using Marxism to guide the development of Chinese scholarship, to “make China’s various academic disciplines Marxist and scientific.” During this period, in the process of promoting the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context, the Party constructed and formed a Marxist philosophy, historiography, economics, and literature with a distinct Chinese style. In philosophy, especially traditional Chinese philosophy, Mao Zedong advocated “subjecting it to a critique based on historical materialism, placing it in its proper position,” and activating its vibrant and excellent elements. For example, regarding Confucius’s thought, Mao Zedong believed that “Confucius’s system is idealism,” yet he found elements of materialist dialectics within it. Regarding Mozi’s thought, Mao Zedong believed that excavating Mozi’s philosophical thought was “finding China’s Heraclitus.” In the critique of classical studies, Fan Wenlan’s *The Evolution of the History of Chinese Classical Studies* adhered to the policy of “making the past serve the present,” using Marxism to reassess the value of traditional classical studies. Mao Zedong highly praised this, stating that “using Marxism to critique classical studies is the first time this has been done.” In historiography, Fan Wenlan’s *A Concise History of China* was a pioneering general history work that, under the guidance of Marxism, used class analysis to elucidate the history of class struggle in China. As Fan pointed out, “The Chinese Communist Party bears the great task of creating a new China, and also bears the inheritance and development of the excellent parts of Chinese culture. The study of Chinese history is precisely one of the tasks we cannot shirk.” In addition, Guo Moruo’s *The Bronze Age* and *Ten Critiques*, and Jian Bozan’s *Outline of Chinese History* adhered to the study of Chinese history using historical materialism and were representative works of the new Marxist historiography. In Marxist political economy, there were Wang Yanan’s *Original Theory of the Chinese Economy*, Xu Dixin’s *On the New Democratic Economy*, Xue Muqiao’s *Common Knowledge of China’s Rural Economy*, and others. These works adhered to the integration of Marxist political economy with China’s concrete reality, focused on explaining the economic policies of the border regions, and initially formed a relatively systematic theoretical system on China’s economic issues. In literature, there were Zhou Yang’s edited volume *Marxism and Literature and Art*, Ouyang Shan’s organized compilation *Outline of the History of Modern Chinese Literature*, Mao Dun’s *On How to Learn the National Form of Literature: A Speech at the Yan’an Literary Groups Meeting*, and others. These theoretical works adhered to applying Marxist literary and art theory to literary creation, forming a Marxist literature with a Chinese style.

二是坚持以中国为中心，用马克思主义来指导中国学术的发展，使“中国各门学术马列主义科学化”。这一时期，党在推动马克思主义中国化的进程中，构建形成了具有鲜明中国风格的马克思主义哲学、史学、经济学和文学。在哲学方面，特别是中国传统哲学方面，毛泽东主张“给以历史的唯物论的批判，将其放在恰当的位置”，激活其中富有生命力的优秀因子。如对待孔子的思想，毛泽东认为“孔子的体系是观念论”，在孔子思想中找到了唯物辩证法成分。对待墨子思想，毛泽东认为对墨子哲学思想的发掘，就是“在中国找出赫拉克利特来了”。在清算经学方面，范文澜的《中国经学史的演变》坚持“古为今用”的方针，用马克思主义重估了传统经学的价值，毛泽东对此给予高度评价，认为“用马克思主义清算经学这是头一次”。在史学方面，范文澜的《中国通史简编》是一部在马克思主义指导下运用阶级分析法阐明中国的阶级斗争历史的开创性通史著作，正如他指出的，“中国共产党担负着创造新中国的伟大任务，同时也担负着中国文化优秀部分的继承和发扬。中国历史的研究，正是我们当仁不让的工作之一”。此外，郭沫若的《青铜时代》和《十批判书》、翦伯赞的《中国史纲》等坚持以唯物史观研究中国历史，是马克思主义新史学的代表作。在马克思主义政治经济学方面，有王亚南的《中国经济原论》、许涤新的《新民主主义经济论》、薛暮桥的《中国农村经济常识》等。这些著作坚持马克思主义政治经济学与中国具体实际相结合，着力阐释边区经济政策，初步形成了比较系统的关于中国经济问题的理论体系。在文学方面，有周扬主编的《马克思主义与文艺》、欧阳山组织编写的《中国新文学史纲》、茅盾的《论如何学习文学的民族形式：在延安各文艺小组会上的演说》等。这些理论作品坚持把马克思主义文艺理论应用于文学创作中，形成了具有中国气派的马克思主义文学。

Third, establishing academic research institutions. To carry out organized study and research, the Party led the establishment of a large number of academic research institutions and organizations. In May 1938, the Marx-Lenin Institute (abbreviated as the ML Institute) was established in Yan’an, with a Compilation and Translation Department under it that translated and published the “Collected Works of Marx and Engels” and *Selected Works of Lenin*, providing textual support for theoretical research. In July 1941, the ML Institute was reorganized into the Marx-Lenin Research Institute, later renamed the Central Research Institute, becoming an important academic institution for using Marxist methods to study Chinese history and practical problems. In addition, various academic organizations were actively established and carried out academic activities, among which the most influential was the Yan’an New Philosophy Society. The Yan’an New Philosophy Society took the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context as its research theme and the resistance against Japan and national reconstruction as its practical goal, “in order to give theory more practical guiding force, in research it must not only synthesize the actual experiences and lessons of the current War of Resistance, but also accept all the best theoretical achievements from China and abroad, and promote the most excellent elements of the Chinese national tradition.” Subsequently, academic organizations such as the Yan’an Current Affairs Research Society, the Political Economy Research Society, the History Research Society, the Nationalities Research Society, and the Party Building Research Society were established one after another, effectively integrating academic research forces. During this period, philosophy and social science research under the Party’s leadership presented a scene of flourishing prosperity.

三是组建学术研究机构。为开展有组织的学习与研究，党领导成立了一大批学术研究机构和团体。1938年5月，马克思列宁主义学院（简称马列学院）在延安成立，下设编译部，翻译出版“马克思恩格斯丛书”和《列宁选集》，为理论研究提供了文本支撑。1941年7月，马列学院改组为马列研究院，后又更名为中央研究院，成为用马克思主义方法研究中国历史与现实问题的重要学术机关。此外，各种学术团体也积极成立并开展学术活动，其中影响较大的有延安新哲学会。延安新哲学会以马克思主义中国化为研究主旨，以抗战建国为现实目标，“为着要使理论更有着实际的指导力量，在研究上不但仅仅要综合眼前抗战的实际经验和教训，而且要接受一切中外最好的理论成果，要发扬中国民族传统中最优秀的东西”。随后，延安时事问题研究会、政治经济学研究会、历史研究会、民族问题研究会和党的建设研究会等学术团体纷纷成立，有效整合了学术研究力量。这一时期，党领导下的哲学社会科学研究呈现一派繁荣景象。

4. Advocating the policy of integrating literary and art workers with the workers, peasants, and soldiers, and developing literature and art oriented toward the masses

4.倡导文艺工作者与工农民众相结合的方针，发展面向大众的文艺

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Party placed great emphasis on literary and artistic work, regarding it as an important component of the revolutionary machine. It advocated that literary and artistic workers should integrate with the masses, pointing out that “providing the masses with abundant spiritual nourishment remains a serious task for us today.” [16]16 Mao Zedong, “The Tasks of the Chinese Communist Party in the Period of the War of Resistance against Japan” (May 1937), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2. The original Chinese phrase “精神食粮” (spiritual nourishment) is a common metaphor for cultural and intellectual products. Inspired by this call, a large number of literary and artistic workers actively went deep into the life of the masses, drew creative nourishment, persisted in serving the masses, left their studies, went to the battlefields and the countryside, adopted various forms to carry out propaganda and agitation, and aroused the people’s enthusiasm for the War of Resistance.

抗日战争时期，党高度重视文艺工作，认为文艺是革命机器的重要组成部分，主张文艺工作者要与人民群众相结合，指出“给群众丰裕的精神食粮，还是我们今天的一个严重任务”。在此感召下，广大文艺工作者积极深入群众生活，吸取创作养分，坚持服务群众，走出书斋，走向战地，走向乡村，采取多种形式，开展宣传鼓动，激发民众抗战热情。

First, establishing the policy of integrating literature and art with the masses. During the War of Resistance against Japan, a large number of literary and artistic workers came from the occupied areas or the rear areas to the anti-Japanese base areas under the Party’s leadership. “Moving from the garret to the revolutionary base areas means not only passing through two different regions but also experiencing two different historical eras.” [17]17 Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art” (May 1942), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 3. The “garret” (亭子间) refers to a small, cramped room often rented by poor intellectuals in Shanghai and other cities, symbolizing their isolation from the masses. In the base areas under the Party’s leadership where the people were the masters, the literary and artistic needs of the masses were different from those in the outside world. In this regard, the question of “for whom” literature and art are created was a fundamental issue facing literary and artistic workers. Revolutionary literature and art are, in essence, the art of the masses. Whether one integrates with the workers and peasants was an important criterion for judging whether one was revolutionary: “Those who are willing to and do integrate with the workers and peasants are revolutionary; otherwise, they are non-revolutionary or counter-revolutionary.” [18]18 Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art.” Adhering to the integration of literature and art with the masses first required breaking with bourgeois ideology and transforming into proletarian ideology. Second, it required closely linking with the worker-peasant-soldier masses, learning from them, transforming political feelings for the masses into aesthetic sensibilities, depicting the people from the people’s standpoint, not looking coldly at the people’s shortcomings but actively guiding and encouraging them to advance. Finally, it required adhering to the direction of serving the masses: “The newness or oldness of art is fundamentally determined by whether it can serve the interests of the masses and whether it can serve the masses’ war, production, education, etc.” [19]19 Zhou Yang, “The Task of Literature and Art in the National Liberation War” (1938), in *Selected Works of Zhou Yang on Literature and Art*. Guided by this policy, many literary and artistic workers, heeding the call to “take literature to the countryside and join the army,” went down to the grassroots and among the masses, drew nourishment in the heat of struggle, underwent emotional changes, and became literary and artistic workers of the Party.

一是确立文艺与大众相结合的方针。抗日战争时期，大批文艺工作者从沦陷区或大后方来到党领导下的抗日根据地。“从亭子间到革命根据地，不但是经历了两种地区，而且是经历了两个历史时代”。在党领导下的人民当家作主的根据地，人民群众的文艺需求是与外界不一样的。对此，文艺“为什么人”的问题，是摆在文艺工作者面前的根本性问题。革命文艺，本质上是人民大众的艺术。是否与工农相结合，是判断革命与否的重要标准，“愿意并且实行和工农结合的，是革命的，否则就是不革命的，或者是反革命的”。坚持文艺与大众相结合，首先是要破除资产阶级思想，转变为无产阶级思想。其次是要密切联系工农群众，向工农兵学习，将对大众的政治情感转化为审美情趣，站在人民的立场上描写人民，对人民的缺点不能冷眼旁观，要积极引导，鼓舞人民前进。最后是坚持文艺为大众服务方向，“艺术的新旧，基本上决定于其能否为群众的利益服务，能否为群众的战争、生产、教育等服务”。在这一方针指导下，许多文艺工作者在“文章下乡，文章入伍”的感召下，深入基层，深入群众，在火热的斗争中汲取养分，实现了情感上的变化，成为党的文艺工作者。

Second, drawing on the wisdom of the masses to create high-quality literary and artistic works. After the Party established the policy of popularizing literature and art, literary and artistic workers in various base areas went deep among the masses, drew creative inspiration, and created a number of popular, far-reaching, and high-quality literary and artistic works. For example, in drama and spoken theatre, literary and artistic workers got close to the life of the masses, absorbed elements of folk art, and created works such as *Set Your Sights Further* and *Comrade, You Have Taken the Wrong Path*. Significant achievements were also made in the transformation of traditional opera, such as *Forced to Join the Liangshan Rebels* and *Three Attacks on the Zhu Family Village*. Mao Zedong highly praised these works and, in a letter to the scriptwriters and directors, pointed out: “History is created by the people, yet on the old stage (in all old literature and art that depart from the people), the people were turned into dregs, and the stage was ruled by lords, ladies, young masters, and young ladies. This reversal of history has now been reversed by you, restoring the true face of history, and from then on, old opera has gained a new lease on life.” [20]20 Mao Zedong, “Letter to the Yan’an Peking Opera Theatre” (January 9, 1944), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 3. The letter praised the opera *Forced to Join the Liangshan Rebels* (《逼上梁山》), based on the classic novel *Water Margin*. In fiction, Zhao Shuli’s *The Marriage of Xiao Erhei* and *The Rhymes of Li Youcai* depicted the spiritual history of Chinese peasants—their pain, hardship, joy, and expectations—during the modern revolution, becoming a banner of base area literature. In music, the base areas under the Party’s leadership launched the New Yangge Movement, fully absorbing the melodies of folk songs and local operas, producing works such as *Brother and Sister Reclaim Wasteland*, *Husband and Wife Learn to Read*, and *The White-Haired Girl*, which pioneered the creation of new Chinese opera. In fine arts, woodcuts, prints, and cartoons from various base areas became the “light cavalry” of the War of Resistance literature and art.

二是汲取群众智慧，创造高质量文艺作品。在党确立文艺大众化方向之后，各根据地的文艺工作者纷纷深入群众，汲取创作灵感，创造了一批脍炙人口、影响深远的高质量文艺作品。如在戏剧话剧方面，文艺工作者贴近群众生活，汲取民间艺术元素，创作了诸如《把眼光放远一点》《同志，你走错了路》等作品。传统戏曲的改造也取得重大成就，如《逼上梁山》《三打祝家庄》等，毛泽东高度评价，并在给编导者的信中指出，“历史是人民创造的，但在旧戏舞台上（在一切离开人民的旧文学旧艺术上）人民却成了渣滓，由老爷太太少爷小姐们统治着舞台，这种历史的颠倒，现在由你们再颠倒过来，恢复了历史的面目，从此旧剧开了新生面”。在小说方面，赵树理的《小二黑结婚》和《李有才板话》，描绘了中国农民在现代革命中的痛苦、艰辛并快乐和期待的心灵史，成为根据地文学的一面旗帜。在音乐方面，党领导下的各根据地发起新秧歌运动，充分吸收民歌和地方戏的曲调，涌现出《兄妹开荒》《夫妻识字》《白毛女》等作品，开启了中国新歌剧创作的先河。在美术方面，各根据地的木刻、版画和漫画成为抗战文艺的“轻骑兵”。

Third, maintaining close ties with the masses and carrying out battlefield literary and artistic services. Literary and artistic workers adhered to the unity of popularization and elevation, established various literary and artistic associations, and provided literary and artistic services to the front lines and the masses. In the base areas, the Party focused on the popularization of literature and art, pointing out that “because literary and artistic movements in many base areas in the past have inappropriately emphasized elevation, the current policy in carrying out these two tasks or any other work should particularly emphasize the aspect of popularization.” [21]21 Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art.” Literary and artistic workers edited and published a large number of popular reading materials, such as Liu Yan’s *Street Talks* and Xu Liqun’s *Stories of Chinese History*; promoted popular newspapers and books; and published popular literary and artistic periodicals, such as *Literary Front* and *Mass Literature and Art*, continuously raising the people’s consciousness. In the Kuomintang-controlled areas, the Party turned the Third Department of the Political Department of the National Government’s Military Commission into a united front organization under the Party’s leadership, flexibly and skillfully carrying out cultural work. Under the Party’s leadership, the Third Department successively organized ten Anti-Japanese Drama Troupes and four Anti-Japanese Propaganda Teams, which were dispatched to the front lines of various war zones, strengthening battlefield cultural services. At the founding meeting of the Anti-Japanese Drama Troupes, Zhou Enlai encouraged all members: “The methods and forms of propaganda must suit the tastes of the people. You must do as the locals do, so that the common people will find them pleasing and be happy to see them, and only then can the expected results of propaganda be achieved.” [22]22 Zhou Enlai, speech at the founding meeting of the Anti-Japanese Drama Troupes (August 1938), quoted in *Zhou Enlai and the Arts*. The street plays popular at the time performed by the Anti-Japanese Drama Troupes—*Put Down Your Whip*, *The Good Man of the Three Rivers*, and *The Last Stratagem*—were collectively known as “The Good One Whip” and were deeply popular with the masses. [23]23 “The Good One Whip” (好一计鞭子) is a pun combining the titles of the three plays: *Put Down Your Whip* (《放下你的鞭子》), *The Good Man of the Three Rivers* (《三江好》), and *The Last Stratagem* (《最后一计》). The phrase “好一计鞭子” literally means “a good whip” or “a good trick.” In addition, a large number of literary and artistic workers formed various groups, went deep into the front lines and enemy rear areas, carried out public performances for the War of Resistance, gave consolation performances for wounded soldiers, mobilized for resistance and national salvation, and inspired the will to fight.

三是密切联系群众，开展战地文艺服务。广大文艺工作者坚持普及与提高相统一，成立各种文艺社团，为前线和民众提供文艺服务。在根据地，党着重文艺普及工作，指出“由于过去许多根据地的文艺运动都曾不适当地强调提高，故在执行这两项工作或其他任何工作中，目前的方针都应该特别着重普及方面”。文艺工作者编辑出版一大批通俗读物，如柳湜的《街头讲话》，许立群的《中国史话》；推广通俗书报，出版通俗文艺刊物，如《文艺战线》《大众文艺》等，不断提高人民觉悟。在国统区，党把国民政府军事委员会政治部第三厅建设成党领导下的统一战线机构，灵活巧妙地开展文化工作。在党的领导下，第三厅先后组建了十个抗敌演剧队和四个抗敌宣传队，分赴各个战区的前线，加强了战地文化服务。在抗敌演剧队的成立大会上，周恩来鼓励全体队员：“宣传方法和形式要合民众的口味。你们要入乡随俗，老百姓才能喜闻乐见，才能收到宣传的预期效果。”抗敌演剧队表演的当时流行街头剧《放下你的鞭子》《三江好》《最后一计》，合称为“好一计鞭子”，深受群众欢迎。此外，广大文艺工作者组建各种团体，深入前线和敌后，开展抗日公演，对受伤士兵进行慰问演出，动员抗日救亡，激励抗战斗志。

5. Developing anti-Japanese cultural education to enhance the people’s national self-respect and self-confidence

5.发展抗日的文化教育，增强人民的民族自尊心、自信心

During the War of Resistance against Japan, the Party recognized that “a great war of resistance must be matched by a great movement of resistance education.” [24]24 Mao Zedong, “On the New Stage” (October 1938), *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2. Developing resistance education was the foundational work of the Party’s leadership in cultural development. After the outbreak of the full-scale War of Resistance, the Party adopted the *Ten-Point Program for Resisting Japan and Saving the Nation*, which proposed implementing a new system and new curricula aimed at resisting Japan and saving the nation, initially forming a relatively complete educational system, cultivating a large number of new cultural talents, and greatly strengthening the people’s determination and confidence to fight the war to the end.

抗日战争时期，党认识到“伟大的抗战必须有伟大的抗战教育运动与之相配合”。发展抗战教育是党领导文化建设的基础性工作。全面抗战爆发后，党通过的《抗日救国十大纲领》提出要实行以抗战救国为目标的新制度、新课程，初步形成了较为完整的教育体系，培养了一大批文化新人，极大增强了人民抗战到底的决心和信心。

First, improving the cadre education system. During the War of Resistance against Japan, to accomplish the central task of resisting Japan and building a new state, the Party needed cadres of good quality. The Party put forward the principle of “cadre education first” and established a relatively complete cadre education system, including a system of educational content and a system of educational institutions. In terms of educational content, theoretical education required Party member cadres to systematically study the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism, on this basis to strengthen education on the Party’s ideological line, and to strengthen education on Chinese and foreign history. Political education included both current affairs education, which required Party member cadres to read and discuss important articles and current affairs commentaries in the Party newspaper *Liberation*, and policy education, which used the Party Central Committee’s instructions on strategy, speeches, reports, and articles by leading comrades of the Central Committee, as well as the Party newspaper, as materials for policy education. Cultural education was conducted at different levels according to the different cultural levels of Party member cadres, focusing on knowledge of materialist dialectics, basic literacy and numeracy, and the improvement of scientific knowledge. Professional education included content such as investigation and research, policy implementation, experience summarization, professional knowledge practice, and the application of scientific knowledge. In terms of educational institutions, based on different educational objects, teaching content, and training objectives, the Party established over thirty cadre schools in Yan’an, including the Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party, the Chinese People’s Anti-Japanese Military and Political University, the Marx-Lenin Institute, and the Zedong Youth Cadre School, providing a solid guarantee for carrying out cadre education. [25]25 The Marx-Lenin Institute (马列学院) was a higher education institution for the study of Marxist-Leninist theory, established in Yan’an in 1938. The Zedong Youth Cadre School (泽东青年干部学校) was founded in 1940 to train young cadres. In terms of the educational system, regarding the guidance system, the Party designated propaganda departments at all levels as the guiding bodies for the study movement, and specifically established an advisory group system and a system for relevant responsible comrades to give reports; regarding the guarantee system, the Central Committee formulated a series of guarantee systems, such as systems for funding guarantees, textbook guarantees, and study time guarantees; regarding the inspection system, from May 1939 to May 1940, the Cadre Education Department of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party conducted three major inspections of the study of cadres in office in Yan’an, forming a complete set of plans for the study inspection system and standardizing the conduct of cadre education.

一是完善干部教育体系。抗日战争时期，为完成抗战建国的中心任务，党需要素质良好的干部。党提出了“干部教育第一”的原则，建立了较为完善的干部教育体系，包括教育内容体系和教育机构体系。在教育内容方面，理论教育要求党员干部系统学习马克思列宁主义基本原理，在此基础上加强党的思想路线教育，并加强中外历史的教育。政治教育既有时事教育，要求党员干部必须阅读并讨论党报《解放》的重要论文和时事述评；也有政策教育，将党中央关于策略的指示，中央领导同志的讲演、报告和论文，以及党报等作为政策教育材料。文化教育根据党员干部的不同文化水平分层次进行，注重唯物辩证法知识和读写常识，以及科学知识的提升。业务教育包括调查研究、政策执行、经验总结、业务知识实践和科学知识应用等内容。在教育机构方面，党根据教育对象、教学内容和培养目标不同，在延安创办了中共中央党校、中国人民抗日军政大学、马列学院、泽东青年干部学校等30多所干部学校，为开展干部教育提供了坚实保障。在教育制度体系方面，就指导制度而言，党将各级宣传部作为学习运动的指导机构，专门建立了顾问团制、相关负责同志作报告制度；就保障制度而言，中央制定了一系列保障制度体系，如经费保障、教材保障和学习时间的保障制度；就检查制度而言，自1939年5月至1940年5月，中共中央干部教育部先后对延安在职干部学习进行三次大检查，形成了关于学习检查制度的一整套方案，规范干部教育的开展。

Second, improving school education. In the base areas, the Party, responding to the low starting point of cultural education, established many primary and secondary schools to enrol school-age children. Taking primary schools in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region as an example: in the spring of 1937, before the Border Region was established, there were only 320 primary schools with 5,600 students; by February 1940, the number of primary schools had increased to 902 and the number of students to 26,911. The nature of secondary schools and secondary normal schools in the base areas was that of secondary education under the anti-Japanese national united front and preparatory education for cadres. In terms of educational policy, they insisted on integrating educational content with the War of Resistance and with productive labour, proposing that “attention should be paid to productive labour, such as setting aside a fixed time each week for students to plant melons and vegetables, so as to increase the material resources for the War of Resistance and cultivate the labour habits of children and youth,” making productive labour a political course in school education. Some schools set up production committees responsible for organising students’ productive labour. In higher education and vocational education, the Party established in the base areas such institutions as the Northern Shaanxi Public School, the China Women’s University, Yan’an University, the Lu Xun Academy of Arts and Literature, the China Medical University, the Taihang Industrial School, and the Bethune Health School, using the national spirit to cultivate a new generation, and school education made considerable progress.

二是改进学校教育。党在各根据地针对文化教育起点低的特点，兴办了许多中小学，吸收适龄少年儿童入学。以陕甘宁边区小学为例，1937年春，边区成立之前，仅有小学320所，学生5600名，到1940年2月，小学增加到902所，学生增加到26911名。各根据地中学和中等师范学校的性质是抗日民族统一战线的中学教育和干部准备教育。在教育方针上坚持教育内容与抗战、生产劳动相结合，提出“应注重生产劳动，如每周规定一定时间令学生种瓜种菜等，以增加抗战物力，以养成儿童、青年的劳动习性”，将生产劳动作为学校教育的政治课程。有的学校成立生产委员会，负责组织学生的生产劳动。在高等教育和职业教育方面，党在各根据地筹办陕北公学、中国女子大学、延安大学、鲁迅艺术学院、中国医科大学、太行工业学校、白求恩卫生学校等，以民族精神培育新一代，学校教育事业取得长足发展。

Third, advancing social education. Social education was an important component of the popularisation of culture. In the old society, the broad masses of the people lived on the verge of hunger and death, rarely able to receive an education, with very low cultural levels and an extreme lack of scientific knowledge. Taking the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region as an example, “within the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, with a population of 1.5 million, there were still over one million illiterates and two thousand witch-doctors, and superstitious ideas were still influencing the broad masses.” Developing social education was an important condition for achieving the thorough emancipation of the broad masses of workers and peasants. With the establishment and development of the base areas, social education first took the form of mass meetings or propaganda materials, and later gradually developed into organised and regularised forms such as winter schools, literacy groups, night schools, half-day schools, and year-round people’s schools. In terms of content, it included war-of-resistance mobilisation, political propaganda, literacy, and cultural knowledge. The organisational methods of social education were flexible, the learning content was easy to understand, and the masses participated with high enthusiasm. In 1941, the Border Region had 1,973 literacy groups with 12,259 people; 505 night schools with 7,907 people; 393 half-day schools with 5,990 people; and 659 winter schools with 20,915 people. Through social education, illiteracy was eliminated, and the cultural level and political consciousness of the people in the base areas were raised.

三是推进社会教育。社会教育是文化大众化的重要内容。在旧社会，广大人民处于饥饿和死亡线上，很少能够接受教育，文化水平很低，科学知识更是异常缺乏。就陕甘宁边区来说，“在一百五十万人口的陕甘宁边区内，还有一百多万文盲，两千个巫神，迷信思想还在影响广大的群众”。发展社会教育是实现广大工农群众彻底解放的重要条件。随着各根据地的创建发展，社会教育先是以群众大会或宣传品的形式开展，后逐步发展出冬学、识字组、夜校、半日校和长年民校等组织化、经常化的形式。在内容上，包括抗战动员、政治宣传、识字和文化知识等。社会教育组织方式灵活，学习内容通俗易懂，群众参与热情高涨。1941年，边区有识字组1973处，人数12259人；夜校505处，人数7907人；半日校393处，人数5990人；冬学659处，人数20915人。通过社会教育，扫除了文盲，提高了根据地人民的文化程度和觉悟程度。

III. Experiences and Lessons from the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership of Cultural Construction during the War of Resistance Against Japan

三、抗日战争时期中国共产党领导文化建设的经验启示

During the War of Resistance Against Japan, under the guidance of Marxism, the Party firmly grasped cultural leadership, adhered to the stance of Chinese culture, built its own “cultural army,” insisted on the direction of popularising culture, and explored the construction of a philosophy and social science with Chinese characteristics. These experiences have important implications for the Party’s undertaking of new cultural missions in the New Era and the new journey.

抗日战争时期，党在马克思主义指导下，牢牢掌握文化领导权，坚守中华文化立场，建设自己的“文化的军队”，坚持文化大众化方向，探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学。这些经验对于党在新时代新征程上更好地担负起新的文化使命具有重要启示意义。

First, upholding the fundamental guiding role of Marxism and always maintaining the Party’s cultural leadership. The guiding ideology determines the fundamental nature and development direction of cultural construction and is the soul of cultural construction. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, multiple cultural ideologies coexisted, disturbing people’s minds, shaking military morale, and hindering victory in the War of Resistance. In response, Mao Zedong pointed out that “without the communist method of thought, it is impossible to correctly guide the present democratic stage of our social revolution.” The Party established the guiding role of Marxism in cultural construction and integrated the basic principles of Marxism with China’s specific realities, clarifying the development direction of New Democratic culture. At present, the “two overall situations” [26]26 The “two overall situations” (两个大局) refer to the overall situation of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the overall situation of changes unseen in a century. interact and clash, cultural pluralism and ideological diversification are increasingly pronounced, and trends such as the “obsolescence of Marxism,” relativism, utilitarianism, nihilism, and hedonism constantly erode the cultural positions led by the Party, making the struggle in the ideological sphere more intense. In response, it is even more necessary to establish the fundamental guiding role of Marxism: “Marxism is the fundamental guiding ideology for founding the Party and the country, and for rejuvenating the Party and the country.” Adhering to the guidance of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture, we must clearly oppose and resist various erroneous views such as “nihilism,” “self-abasement theory,” and “neutrality theory,” and comprehensively consolidate the Party’s cultural leadership.

一是坚持马克思主义的根本指导地位，始终掌握党的文化领导权。指导思想决定着文化建设的根本性质和发展方向，是文化建设的灵魂。在抗日战争时期，多元文化思想并存，扰乱人心，动摇军心，阻碍抗战胜利。对此，毛泽东指出，“没有共产主义的思想方法，就不能正确地指导我们现在的社会革命的民主阶段”。党确立了马克思主义在文化建设中的指导地位，并将马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合，明晰了新民主主义文化发展方向。当前，“两个大局”交互激荡，文化多元化，思想多样化倾向愈加明显，马克思主义“过时论”、相对主义、功利主义、虚无主义和享乐主义思潮不断侵蚀党领导的文化阵地，意识形态领域斗争更加激烈。对此，更是要确立马克思主义的根本指导地位，“马克思主义是我们立党立国、兴党兴国的根本指导思想”。坚持以习近平文化思想为引领，旗帜鲜明反对和抵制“虚无论”“自卑论”“中立论”等各种错误观点，全面巩固党的文化领导权。

Second, adhering to the stance of Chinese culture and achieving spiritual independence and self-reliance. Cultural construction does not take place on a nihilistic ruin but is a renewal based on traditional culture. Chinese culture is the root of the Party’s leadership in cultural construction. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, there were different positions within the country regarding traditional culture: some advocated restoring ancient ways, others advocated Westernisation. In response, the Chinese Communist Party clearly stated that “the Chinese Communists are the inheritors of all the finest traditions of our nation’s culture, thought, and morality, regarding all these fine traditions as intimately connected with their own flesh and blood, and will continue to develop and enhance them.” The Party always regarded “the national” as an important marker of cultural construction, and under the guidance of Marxism, it purged the feudal elements from traditional culture while absorbing beneficial elements from foreign cultures, shedding external dependence in thought, and achieving the continuous development of Chinese culture. At present, on the new journey of promoting the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernisation, the value and role of Chinese culture are even more prominent. Chinese culture is the cultural foundation of the “Chinese path.” “Chinese culture is the deepest source for enhancing our country’s cultural soft power.” In response, it is even more necessary to adhere to the fundamental requirement of the Two Integrations, continuously promote the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture, drive the life renewal and modern transformation of Chinese culture, and forge a new cultural life form.

二是坚守中华文化立场，实现精神上的独立自主。文化建设不是在一片虚无的废墟之上进行，而是在传统文化基础上的开新。中华文化是党领导文化建设的根脉。抗日战争时期，国内对待传统文化有着不同立场，有的主张复古，有的主张西化。对此，中国共产党鲜明地指出，“中国共产党人是我们民族一切文化、思想、道德的最优秀传统的继承者，把这一切优秀传统看成和自己血肉相连的东西，而且将继续加以发扬光大”。党始终将“民族的”作为文化建设的重要标识，在马克思主义指导下，清理传统文化中的封建因素，同时汲取外来文化的有益因素，摆脱了思想上的外部依赖，实现对中华文化的赓续发展。当前，在以中国式现代化推动强国建设、民族复兴伟业的新征程上，中华文化的价值和作用更加凸显，中华文化是“中国式”的文化根基，“中华文化是我们提高国家文化软实力最深厚的源泉”，对此，更是要坚持“两个结合”的根本要求，不断推进中华优秀传统文化的创造性转化和创新性发展，推动中华文化的生命更新和现代转型，造就新的文化生命体。

Third, valuing the unique role of intellectuals and building the Party’s cultural contingent. Intellectuals play an important role in cultural construction. They are the producers of cultural thought, the guardians of humanistic spirit, and also the disseminators of cultural fruits. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, the base areas led by the Party were mostly on the cultural periphery and urgently needed to absorb a large number of intellectuals. However, the class attributes and ideological concepts of these intellectuals still had a certain gap from the needs of the Party and the people. For this reason, the Party paid great attention to the transformation of intellectuals, emphasising that intellectuals must understand China’s specific realities, and at the same time transform their thoughts and feelings, correctly view the masses, and “undergo a change and a remoulding in their own thoughts and feelings. Without this change, without this remoulding, nothing can be done well, and everything will be incompatible.” Through transformation, intellectuals became a revolutionary cultural army under the Party’s leadership, making significant contributions to the cultural construction of the War of Resistance. At present, in building a socialist cultural power, talent is the primary resource. It is necessary to respect the creativity of intellectuals, deeply implement the strategy of strengthening the nation through talent, create a social environment conducive to dedicated research and creation, encourage theoretical innovation, stimulate the enthusiasm of the broad masses of intellectuals to devote themselves to socialist modernisation, and fully build the cultural contingent for a comprehensively strong socialist modernised country.

三是重视知识分子的独特作用，建设党的文化队伍。知识分子在文化建设中有着重要的作用。他们是文化思想的生产者、人文精神的守护者，同时也是文化果实的传播者。抗日战争时期，党领导的根据地大多处于文化的边缘地带，急需吸收大量知识分子。但这些知识分子的阶级属性和思想观念与党和人民的需要还有一定差距，为此党十分注重对知识分子的改造，强调知识分子要了解中国具体实际，同时要转变思想情感，正确看待人民群众，“把自己的思想感情来一个变化，来一番改造。没有这个变化，没有这个改造，什么事情都是做不好的，都是格格不入的”。知识分子通过改造，成为党领导下的革命文化军队，为抗战文化建设作出了重大贡献。当前，建设社会主义文化强国，人才是第一资源，要尊重知识分子的创造，深入实施人才强国战略，营造有利于潜心研究和创作的社会环境，鼓励理论创新，激发广大知识分子投身社会主义现代化建设的热情，全面建成社会主义现代化强国的文化队伍。

Fourth, adhering to the direction of popularizing culture, continuously enriching the people’s spiritual world. The masses of the people are the creators of cultural construction and also the enjoyers of cultural achievements. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, the Party’s leadership in cultural construction established a cultural direction of serving the people, advocating that cultural development should take root in the people’s real life, pointing out that “the transport of cultural food must be regarded as more important than the transport of bedding, ammunition, and ordnance,”[27]27 The great spirit of the War of Resistance (伟大抗战精神) refers to the set of values—patriotism, national unity, sacrifice, and perseverance—that the CPC promoted as the ideological foundation for mobilizing the Chinese people against the Japanese invasion (1937–1945). and promoting the development of a culture of resistance toward a people’s democratic culture. Responding to the Party’s call, large numbers of cultural workers went deep into the countryside and approached the masses, creating many literary and artistic works rooted in life and based on the people, which greatly inspired the masses’ will to resist the enemy. At present, in building a socialist cultural power and promoting cultural prosperity, we must adhere to putting the people first, taking the satisfaction of the people’s spiritual and cultural needs as the starting point and ultimate goal, because “the greatest difference between human society and the animal world is that human beings have spiritual needs, and the people’s need for spiritual and cultural life exists at all times.”[28] With the deepening development of the socialist market economy and the continuous advancement of the pattern of high-level opening up, the people’s demands on culture have become higher. The Party’s cultural construction must keep pace with the development of the times, grasp the people’s needs, correctly handle the relationship between social benefits and market benefits, adhere to the fundamental direction of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the unity of profound thought, exquisite artistry, and excellent production, and dedicate the best spiritual food to the people.

四是坚持文化大众化方向，不断丰富人民的精神世界。人民群众是文化建设的创造者，也是文化成果的享有者。抗日战争时期，党领导文化建设就确立了为人民服务的文化方向，主张文化发展要扎根人民现实生活之中，指出“要把运输文化食粮看得比运输被服弹药还重要”，推动抗战文化向人民民主文化发展。在党的号召下，广大文化人深入田野，走向群众，创作了许多扎根生活、立足人民的文艺作品，极大地鼓舞了人民群众的抗战斗志。当前，建设社会主义文化强国，推动文化繁荣，必须坚持人民至上，把满足人民精神文化需求作为出发点和落脚点，因为“人类社会与动物界的最大区别就是人是有精神需求的，人民对精神文化生活的需求时时刻刻都存在”。随着社会主义市场经济的深入发展和高水平对外开放格局的持续推进，人民对于文化的要求更高了，党的文化建设要跟上时代发展，把握人民需求，正确处理社会效益与市场效益的关系，坚持为人民服务、为社会主义服务的根本方向，坚持思想精深、艺术精湛、制作精良相统一，把最好的精神食粮奉献给人民。

Fifth, constructing a disciplinary system, academic system, and discourse system for philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics, and building an independent knowledge system for China. Philosophy and social sciences are a distinct manifestation of a country’s cultural character, theoretical thinking, academic competence, and subjective consciousness, and are an important embodiment of comprehensive national power and international competitiveness. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, the intellectual groups under the Party’s leadership issued the call to “save the nation through scholarship,”[29] promoting the development of the New Enlightenment Movement[30] and the Sinicization of scholarship movement, gradually gaining discursive power in Marxist scholarship, and initially exploring the construction of a philosophy and social sciences system with Chinese characteristics. Today, China is undergoing extensive and profound social changes

五是构建中国特色哲学社会科学学科体系、学术体系、话语体系，建构中国自主的知识体系。哲学社会科学是一个国家的文化品格、理论思维、学术素养和主体意识的鲜明表现，是综合国力与国际竞争力的重要体现。在抗日战争时期，党领导下的知识分子群体发出“学术救国”的号召，推动了新启蒙运动和学术中国化运动的发展，逐步掌握了马克思主义学术话语权，初步探索构建具有中国特色的哲学社会科学体系。当今中国正经历着广泛而深刻的社会变革，特别是中国式现代化的深入推进，一些新知识、新经验和新信息层出不穷，需要建构与之相适应的自主知识体系。“我们的哲学社会科学有没有中国特色，归根到底要看有没有主体性、原创性。”这需要坚持马克思主义指导，立足中国，借鉴国外，坚持本来、外来和未来相贯通，传统与现代、本土与全球、一体与多元相融通，构建具有自身特质的学科体系、学术体系、话语体系。只有如此，中国特色哲学社会科学才能真正屹立于世界学术之林。

In sum, the Party’s cultural construction during the War of Resistance against Japan unfolded under complex international and domestic circumstances. The Party, guided by advanced thought and theory, initially sketched out the basic framework of New Democratic cultural construction, led the development of advanced culture, coalesced the great spirit of the War of Resistance, and made an important contribution to the victory in the War of Resistance. Situated amid changes unseen in a century, it is all the more necessary to deepen our understanding of the laws governing the construction of a socialist culture. Inheriting and carrying forward the advantages of the Party’s leadership in cultural construction, and unswervingly upholding the Party’s overall leadership over cultural work, are the fundamental guarantee and the only path for responding to risks and challenges and accelerating the building of a socialist cultural power.

总之，党在抗日战争时期的文化建设是在复杂国际国内环境之下展开的。党坚持以先进的思想理论为指导，初步勾勒了新民主主义文化建设的基本框架，引领了先进文化的发展，凝聚起了伟大抗战精神，为抗日战争的胜利作出了重要贡献。置身世界百年未有之大变局，更要不断深化对社会主义文化建设规律的认识。继承和发扬党领导文化建设的优势，坚定不移坚持党对文化工作的全面领导，是应对风险挑战、加快建设社会主义文化强国的根本保障和必由之路。

Web editor: Jing Mu

网络编辑：静穆