“Making the Party Truly Mass-Based”: The Developmental Direction of the Early Grassroots Organizations of the Communist Party of China

The early period of the Communist Party of China (the period of the Party’s founding and the Great Revolution) holds an important place in the history of the Party’s organizational building in its exploration of grassroots organization development. During this period, the development of the revolutionary movement, especially “the arrival of the high tide of the Great Revolution, the victory of the Northern Expedition, and the upsurge of the worker and peasant movements,” created favorable conditions for the development of the CPC, and the Party’s organizational building achieved “considerable progress.” Among these developments, the building of the Party’s grassroots organizations also advanced in an exploratory manner, achieving clear results. While the Party’s membership expanded rapidly, its grassroots organizations grew from small to large, from weak to strong, and extended from intellectuals to the worker and peasant masses, gradually realizing the “massification of the Party.”

中国共产党早期（党的创建初期和大革命时期）对基层组织发展的探索在党的组织建设史上具有重要地位。这一时期，革命运动的发展特别是“大革命高潮的到来、北伐战争的胜利和工农运动的高涨”，为中国共产党的发展创造了有利条件，党的组织建设获得“相当的进展”。其中，党的基层组织建设也探索式前进，取得明显成效。在党员队伍迅速扩大的同时，党的基层组织由小变大，由弱变强，由知识分子向工农群众拓展，逐步实现了“党的群众化”。

Current academic research on the early grassroots organizations of the CPC mainly focuses on several aspects, such as the establishment process of grassroots organizations in various localities, their operational mechanisms, and the exploration of grassroots organization development. There is still a lack of research results that comprehensively summarize and refine the multiple pathways and working mechanisms of early CPC grassroots organization development from a perspective combining macro and micro levels. This article attempts to make such an attempt.

目前学界围绕中国共产党早期基层组织问题的研究，主要集中在各地基层组织的建立过程、运作机制以及基层组织发展的探索等几个方面，尚缺乏从宏观与微观相结合的角度来全方位概括、提炼中国共产党早期基层组织发展的多元路径、工作机理的研究成果。本文拟就此作一尝试。

I. Organizational Development Methods Shifting from an Emphasis on Traditional Social Relations to Revolutionization and Standardization

一、由偏重传统社会关系向革命化规范化转变的组织发展方式

In its early period, the CPC had already begun to focus on exploring Party building issues in conjunction with the actual development of the revolution. The most obvious manifestation of this was that the Party timely adjusted its organizational development methods during this period, gradually shifting from an emphasis on traditional social relations at the time of its founding to revolutionization and standardization.

中国共产党早期已开始注重结合革命发展实际探索党的建设问题。最为明显的表现就是，党在这一时期适时调整了组织发展方式，即从成立之初的偏重传统社会关系，逐渐转向革命化规范化。

In the early days of the Party’s founding, due to factors such as the secrecy of the organization and the harshness of the revolutionary environment, the work of expanding the Party was generally conducted covertly and relied on the network of Party members’ traditional social relations. Judging from the situation of the establishment of Party organizations in various regions during this period, it was a relatively common phenomenon in the early days of the Party’s founding to use a core figure as the center of a concentric circle, recruit Party (and Youth League) members through ties of schooling, locality, or profession, and thereby establish local Party (and Youth League) organizations. Taking the establishment of Party (and Youth League) organizations in Jiangxi as an example, Zhao Xingnong, Yuan Yubing, Fang Zhimin, and others mainly developed Party (and Youth League) members through networks formed by Nanchang No. 2 Middle School, Nanchang No. 1 Normal School, Nanchang No. 1 Middle School, and the Jiangxi Creation Society established by their students. [1]1 The Northern Expedition (1926-1928) was a military campaign led by the National Revolutionary Army, an alliance of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, aimed at overthrowing the warlord governments and unifying China. This organizational development method, which mainly relied on traditional social relations, enabled the Party to gradually expand its ranks in a complex and harsh revolutionary environment and to maintain the Party’s secrecy relatively well, avoiding destruction by the enemy.

党成立初期，因组织的秘密性、革命环境的恶劣性等原因，扩党工作一般较为隐蔽，且以党员的传统社会关系网络为纽带。从这一时期各地党组织开创的情况来看，以某个核心人物为同心圆的中心，以其学缘、地缘、业缘等方式吸收党（团）员，继而得以创建地方党（团）组织，是党创建初期较为普遍的现象。从江西党（团）组织的创建而言，赵醒侬、袁玉冰、方志敏等人主要通过南昌二中、南昌一师、南昌一中及其学生组建的江西创造社等结成的关系网而发展党（团）员。这种主要依托传统社会关系的组织发展方式，使党能够在复杂恶劣的革命环境下逐步扩大党的队伍，并能够较好地保持党的秘密性，免遭敌人的破坏。

However, with the progress of the Kuomintang-CPC cooperation, especially the rapid development of the revolution during the May Thirtieth Movement, the CPC urgently needed to rapidly expand its organizational strength. [2]2 The Fifth National Congress of the Communist Party of China was held in Wuhan from April 27 to May 9, 1927. The method of expanding the Party relying on traditional social relations clearly could not keep up with the changes in the revolutionary situation, did not conform to the correct direction of organizational development, and was even less conducive to the institutionalization and standardization of organizational work. Therefore, based on an objective understanding of its shortcomings, the development methods of CPC grassroots organizations began to shift towards revolutionization and standardization.

但随着国共合作的进行，尤其是五卅运动中革命的迅速发展，中国共产党急需迅速壮大组织力量。依托传统社会关系的扩党方式明显跟不上革命形势的变化，也不符合组织发展的正确方向，更不利于组织工作的制度化、规范化。因此，在客观认识其不足的基础上，中共基层组织的发展方式开始向革命化规范化转变。

On June 21, 1926, the Shanghai District Committee pointed out in a circular on Party organizational issues: In the past, when developing Party members, “the method of introducing new comrades was often based on the personal emotional relationships of Party members,” and many drawbacks were discovered as a result. For example, if a Party member developed a bad tendency or suffered other setbacks, all other Party members introduced by that Party member would sever relations with the Party; expanding the Party based on personal feelings easily led to the laxity of Party organizations, a lack of normal comradely relations among Party members, and seriously diluted the Party’s organizational nature and discipline. Therefore, the Shanghai District Committee believed that the correct orientation for organizational development must be standardized: “In the future, emphasis should be placed on using the entire strength of the Party branch to develop Party members. Specifically, this means developing members in the process of branch work (i.e., absorbing brave and revolutionary elements in various actions), using the strength of branch work to conquer the mass environment in which it is located, so that the masses see the activities of the entire Party and develop confidence in it, and then, through formal introduction procedures, enable them to join the Party. In other words, those who join the Party should truly join the Party they trust, not a party connected by emotional ties with their favored friends or sworn brotherhoods/sisterhoods, so that the Party can have a true foundation.”

1926 年6月21日，上海区委在关于党的组织问题的通告中指出：过去发展党员，往往“以党员个人的情感关系为介绍新同志的入手办法”，由此发现很多弊病。比如：一个党员发生不好的倾向，或遭其他打击，其余凡是这个党员所介绍的党员，都与党脱离了关系；个人感情式的扩党容易造成党组织的涣散，党员之间缺乏同志式的正常关系，严重冲淡了党的组织性、纪律性。因此，上海区委认为，必须规范组织发展的正确导向：“以后要注重以党的支部的整个的力量去发展党员，具体点说，就是要在支部的工作过程中去发展（即要在各种行动中去吸收勇敢的革命的分子），要把支部工作的力量，去征服其所在群众的环境，使群众看到整个的党的活动而发生信心，然后经过正式的介绍手续，使之入党。换句话说，要使入党者真正加入他所信赖的党，而不是加入他所要好的朋友或帮口姊妹们以感情相联络的党，才能使党有真正的基础。”

As mentioned above, “using the entire strength of the Party branch to develop Party members” on the one hand strengthened the core role of the branch in expanding the Party, and on the other hand strengthened the organizational consciousness of Party members. This working method based on the branch was clearly more powerful and organized than Party members relying on their personal social relationship networks to develop Party members, and Party members could more genuinely trust the Party, thereby making the Party’s foundation more solid. In June 1926, Chen Duxiu proposed at a joint meeting of the CPC Central Committee and the Shanghai District Committee that the shortcomings of the previous method of absorbing Party members, such as using personal social relations to introduce Party members, or even using feudal-style sworn brotherhood relations to absorb Party members, must be changed. Certain organizational principles should be adhered to, and attention should be paid to using the strength of the branch to absorb Party members.

如上所言，“以党的支部的整个的力量去发展党员”一方面强化了支部在扩党中的核心作用，另一方面也强化了党员的组织观念。这种以支部为基础的工作方式，明显比党员依靠个人的社会关系网络去发展党员更具有力量和组织性，党员也能够更加真切地信赖党，从而使党的基础更为巩固。1926年6月，陈独秀在中共中央、上海区委联席会议上提出，须改变以前吸收党员的缺点，如利用个人社会关系介绍党员，甚至利用封建色彩的帮口关系吸收党员，应坚持一定的组织原则，注意以支部的力量去吸收党员。

This transformation in the organizational development methods of the early CPC became increasingly evident with the continuous development of the Great Revolution. Overall, although expanding the Party by relying on traditional social relations once occupied an important position, after the Northern Expedition, the revolutionary and standardized method of expanding the Party began to gain dominance.

中国共产党早期组织发展方式的这种转变，随着大革命的不断发展而越来越明显。从总体情况来看，依托传统社会关系的扩党虽然一度占据重要地位，但北伐后革命化规范化的扩党开始占据优势。

The work of expanding the Party in the worker movement was a case in point. After the Party’s founding, using grassroots organizations as battle fortresses, it penetrated into factories, had close contact with workers, propagated the Party’s revolutionary propositions, and carried out the work of expanding the Party. Through revolutionary propaganda and the practice of the worker movement, the Party raised the class consciousness of the workers. Especially the victories in strikes achieved under the Party’s leadership greatly stimulated the revolutionary enthusiasm of the workers. Many workers began to believe in the power of the trade unions and actively approached the CPC. Particularly after the Northern Expedition, the revolutionary sentiment of the masses, represented by revolutionary workers, “rose like a high tide.” They rose up one after another to carry out the worker movement, fight for their own rights and interests, and demand improvements in their lives. The Party’s revolutionary work went quite smoothly. Consistent with the development of the worker movement, the Party’s influence and organizational capacity among workers grew day by day, and the number of worker Party members continuously increased. The Party’s organizations “also developed day by day accordingly,” which in turn better promoted the development of the worker movement, forming a virtuous cycle. The expansion of the Party in the peasant movement had a similar manifestation.

工人运动中的扩党工作即是如此。党成立后，以基层组织为战斗堡垒，打入工厂内部，与工人近距离接触，宣传党的革命主张，进行扩党工作。党通过开展革命宣传和工人运动实践，使工人的阶级意识得以提升。尤其是在党的领导下取得的罢工胜利，大大激发了工人的革命热情，许多工人开始相信工会的力量，主动靠近共产党。特别是北伐后，以革命工人为代表的民众革命情绪“如高潮怒涨”，他们纷纷起来开展工人运动，争取自身权益，要求生活上的改善，党的革命工作颇为顺利。与工人运动发展相一致，党在工人中的影响力和组织力与日俱增，工人党员不断增加，党的组织“也随之日渐发展”，由此又更好地推动工人运动的发展，形成了良性循环。农民运动中的扩党也有类似的表现。

Through the worker and peasant movements, Communists went deep among the worker and peasant masses, understood their revolutionary demands, and also enabled the workers and peasants to understand the CPC’s revolutionary propositions. The interaction between the two strengthened the strength of each. On the one hand, under the Party’s leadership, workers and peasants joined trade unions and peasant associations, gaining organizations to protect their own interests. In Hunan, from the entry of the Northern Expeditionary Army into the province in the summer of 1926 to February 1927, the membership of peasant associations surged from 400,000 to 2 million, accounting for nearly half of the province’s peasants; in Hubei, by November 1926, the membership of peasant associations had developed to 200,000; in Jiangxi, by February 1927, the membership of peasant associations had developed to about 300,000. On the other hand, the CPC absorbed revolutionary workers and peasants into the Party within the trade unions and peasant associations. For example, after the May Thirtieth Movement, the number of CPC members grew from less than 1,000 at the beginning of 1925 to “over 10,000 by the end of the same year, an increase of 10 times.” The Kuomintang also deeply felt the revolutionary wisdom of the Communists in going deep among the worker and peasant masses. In their view, “all the masses are in the hands of the C.P.,” and they felt that the Communist Party was somewhat “fearsome.” [3]3 The May 30th Movement (1925) was a major anti-imperialist mass movement that began with a protest in Shanghai’s International Settlement after the shooting of Chinese workers by British police, sparking nationwide strikes and boycotts. The so-called “fearsome” referred to the fact that the CPC’s “policies were mature and profound” and that it “had the masses.” Possessing a deep mass base was precisely the important foundation that enabled the early CPC’s grassroots organization development methods to shift from an emphasis on traditional social relations to revolutionization and standardization.

通过工农运动，共产党人深入工农群众，了解他们的革命诉求，也使工农认识了共产党的革命主张。两者的互动增强了各自的力量。一方面，在党的领导下工农加入工会、农会，有了保护自身利益的组织。在湖南，自1926年夏北伐军入省到1927年2月，农民协会会员从40万人激增到200万人，差不多占全省农民的一半；在湖北，至1926年11月，农民协会会员发展到20万人；在江西，至1927年2月，农民协会会员发展到约30万人。另一方面，共产党在工会、农会中吸收革命工农入党。例如，经过五卅运动，中共党员从1925年初的不足1000人，到同年底就“已发展到1万多人，增加了10倍”。对于共产党人深入工农群众的革命智慧，国民党也深有同感。在他们看来，“一切群众均在C.P.手内”，觉得共产党有点“可怕”。所谓“可怕”，是指中国共产党“政策老炼[练]深沉”，“有群众”。拥有深厚的群众基础，正是党早期基层组织发展方式能够由偏重传统社会关系向革命化规范化转变的重要根基。

II. Organizational Development Direction of Continuously Opening Up New Regions and New Fields

二、不断开辟新地域、新领域的组织发展方向

An important reason why the CPC was able to gradually grow into a political party with a broad mass base was that Communists continuously opened up new regions and new fields in organizational development, allowing the Party’s organizational lifeline to penetrate deep into the grassroots of society. In this regard, the early CPC had already conducted preliminary explorations.

中国共产党能够逐渐成长为具有广泛群众基础的政党，其重要原因在于，共产党人在组织发展方面不断开辟新地域、新领域，使党的组织血脉深入社会基层。在这方面，中国共产党早期已进行了初步的探索。

(A) Relying on the Party’s Organizational Strength, the Grassroots Organization Network Expanded from Small to Large

（一）依托党的组织力量，基层组织网从小到大扩展

During the Party’s founding period, organizational work focused on opening up new regions. At the time of the First National Congress of the CPC, there were only a little over 50 Party members. [4]4 The April 12 Counter-Revolutionary Coup (1927) was a violent purge of Communists and left-wing elements from the Kuomintang by Chiang Kai-shek in Shanghai, marking a major break in the First United Front. Under such circumstances, to open up the revolutionary situation, one of the Party’s primary tasks was to vigorously develop Party organizations and strive to lay out the Party’s grassroots organization network in various localities.

党在创建时期，组织工作侧重于开辟新地域。党的一大时，党员才50多人。在这种情况下，要打开革命局面，党的首要任务之一便是大力发展党组织，努力在各地布局党的基层组织网络。

Geographically speaking, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Wuhan, Changsha, and Jinan were the important regions where the early organizations of the Communist Party first flourished. These several early Party organization points were areas where China’s transportation was relatively developed and where revolutionary movements had arisen relatively early; for example, Shanghai was at that time “the most densely concentrated center of the Chinese working class.” [1]1 The Northern Expedition (1926-1928) was a military campaign led by the National Revolutionary Army, an alliance of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, aimed at overthrowing the warlord governments and unifying China. These regions where early organizations were founded constituted an important geographical foundation for the organizational development of the Communist Party of China. First, there was the surrounding region centered on Shanghai. Shanghai possessed the revolutionary foundation as the birthplace of the Party and the cultural heritage of Jiangsu and Zhejiang; the surrounding regions of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui were profoundly influenced by Shanghai, and revolutionary movements gradually arose there, leading to the establishment of Party organizations. Second, there was the surrounding region centered on Beijing. Beijing was the national political center, the site of the May Fourth Movement, and also one of the founding places of the early Party organizations. Influenced by it, Party organizations in the northern regions such as Tianjin, Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and the Northeast were gradually established. Third, there was the surrounding region centered on Guangdong. Guangdong was the most important revolutionary base of the Kuomintang and also possessed a unique cultural character. During the period of Kuomintang-CPC cooperation, Guangdong was even more the center of the National Revolution. Under Guangdong’s radiating influence, surrounding provinces such as Guangxi, Fujian, Guizhou, and Yunnan gradually expanded their grassroots organizations. Finally, there was the surrounding region centered on the two Hu provinces (Hunan and Hubei). The influence of the two Hu provinces was particularly evident during the Northern Expedition period; for example, revolutionary movements in provinces such as Jiangxi and Sichuan developed rapidly, and the number of Party grassroots organizations and Party members increased relatively quickly.

从地域而言，上海、北京、广州、武汉、长沙、济南是共产党早期组织初兴的重要区域。这几个共产党早期组织点是中国交通相对发达也是革命运动较早兴起的区域，比如上海就是当时“中国工人阶级最密集的中心城市”。这些早期组织创建区域，构成了中国共产党组织发展的重要地理基础。首先是以上海为中心的周边区域。上海具有党创始地的革命基础以及江浙文化的底蕴，江浙皖等周边区域受上海的深刻影响，逐渐兴起革命运动，建立党的组织。其次是以北京为中心的周边区域。北京是全国政治中心、五四运动的发生地，也是共产党早期组织创建地之一。受其影响，天津、山东、山西、河北、东北等北方区域的党组织逐渐创立。再次是以广东为中心的周边区域。广东是国民党最重要的革命基地，也具有独特的文化特色。国共合作时期，广东更是国民革命的中心。在广东的辐射影响下，广西、福建、贵州、云南等周边省份也逐渐拓展基层组织。最后是以两湖为中心的周边区域。两湖的影响力在北伐时期特别明显，如江西、四川等省的革命运动发展迅速，党的基层组织和党员数量增加较快。

Broadly speaking, due to the uneven development of the revolution, regions such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou established Party organizations relatively early. Moreover, as the revolution advanced, the revolutionary areas continuously expanded, the scope of Party organizations grew increasingly larger, and Party grassroots organizations were distributed in various places, initially constructing a nationwide network of grassroots organizations. However, it must also be noted that, compared with regions like Beijing-Shanghai and Hunan-Hubei, where organizational strength grew extremely rapidly, regions such as the Northern Region and the Henan-Shaanxi Region, because they were under the rule of warlord forces and popular movements were in a high-pressure environment, saw relatively slow expansion of grassroots organizations and a relatively small number of Party members.

大致而言，因革命发展的不平衡性，北京、上海、广州等区域较早建立党的组织，且随着革命的向前发展，革命区域不断扩大，党的组织范围日益扩大，党的基层组织也分布在各地，初步构建了全国范围的基层组织网络。但也要看到，与组织力量增速极快的京沪、湘鄂等区域相比，北方区、豫陕区等区域，因为在军阀势力的统治下，民众运动处于高压环境，基层组织拓展相对缓慢，党员人数相对较少。

(2) Grassroots organizations spread across fields such as factories, schools, and rural areas, advancing into social strata such as workers, intellectuals, and peasants

（二）基层组织遍及工厂、学校、农村等领域，推进到工人、农民、知识分子等社会阶层

In terms of new fields, the early Communist Party of China also actively penetrated various organizational units and placed relatively great emphasis on using multiple methods to achieve basic coverage across various fields. Among these, factories were the focus, while schools, government organs, streets, and rural areas were key; together they formed a multi-field interlocking organizational network.

以新领域而言，中国共产党早期也十分积极地深入各种组织单位，并且比较注重以多种方法去实现各领域的基本覆盖。其中，工厂是重点，学校、机关、街道、农村等是关键，它们共同结成多领域交错的组织网络。

The Communist Party of China’s understanding of grassroots organizations and the fields in which they were located underwent a process of development. The Party Constitution of the Second National Congress of the CPC clearly stipulated: “In each rural area, each factory, each railway, each mine, each military camp, each school, and other organs and their vicinity, wherever there are three to five Party members, a group may be established.” [2]2 The Fifth National Congress of the Communist Party of China was held in Wuhan from April 27 to May 9, 1927. The “group” was the name for the Party’s grassroots organization established for the first time in Party history. The Third National Congress of the CPC adjusted “group” to “small group,” without changing the principle of establishment. The Fourth National Congress of the CPC formally changed “small group” to “branch,” stipulating that “in each rural area, each factory, each railway, each mine, each military camp, each school, and other organs and their vicinity, wherever there are three or more Party members, a branch may be established”; and for the first time it clearly stipulated: “The basic organization of the Party should be the branch organization based on industry and organ,” and “when it is not possible to organize a branch based on an organ, the locality may serve as the standard.” Shortly after the conclusion of the Fifth National Congress of the CPC, the “Resolution on the Amended Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party” passed by the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC stipulated for the first time that “the branch is the basic organization of the Party.” From these stipulations, it can be seen that the principle for establishing early grassroots organizations of the Communist Party of China was primarily based on industry and organs; factories, schools, rural areas, and government organs became key new fields that Communists focused on developing in various localities.

中国共产党对基层组织及其所在领域的认识，有一个发展过程。党的二大党章明确规定：“各农村各工厂各铁路各矿山各兵营各学校等机关及附近，凡有党员三人至五人均得成立一组。”“组”是党史上第一次确立的党的基层组织名称。党的三大则将“组”调整为“小组”，设置原则不变。党的四大将“小组”正式改为“支部”，规定“各农村各工厂各铁路各矿山各兵营各学校等机关及其附近，凡有党员三人以上均得成立一支部”；并第一次明确规定：“党的基本组织，应是以产业和机关为单位的支部组织”，“不能以机关为单位组织支部时，则可以地域为标准”。党的五大闭幕后不久，中共中央政治局通过的《中国共产党第三次修正章程决案》则第一次明确规定“支部是党的基本组织”。从这些规定中可知，中国共产党早期基层组织设置原则以产业、机关为主，工厂、学校、农村、机关等成为共产党人在各地重点开拓的新领域。

Factories were the top priority for the Communist Party of China in expanding grassroots organizations. This was consistent with the central position of the workers’ movement in the Party’s work at that time and the Party expansion policy focused on workers. On September 26, 1925, the Shanghai District Committee pointed out that after the May Thirtieth Movement, the reactionaries attacked the workers; therefore, the Party must strive to develop Party members in factories, “in order to accumulate our strength, so that when the political situation changes next time, we can develop openly and attack fully.” [3]3 The May 30th Movement (1925) was a major anti-imperialist mass movement that began with a protest in Shanghai’s International Settlement after the shooting of Chinese workers by British police, sparking nationwide strikes and boycotts. Schools were also an important component of the grassroots organization network. Zhu Yiyue, who came from Lianhua County, Jiangxi, came under the influence of Li Dazhao, accepted revolutionary ideas relatively early, and joined the Communist Party of China. To promote the revolution in his hometown, Zhu Yiyue returned home and, under the pretext of inspecting schools, spread revolutionary ideas in various places in Lianhua’s urban and rural areas, scouting for development targets. Later, after discussing with Zhu Shengwu and others, he decided to establish schools in various parts of Lianhua County, setting up organs under the guise of running education, which directly promoted the establishment of the Lianhua County Small Group of the Communist Party of China. Rural areas were also an important field for the expansion of Communist Party of China grassroots organizations. Especially around the time of the Northern Expedition, with the rise of the peasant movement, rural Party grassroots organizations increasingly developed. In the Party’s view, absorbing a large number of Party members among the peasants and establishing the Party’s foundation in the countryside was an important basis for the development and victory of the peasant movement. Conversely, if the Party’s organizational foundation was not established in the countryside, then “the peasant movement will inevitably encounter great danger in the future, and this danger will certainly fall upon the Party itself.” [4]4 The April 12 Counter-Revolutionary Coup (1927) was a violent purge of Communists and left-wing elements from the Kuomintang by Chiang Kai-shek in Shanghai, marking a major break in the First United Front. In addition, government organs, streets, and other places were also important bases for Communists to establish grassroots organizations and important fields into which the Party’s organizational blood flowed.

工厂是中国共产党拓展基层组织的重中之重。这与工人运动在当时党的工作中的中心地位，和以工人为重点的扩党政策是一致的。1925年9月26日，上海区委指出，五卅运动后反动派向工人进攻，因此党必须努力在工厂中发展党员，“以积聚我们的实力，以备下次政局变动时能公开的发展，充分的进攻”。学校也是基层组织网络的重要构成。来自江西莲花县的朱亦岳在李大钊的影响下，较早接受革命思想，加入中国共产党。为了推动家乡的革命，朱亦岳回到家乡后，以下乡查学为名，在莲花城乡各处传播革命思想，物色发展对象，后与朱绳武等人商议，决定在莲花县各地创办学校，以办教育的名义建立机关，直接推动了中国共产党莲花县小组的成立。农村也是中国共产党基层组织开拓的重要领域。尤其在北伐前后，随着农民运动的兴起，农村党的基层组织日益发展起来。在党看来，在农民中大量吸收党员，建立党的基础，是农民运动开展并取得胜利的重要基础。反之，如果不去农村建立党组织的基础，那么“农运将来必发生很大的危险，这个危险必定归到党的本身来”。此外，机关、街道等也是共产党人建立基层组织的重要基点，也是组织血脉流入的重要场域。

The coverage of grassroots organizations across social strata also showed a similar direction. Corresponding to the Communist Party of China’s establishment of grassroots organizations in fields such as factories, schools, and rural areas, grassroots organizations also advanced towards various social strata including workers, intellectuals, and peasants. During the Party’s founding period, it placed relatively great emphasis on recruiting workers into the Party, while adopting a relatively cautious attitude towards recruiting members from other strata. The May Thirtieth Movement aroused the national revolutionary enthusiasm of the people, and the Communists truly felt the revolutionary power of different strata in the continuously rising revolutionary movement, gradually adopting an open and positive attitude, absorbing outstanding elements from various strata into the Party’s ranks. According to statistics, by the time of the Fifth National Congress of the CPC, the total number of Party members nationwide had surged from 994 before the Fourth National Congress of the CPC to 57,967, of whom workers accounted for 53.8%, peasants 18.7%, and intellectuals 19.1%. [5]5 The Fourth National Congress of the CPC was held in Shanghai in January 1925.

基层组织的社会阶层覆盖面也呈现了相似的路向。与中国共产党在工厂、学校、农村等领域建立基层组织相对应，基层组织也向工人、知识分子、农民等各社会阶层推进。党在创建时期，对工人入党比较重视，对其他阶层的入党抱着相对谨慎的态度。五卅运动激起了民众的民族革命热情，共产党人也在不断高涨的革命运动中真切感受到了不同阶层的革命力量，逐渐抱着开放的积极心态，吸纳各阶层中的优秀分子加入党的队伍。据统计，到党的五大召开前，全国党员人数由党的四大召开前的994人激增至57967人，其中工人占53.8%，农民占18.7%，知识分子占19.1%。

(3) Widely establishing revolutionary mass organizations in various localities and fields as a breakthrough for the development of grassroots organizations

（三）在各地各领域广设革命群团组织作为基层组织发展的突破口

The early organizations of the Communist Party of China had deep roots in revolutionary associations. The early Beijing Party organization was closely related to the “Marxist Theory Research Society” organized by Li Dazhao and others; the early Shanghai Party organization was closely related to the “Shanghai Marxist Research Society” initiated and organized by Chen Duxiu; the early Changsha Party organization was closely related to the “New People’s Study Society” and the “Russian Research Society” organized by Mao Zedong and others; and the early Party organizations in Wuhan, Jinan, and Guangzhou were closely related to the local “Marxist Theory Research Societies.” These early Marxist research groups provided important organizational strength for the founding of the Party.

中国共产党早期组织的建立与革命社团渊源颇深。北京共产党早期组织与李大钊等人组织的“马克思学说研究会”，上海共产党早期组织与陈独秀发起组织的“上海马克思主义研究会”，长沙共产党早期组织与毛泽东等人组织的“新民学会”“俄罗斯研究会”，武汉、济南、广州共产党早期组织与当地的“马克思学说研究会”，都关系密切。这些早期的马克思主义研究团体为党的创建提供了重要的组织力量。

After the Party was founded, it continued to develop revolutionary associations represented by Marxist Research Societies, Social Problems Research Societies, and the like, providing strong support for strengthening the Party’s grassroots organizations. In November 1923, the “Resolution on Propaganda and Education Work” passed by the Central Committee of the CPC stipulated that “wherever possible, localities should establish Social Science Research Societies.” [6]6 *New Youth* (《新青年》) was a seminal Chinese magazine founded by Chen Duxiu in 1915. It became the leading organ of the New Culture Movement and later a key vehicle for the propagation of Marxism-Leninism in China. Although the names of the Social Science Research Societies and the Marxist Research Societies differed, their purposes and functions were similar, namely, to study revolutionary publications such as *New Youth*, answer revolutionary questions, and propagate revolutionary ideas. On the basis of enlightening the revolutionary consciousness of the members, outstanding individuals were absorbed into the Party. Following the instructions of the Central Committee of the CPC, many localities established revolutionary associations. For example, in November 1923, the Shanghai District Committee entrusted Shanghai University to organize a Social Problems Research Society, and places such as Chengdu also established reading groups.

党成立后，继续发展以马克思主义研究会、社会问题研究会等为代表的革命社团，为壮大党的基层组织提供有力支撑。1923年11月，中共中央通过的《教育宣传问题议决案》规定，“各地有可能时，设社会科学的研究会”。社会科学研究会与马克思主义研究会虽然名称不同，但宗旨和作用相似，即学习《新青年》等革命书刊，解答革命疑问，宣传革命思想。在启发会员革命觉悟的基础上，吸收优秀分子入党。根据中共中央的指示，不少地方成立革命社团。比如，1923年11月上海地委委托上海大学组织了一个社会问题研究会，成都等地还成立了读书会。

The main targets of revolutionary associations were intellectuals; most ordinary people with low levels of education, such as workers and peasants, rarely had the opportunity to participate. In order to effectively organize workers and peasants, enable them to receive revolutionary education within these organizations, and then absorb active revolutionary workers and peasants into the Party, the Chinese Communist Party placed great emphasis on the establishment of trade unions and peasant associations in various localities. By the time of the Fifth National Congress of the Party [n1], over 2.8 million workers and over 9 million peasants had been organized. The recognition of the Communist Party among many trade union and peasant association members increased to an unprecedented degree, which was an important foundation for the Chinese Communist Party’s vigorous expansion of the Party among workers and peasants.

革命社团的主要对象是知识分子，大部分工人、农民等文化水平不高的普通群众很少有机会参与其中。为了把工农有效地组织起来，使他们在组织内接受革命教育，继而吸纳积极的革命工农加入党组织，中国共产党十分重视工会、农会在各地的组建工作。到党的五大召开前，280余万工人和900余万农民“已经组织起来”。许多工会和农会会员对共产党的认可度空前提高，这是中国共产党在工农中大力扩党的重要基础。

These revolutionary mass organizations became an important bridge connecting the Party organization with various social strata, and were a crucial breakthrough point for the Chinese Communist Party in expanding its grassroots organizational network.

这些革命群团组织成为连接党组织与社会各阶层关系的一个重要桥梁，是中国共产党拓展基层组织网的重要突破口。

III. The Organizational Development Approach of Balanced Development in Quantity and Quality

三、数量与质量均衡发展的组织发展思路

In its early period, the Chinese Communist Party also made preliminary explorations into the issue of balancing the quantity and quality of grassroots organizational development. Broadly speaking, “balanced development in quantity and quality” was the organizational development approach adhered to by the Communists during this period.

中国共产党早期在处理基层组织发展数量与质量问题上也作出了初步探索。大致而言，“数量与质量均衡发展”，是这一时期共产党人坚持的组织发展思路。

(I) Particular Emphasis on the Quantity of Grassroots Organization Development

（一）特别重视基层组织发展的数量

The developmental approach of the Chinese Communist Party’s early grassroots organizations was not entirely clear from the outset, possessing a certain exploratory character. With the vigorous development of the Great Revolution [n2], in order to achieve rapid growth in the number of grassroots Party organizations and Party members, the Central Committee of the CPC adopted various methods.

中国共产党早期基层组织发展思路从一开始并不十分明确，带有一定的摸索性质。随着大革命的蓬勃发展，为了实现党的基层组织和党员数量的快速增长，中共中央采取了各种方法。

One important method was the formulation of relatively proactive organizational policies. This was particularly evident during the Northern Expedition period [n3]. For example, on July 9, 1926, the National Revolutionary Army swore an oath to begin the Northern Expedition in Guangzhou. As the Northern Expedition advanced victoriously, the worker and peasant movements also entered a climax. However, compared with the needs of the revolution, the Party’s organizational strength was clearly insufficient. Therefore, the Central Committee of the CPC formulated proactive organizational policies based on the actual needs of the revolution, vigorously expanding the Party. On October 17, 1926, Chen Duxiu [n4] wrote to Party organizations at all levels, pointing out that increasing the number of Party members was the most important issue at hand, and that workers and peasants should be especially absorbed into the Party; he proposed that the entire Party should develop over 40,000 new members before the Fifth National Congress of the Party. In terms of regions, Chen Duxiu proposed that the Jiangsu-Zhejiang region, the Guangdong region, the Hunan region, the Hubei region, and the Northern region were the key areas for organizational development, while areas such as Anhui, Fujian, the three northeastern provinces, and Yunnan-Guizhou should also be included in the scope of organizational development. Party organizations in various localities actively implemented this directive, formulating local organizational development plans. For instance, on December 1, 1926, the “Shanghai District Committee’s Plan for Expanding Organization” stated, “The letter from Comrade Duxiu mentioned above, which expressed the hope of developing comrades to seven thousand in the Jiangsu-Zhejiang region, should make every comrade who reads it feel that this is a very important opinion that must be absolutely implemented.” Regions such as Hunan Province also responded to the call, formulating corresponding methods for Party expansion.

一个重要方法是制定比较积极的组织政策。这在北伐时期表现得尤为明显。比如，1926年7月9日，国民革命军在广州誓师北伐。在北伐战争胜利推进的同时，工农运动也进入高潮。但与革命需求相比，党的组织力量明显不足。因此，中共中央根据革命的实际需要制定积极的组织政策，大力扩党。1926年10月17日，陈独秀致信各级党部，指出党员数量的增加是目前最重要的问题，尤其应大力吸收工农入党；并提出在党的五大前全党应发展党员4万以上。就区域而言，陈独秀提出，江浙区、粤区、湘区、鄂区、北方区等是组织发展的重点，而安徽、福建、东三省、云贵等地区也要纳入组织发展范围。各地党组织积极落实这一指示要求，制定地方的组织发展计划。比如，1926年12月1日，《上海区委关于扩大组织的计划》表示，“前面所载独秀同志来信，对江浙区提出发展同志至七千人的希望，每一个同志看了以后，都应当觉得这是一个很重要的意见，绝对的应当执行”。湖南省等区域也响应号召，制定了相应的扩党方法。

Another important method was shortening the probationary period and simplifying the introduction procedures, providing more convenience for rapidly absorbing the masses into the Party. On August 31, 1925, the Central Committee of the CPC issued the circular “Flexible Methods for Introducing New Party Members, and the Organization and Tasks of Party Groups in Various Organizations,” emphasizing that in order to rapidly absorb Party members, the procedures for admitting Party members established at the Fourth National Congress of the Party [n5] must be revised, lowering the requirements for Party member introducers and shortening the probationary period. This was also a necessary measure to adapt to the needs of revolutionary development under the conditions of the time.

另外一个重要方法是缩短候补期限，简化介绍手续等，为快速吸收群众入党提供更多便利。1925年8月31日，中共中央发出《介绍新党员之变通办法，各团体中党团的组织与任务》的通告，强调为了快速吸收党员，必须修正党的四大吸收党员的程序，降低入党介绍人的条件，缩短候补期。这也是在当时条件下适应革命发展需要的应然之举。

As a result of these measures, the number of grassroots Party organizations and Party members increased rapidly. In January 1927, the Communist International, in its resolution “On the Organizational Tasks of the Chinese Communist Party,” stated, “In the past year, the number of Party members in the Chinese Communist Party has increased threefold… Such a rapid increase in the number of Party members indicates that a great deal of work has been done.” By March 1927, across the country, “with the exception of Xinjiang, Qinghai, Guizhou, Tibet, and Taiwan, Party organizations had been established or Party activities were underway.”

在这些措施的作用下，党的基层组织和党员数量增加迅速。1927年1月，共产国际在《〈关于中国共产党的组织任务〉的决议》中提到，“中国共产党在过去一年里党员数量增加了两倍……党员数量如此飞速增加表明做了大量工作”。至1927年3月，全国“除了新疆、青海、贵州、西藏、台湾外，都建立了党的组织或有了党的活动”。

(II) Gradually Beginning to Emphasize the Quality of Grassroots Organization Development

（二）逐步开始注重基层组织发展的质量

After achieving a certain basic quantity, our Party began to place greater emphasis on the quality of grassroots organization development. Problems that emerged at the time, such as the weak role of Party branches as fighting bastions and the low quality of Party members, further prompted our Party to accelerate the pace of adjustment.

有了一定的基本数量后，我们党开始更加注重基层组织发展的质量。当时出现的支部战斗堡垒作用发挥不佳、党员素质不高等问题，也进一步推动我们党加快调整步伐。

Emphasis was placed on rectifying Party branches. In December 1926, the Central Committee of the CPC pointed out: “At this time, the organizational problem of our Party is certainly to strive for quantitative development, but even more so to rectify Party branches, so that each branch can work and become active on its own.” In September 1926, the Jiangsu-Zhejiang District Committee, in its work report, pointed out incisively that through rectifying Party branches, we should “make the Party’s foundation stable, so that for every action, the branch can play a significant role,” “enable every comrade to understand and apply the Party’s strategy clearly, without making mistakes,” “enable the Party to penetrate deeply into the broad masses,” and “cultivate many cadres and talents.” Judging from the practice in various localities, the content of branch rectification generally included: strengthening the branch executive committee and establishing its authority within the branch; strictly enforcing Party discipline; purifying Party members, “cancelling the membership of all non-revolutionary and nominal comrades”; paying attention to the review of new comrades; and holding branch meetings every week, among other things.

重视整顿支部。1926年12月，中共中央指出：“此时我们党的组织问题，固然要努力数量上的发展，更要整顿支部，使各支部都能够自动的工作起来，活动起来。”1926年9月，江浙区委在其工作报告中一针见血地指出，要从整顿支部工作中“使党的基础稳固，对于每个行动，支部能起很大的作用”，“使每个同志对于党的策略能明了应用，不致错误”，“使党深入于广大的群众”，“培养出许多干部人才来”。从各地实践来看，支部整顿的内容一般包括：健全支部干事会，建立支部干事会在支部中的威信；严格执行党的纪律；肃清党员，“不革命及挂名的同志一律取消”；注意新同志的审查；每星期必须开支部会；等等。

Emphasis was placed on Party member education. Party organizations in various localities either established Party schools to carry out Party member education or conducted Party member training within branches. In March 1927, the Shaanxi-Gansu District Committee, in its directive letter to Party organizations at all levels, proposed that for intra-Party education and training, in addition to holding branch meetings on time and promoting reading among Party members, they should “try their best to establish Party schools to train personnel for agitating and mobilizing the masses.” The active promotion of Party member education was an important reason why the Chinese Communist Party, despite a surge in the number of Party members during the Great Revolution, was able to maintain cohesion and combat effectiveness.

重视党员教育。各地党组织或通过创办党校开展党员教育，或在支部内进行党员训练。1927年3月，陕甘区委在给各级党部的指示信中提出，党内的教育与训练，除了按时召开支部会议、提倡党员阅读外，应该“尽量设法开办党校，训练鼓动和宣传群众的人才”。党员教育的积极推进，是大革命时期共产党员数量激增但又能始终保持凝聚力与战斗力的一个重要原因。

Party member management was strengthened. Among these, the review of Party members was an important aspect. On March 31, 1926, the Zhabei District Committee of the Shanghai District Committee pointed out that, in response to shortcomings such as “the general lack of clear concepts and adequate training among comrades when joining the Party,” remedial measures should be taken, namely, “strictly checking, training, and holding accountable the responsible comrades, to see whether their actions, thoughts, living environment, work ability, and understanding of the doctrine have achieved certain results and meet the necessary conditions for Party membership.” In March 1927, the Shaanxi-Gansu District Committee also explicitly required that comrades be strictly reviewed, their erroneous ideas be corrected in a timely manner, and work efficiency be improved. At the same time, punishing corrupt and degenerate Party members was also an important aspect of Party member management. On August 4, 1926, the “Circular of the Central Enlarged Conference – Resolutely Cleanse Corrupt and Degenerate Elements” pointed out that struggling against corrupt and degenerate behavior was necessary “to strengthen our camp and to establish the Party’s prestige among the masses.” As “the first document in the Party’s history to punish corruption and embezzlement,” this strict requirement on the words and deeds of Party members was conducive to maintaining the stability of Party organizations and unity within the Party, ensuring the smoother progress of Party work.

加强党员管理。其中，党员审查是重要方面。1926年3月31日，上海区委闸北部委指出，针对“一般同学入党时没有明确之观念及受相当的训练”等不足，应采取补救措施，即“严格的检查、训练、指责各负责同学，看究竟行动、思想、生活环境、作事能力，对于主义的认识有没有相当的成绩与合乎党员必具之条件”。1927年3月，陕甘区委也明确要求，必须严格审查同志，及时改正他们的错误观念，提高工作效率。同时，惩治贪污腐化党员也是党员管理的重要方面。1926年8月4日，《中央扩大会议通告——坚决清洗贪污腐化分子》指出，同贪污腐化行为作斗争，“才能坚固我们的营垒，才能树立党在群众中的威望”。作为“党的历史上第一个惩治贪污腐败的文件”，这种对党员言行的严格要求，有利于维护党组织的稳定和党内的团结，保障党的工作更为顺利地开展。

In terms of the overall trend, “balanced development in quantity and quality” was the general approach for the organizational development of the early Chinese Communist Party. Quantity was the basic requirement, the organizational foundation for the forward development of the revolution; quality was the guarantee, an important safeguard for enhancing the Party’s organizational leadership.

从总体趋向而言，“数量与质量均衡发展”是早期中国共产党组织发展的总体思路。数量是基本要求，是革命向前发展的组织基础；质量是保障，是提升组织领导力的重要保证。

IV. Fully Stimulating the Vitality of Linkage Between Organizations

四、充分激发组织之间联动的活力

The development of grassroots Party organizations was inseparable from positive interaction between organizations. The early organizational relations of the Chinese Communist Party, based on the principle of democratic centralism, actively stimulated the combined strength of linkage between Party organizations at all levels.

党的基层组织的发展与组织之间的良性互动密不可分。中国共产党早期的组织关系以民主集中制为原则，积极激发各级组织之间的联动合力。

(I) Fully Exerting the Bridging and Linking Role of Requesting Instructions and Submitting Reports

（一）充分发挥请示报告的桥梁纽带作用

The Chinese Communist Party, known for its iron discipline, took democratic centralism as its fundamental organizational principle and used the system of requesting instructions and submitting reports as a bridge and link, standardizing the relationship between higher and lower-level Party organizations.

以铁的纪律著称的中国共产党，以民主集中制为根本组织原则，以请示报告为桥梁纽带，规范了上下级党组织关系。

For the Central Committee, an important task was to provide timely work guidance to local organizations. The Central Committee sending personnel to supervise local areas, replying to local requests for instructions and reports, etc., were all concrete manifestations of work guidance. The timeliness of guidance directly affected the development of local organizations. For example, the reason why organizational development in regions such as Fujian was relatively slow, in the view of local leaders, was partly due to “lack of money, lack of personnel, and poor communication links with the Central Committee.”

对中央而言，一项重要的工作内容就是对地方组织适时予以工作指导。中央向地方派员督导、回复地方请示报告等，都是指导工作的具体体现。指导是否及时，直接影响地方组织发展。例如，福建等区域之所以组织发展相对缓慢，在当地负责人看来，其原因之一就是“无钱无人及与中央的交通关系不灵”。

Reporting by local organizations to the central authorities was an important channel for promptly reflecting local information to the central authorities. Generally speaking, local organizations should report to the central authorities at least once a week, clearly and systematically reporting on various local tasks, with organizational work being the focus. Organizational reports from various localities must report on the expansion of branches, prefectural committees, and membership numbers, the situation regarding meetings and the collection of Party dues, and how to assign work to Party members. In addition, reporting by prefectural committees to district committees, county committees to prefectural committees, and branches to county committees (or prefectural committees, district committees, etc.) was also a normalized mechanism. Through requests for instructions and reports, higher-level organizations could relatively conveniently obtain first-hand information from lower levels, and then issue corresponding work directives, including guiding the development work of grassroots organizations.

地方组织向中央作报告是及时向中央反映地方信息的重要渠道。一般而言，地方组织应该至少一星期向中央报告一次，条理清晰地报告本地的各项工作，其中组织工作是重点。各地的组织报告，必须报告支部、地委及人数扩大的情况，开会及收党费的现象，如何分配党员工作等。此外，地委向区委、县委向地委、支部向县委（或地委、区委）等作报告也是一种常态化机制。通过请示报告，上级比较便捷地获取第一手的下级信息，继而作出相应的工作指示，包括指导基层组织发展工作。

Based on the text of the *Selected Documents of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China* (1926), the frequent interaction between the Central Committee and the Guangdong region can be roughly discerned. According to statistics, within the one-year period of 1926, the Central Committee sent a total of six letters of instruction to Guangdong and adopted three resolutions on Guangdong issues; while Guangdong proactively submitted one political report and wrote two letters of request. For example, on October 4, the Central Committee issued the “Letter to the Guangdong Region – On Policy Towards the Kuomintang Left Wing, etc.”, instructing the Party organization in Guangdong on the basic principles to adhere to when handling relations with the Kuomintang left wing; to study and implement this directive from the Central Committee, on October 21, the Guangdong Party organization submitted to the Central Committee the “Letter from the Guangdong Region – Reply to the Central Committee’s Letter of October 4”. On November 23, the Guangdong Party organization submitted the “Political Report of the Guangdong Region” to the Central Committee, reporting on the political situation and related policies in the region; in December, the Central Committee adopted the “Resolution on the Political Report of the Guangdong Region”, guiding the region’s next steps.

根据《中共中央文件选集》（1926年）的文本，可大致看出中央与粤区之间的频繁互动。据统计，在1926年的一年时间内，中央共发给广东6封指示信，作出了3个关于广东问题的决议；而广东主动作了1个政治报告，写了2封请求信。比如，10月4日，中央发出《致粤区信——关于对国民党左派的政策等》，指示粤区党组织在处理同国民党左派的关系时应坚守的基本原则；为了学习贯彻好中央的这一指示，10月21日，粤区党组织也向中央提交了《粤区来信——答复中央十月四日去信》。11月23日，粤区党组织向中央提交《粤区政治报告》，报告该区政局及相关政策；12月，中央作出了《对于粤区政治报告的决议》，指导该区下一步工作。

This situation also existed in other regions. For instance, on September 7, 1926, the Hunan Party organization submitted the “Political Report of the Hunan Region” to the Central Committee; on September 27, the Central Committee replied to the Hunan Region, issuing directives on military, political, and mass movement strategies and Party work in Hunan. It can be seen that during the initial stage of organizational development, our Party overcame many difficulties, always centered on revolutionary work to maintain real-time linkage between higher and lower-level organizations, in order to cope with the increasingly complex revolutionary situation and various problems in organizational development.

这种情况在其他地区同样存在。如1926年9月7日，湖南党组织向中央提交了《湘区政治报告》，9月27日，中央复信湘区，就湖南的军事、政治、民众运动的策略和党的工作作出指示。可见，在组织发展的初创阶段，我们党克服诸多困难，始终以革命工作为中心维系了上下级组织之间的实时联动，以应对日益复杂的革命局势和组织发展中的各项问题。

(2) The “Transmission of Higher-Level Intent” by Special Commissioners and Routine Inspections

（二）特派员的“上级意图传达”与常规性检视

To enhance the effectiveness of guiding lower-level Party organizations, the Central Committee successively dispatched special commissioners to local areas to “convene various forms of temporary meetings”. Local organizations also had special commissioners at the same level (or inspectors – the titles varied); “district committees and prefectural committees, when necessary, must go to various localities to inspect and examine work”. In the early period of the Communist Party of China, the main tasks of special commissioners were to convey the directives of higher-level organizations, guide the work of lower-level organizations, and promptly report information back to higher-level organizations. The number of special commissioners gradually increased with the vigorous development of the organization. Especially after the Northern Expedition [1]1 The Northern Expedition (1926-1928) was a military campaign led by the National Revolutionary Army, an alliance of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, aimed at overthrowing the warlord governments and unifying China., in order to guide the worker and peasant movement, the Communist Party of China dispatched special commissioners to various localities more frequently. According to the “Report of the Central Bureau (October and November)” dated December 5, 1926, the newly dispatched special commissioners of the CPC Central Committee included 16 for Shaanxi, 20 for Zhili, 26 for Henan, 30 for Hunan, 13 for Anhui, 22 for Sichuan, 11 for Shandong, 9 for Jiangsu, plus those for Fujian, Jiangxi, and other places, totaling 218 people. The report believed that these special commissioners responsible for guiding the worker and peasant movement were scattered across various localities, “although it cannot be said that large organizations and movements will immediately emerge, at least it can be said that our work in these places has already begun”.

为了提高对下级党组织的指导成效，中央陆续指派特派员下到地方，“召集各种形式的临时会议”。地方组织也有同级的特派员（或称巡视员——名称不一），“区委、地委必要时须赴各地巡视、考察工作”。在中国共产党早期，特派员的主要任务是传达上级组织指示，指导下级组织工作，及时向上级组织反馈信息。特派员的数量随着组织的蓬勃发展而逐渐增多。尤其是北伐之后，为了指导工农运动，中国共产党向各地指派特派员更加频繁。根据1926年12月5日的《中央局报告（十、十一月份）》，中共中央新派特派员中陕西16人、直隶20人、河南26人、湖南30人、安徽13人、四川22人、山东11人、江苏9人，再加上福建、江西等地的特派员，总计达到218人。该报告认为，这些负责指导工农运动的特派员散布各地，“虽不能说马上就发生很大的组织和运动，然而至少可说我们在这些地方的工作已经开始了”。

Besides special commissioners guiding the worker and peasant movement, there were also special commissioners specifically tasked with inspecting Party affairs. For example, on June 11, 1926, the Hangzhou Prefectural Committee specifically dispatched personnel “to inspect Party affairs in Lanxi, Jiande, Jinhua, and Fuyang”, conducting inspections for a total of 12 days, producing relevant inspection reports, pointing out the problems in organizational development in these places, and putting forward specific suggestions for Party expansion. Another common situation was that special commissioners comprehensively guided the work of lower-level organizations. For instance, the Yinxianggang Departmental Committee of the Shanghai District Committee dispatched special commissioners to directly guide branch work, achieving noticeable results.

除了指导工农运动的特派员，还有专门视察党务工作的特派员。例如，1926年6月11日，杭州地委专门派员“赴兰溪、建德、金华、富阳四处视察党务”，总共视察了12天，作了相关的视察报告，指出这几个地方的组织发展问题，提出了具体的扩党建议。还有比较常见的情况是，特派员全面指导下级组织的工作。如上海区委引翔港部委派出特派员直接指导支部工作，收到了明显的效果。

Routine inspection of the work of lower-level organizations was also the responsibility and proactive action of higher-level organizations. It was a very common practice for the Central Committee to inspect the work of district committees (or prefectural committees), and for district committees to inspect the work of prefectural committees or departmental committees. Only by frequently going to lower-level organizations to examine work could one understand “the actual situation of the lower-level Party organizations, providing timely guidance”, and inform lower-level organizations of “the direction and status of work”, thereby enabling the Party to have “a deep grassroots foundation”. Branches, as the Party’s grassroots organizations, should have their work regularly inspected by all levels from the prefectural committee downwards. By closely assessing branch work, higher-level organizations actively promoted the development of grassroots organizations.

常态化检查下级组织的工作也是上级组织的责任和主动作为。中央检查区委（或地委）工作，区委检查地委或部委工作，都是非常普遍的做法。只有经常性地去下级组织考察工作，才能了解“下层党部的实际情形，随时加以指导”，并且向下级组织告知“工作的方针与状况”，继而才能使党“有深厚的下层根基”。支部作为党的基层组织，自地委以下都应经常检查支部的工作开展情况。上级组织通过近距离地考核支部工作，积极推动基层组织发展。

During this period, the Communist International attached great importance to the development of the Communist Party of China’s grassroots organizations and issued specific directives. This was mainly manifested in: First, emphasizing the improvement of the grassroots organizational structure. On September 12, 1926, the delegation of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, in its “Report on the Results of the Investigation of Political Relations and Factional Relations in Guangzhou”, affirmed the work of the Party organization in Guangdong, but also pointed out that the branches still lacked centralized, unified, and organized leadership, and that the Party had not yet fully implemented democratic centralism, etc. On the eve of the Fifth National Congress of the Party [2]2 The Fifth National Congress of the Communist Party of China was held in Wuhan from April 27 to May 9, 1927., the Communist International adopted the “Resolution on the Organizational Tasks of the Communist Party of China”, proposing that “a branch must have a small, efficient working body (3 to 5 people)” and “specific organizational division of labor among members of each branch”, etc. These suggestions were basically absorbed by the Fifth National Congress of the Party, initially establishing the organizational structure of Party branches and the system of branch division of labor. Second, emphasizing accelerating the speed of Party expansion. The Communist International held a very optimistic attitude towards the development of the Communist Party of China’s grassroots organizations after the May 30th Movement [3]3 The May 30th Movement (1925) was a major anti-imperialist mass movement that began with a protest in Shanghai’s International Settlement after the shooting of Chinese workers by British police, sparking nationwide strikes and boycotts.. On September 28, 1925, the Communist International instructed the Communist Party of China to “vigorously strengthen propaganda, agitation, and organizational work, attracting new Chinese democratic masses to participate in the national liberation movement”. Under its instructions, the Communist Party of China formulated an increasingly active policy of Party expansion. Third, emphasizing the importance of Party member education. The Communist International once instructed the Communist Party of China that “the work of developing new Party members should proceed simultaneously with the work of raising the political level of Party members and generally strengthening the Party’s ranks”. It should not be overlooked that the Communist International also brought considerable negative impacts on the early grassroots organizational development of the Communist Party of China, such as overly emphasizing the recruitment of Party members from among workers, and failing to guide the Communist Party of China in formulating correct organizational policies after the April 12 Counter-Revolutionary Coup [4]4 The April 12 Counter-Revolutionary Coup (1927) was a violent purge of Communists and left-wing elements from the Kuomintang by Chiang Kai-shek in Shanghai, marking a major break in the First United Front..

这一时期，共产国际对中国共产党的基层组织发展予以高度重视，作出了具体指示。主要表现在：一是强调健全基层组织结构。1926年9月12日，共产国际执行委员会远东局使团在《关于对广州政治关系和党派关系调查结果的报告》中肯定了广东的党组织工作，但也提出，各支部还没有集中统一的、有组织的领导，党还未完全实行民主集中制等。党的五大召开前夕，共产国际通过了《〈关于中国共产党的组织任务〉的决议》，提出“支部必须有一个人数不多的工作能力强的办事机构（3至5人）”，“各个支部成员之间作组织上的具体分工”等。这些建议基本被党的五大吸纳，初步确定了党支部的组织结构和支部分工制度。二是强调加快扩党速度。共产国际对五卅后中国共产党的基层组织发展持非常乐观的态度。1925年9月28日，共产国际指示中国共产党须“大力加强宣传鼓动和组织工作，吸引新的中国民主群众参加民族解放运动”。在其指示下，中国共产党制定了日益积极的扩党政策。三是强调重视党员教育。共产国际曾指示中国共产党，“发展新党员的工作应与提高党员政治水平和普遍加强党的队伍的工作同时进行”。不应忽视的是，共产国际也对中国共产党早期基层组织发展带来不少负面影响，比如过于偏重从工人中吸收党员，四一二反革命政变后没有指导中国共产党制定正确的组织政策等。

V. Conclusion

五、结语

The development of the early grassroots organizations of the Communist Party of China expanded the Party’s influence among the masses, enabled the Party to truly take root in grassroots society, and initially achieved the Party’s “massification”. Precisely because the Communist Party of China used grassroots organizations as its fighting fortresses and was closely connected with the social masses, the Party’s political influence grew day by day, so that “no matter what the matter, the Left (referring to the Kuomintang Left Wing – author’s note) would first ask for the opinion of the C.P. [Communist Party]; if the C.P. did not express an opinion, they dared not act”. The fact that the early grassroots organizations of the Communist Party of China achieved such significant development was inseparable from the Party’s emphasis on multiple directions of organizational development. This diversified developmental direction was the Communist Party of China’s in-depth exploration, guided by Marxism, to solve the problems of grassroots organizations, fully demonstrating the Party’s multifaceted thinking in grassroots organizational development, as well as its adaptability in adjusting organizational policies in a timely manner based on revolutionary reality.

中国共产党早期基层组织的发展，扩大了党在群众中的影响力，使党真正扎根基层社会，初步实现了党的“群众化”。正因为中国共产党以基层组织为战斗堡垒，与社会群众紧密相连，党的政治影响日益增强，所以“无论何事，左派（指国民党左派——引者注）均先问C.P.意见，C.P.不表示，便不敢做”。中国共产党早期基层组织能取得如此明显的发展，与党重视多种路向的组织发展方式密不可分。这样多元化的发展路向是中国共产党以马克思主义为指导，解决基层组织问题的深入探索，充分显示了党在基层组织发展方面的多方思考，以及立足革命实际适时调整组织政策的应变能力。

Author’s Brief Introduction: Yi Fenglin, Research Fellow at the Institute of Historical Research, Jiangxi Academy of Social Sciences.

作者简介：易凤林，江西省社会科学院历史研究所研究员。