High-Quality China-Africa Belt and Road Cooperation: Concepts, Foundations, Difficulties, and Responses

Since Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed the cooperative initiative of building a “New Silk Road Economic Belt” and a “21st-Century Maritime Silk Road” (abbreviated as the “Belt and Road”) in 2013, China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation has moved from the periphery to the center. The African continent is vast in territory, rich in resources, has a young labor structure, and is in the early stages of industrialization and urbanization, with a strong demand for the introduction of foreign capital and technology. This constitutes a highly complementary relationship with China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Judging from the existing results, Africa’s Belt and Road cooperation with China has exceeded expectations, laying a solid foundation for building a “China-Africa community with a shared future.” Guiding China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation toward a stage of high-quality development meets the basic requirements for the economic upgrading and improvement of both sides. Currently, there are already a considerable number of research results on China-Africa Belt and Road production capacity cooperation and strategic alignment. Building on existing research, this article will further explore China’s cooperation concepts for the Belt and Road in Africa, the foundations for high-quality Belt and Road cooperation, the difficulties, and propose countermeasures.

自2013年中国国家主席习近平提出建设“新丝绸之路经济带”和“21世纪海上丝绸之路”（简称“一带一路”）的合作倡议以来，中非“一带一路”合作已经从边缘走向中心。非洲大陆地域广阔，资源丰富，劳动力结构年轻，且处在工业化和城镇化发展的初期，对外资、技术的引进有强烈需求，与中国“一带一路”倡议构成高度互补关系。从既有成果来看，非洲与中国的“一带一路”合作超出预期，为构建“中非命运共同体”奠定了坚实基础。将中非“一带一路”合作引向高质量发展阶段，符合双方经济提质升级的基本要求。当前，已经有为数不少的关于中非“一带一路”产能合作、战略对接的研究成果。在既有研究基础上，本文将进一步探究中国对非洲“一带一路”的合作理念、高质量共建“一带一路”所具备的基础、困难，并提出应对之策。

I. China-Africa Cooperation and the Belt and Road Concept

一、中非合作与“一带一路”理念

The Belt and Road Initiative is a Chinese solution for seeking common development with countries along the route and jointly building a better world. Africa has long been the most backward and least developed region in the world, and the lack of effective growth and sustainable development momentum has always been a problem plaguing most countries in the region. By jointly building the Belt and Road with Africa, China has brought development opportunities to the latter. The current undiminished enthusiasm of both China and Africa for jointly building the Belt and Road essentially reflects the resilient vitality of China’s new-type cooperation concept for the Belt and Road. Xi Jinping pointed out that peace and development remain the themes of the times. Especially for developing countries, development is the key to solving all problems. Seeking development through cooperation, achieving complementary advantages, and mutual benefit and win-win outcomes are the core features of the China-Africa concept for jointly building the Belt and Road.

“一带一路”倡议是中国谋求与沿线国家共同发展、共建美好世界的中国方案。非洲长期是世界上最落后、最不发达的地区，缺乏有效的增长及可持续性发展动力始终是困扰该地区大部分国家的难题。中国通过与非洲共建“一带一路”，给后者带去了发展的机遇。当前中非双方在共建“一带一路”上热情不减，从本质上反映出中国“一带一路”新型合作理念的坚韧生命力。习近平指出，和平与发展仍然是时代的主题。特别是对发展中国家来讲，发展是解决一切问题的钥匙。而以合作求发展、实现优势互补、互利共赢则是中非共建“一带一路”理念的核心特征。

First, the concept of jointly building the Belt and Road between China and Africa is rooted in China’s new-type view of international order. China closely links its own destiny with that of Asian, African, and Latin American countries, opposes hegemonism, advocates the democratization of international relations, and regards Africa as a truly equal partner. Xi Jinping chose Africa for

第一，中非共建“一带一路”理念根源于中国的新型国际秩序观。中国将自身与亚非拉国家的命运紧密相连，反对霸权主义，倡导国际关系民主化，非洲被中国视为真正平等的伙伴。习近平在上任后的首访就选在非洲，并提出构建“中非命运共同体”的理念。这被认为是“一种基于中国智慧与胸襟的‘发展再平衡战略’，它着眼于人类的共同发展与合作发展的新型国际关系的建构和塑造，其与近代以来西方国家主导的那种弱肉强食、霸权治理的旧式国际关系体系有着本质的区别”。2015年，在中非合作论坛约翰内斯堡峰会上，非洲在“一带一路”中的定位日益明确。峰会共同宣言提出，要将“中方建设‘丝绸之路经济带’和‘21世纪海上丝绸之路’倡议与非洲经济一体化和实现可持续发展对接，为促进共同发展、实现共同梦想寻找更多机遇”。

Second, adhering to common development and mutually beneficial cooperation constitutes the spiritual core of China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation. During his first visit to Tanzania, Xi Jinping put forward the four principles of "sincerity, real results, affinity, and good faith" for cooperation with Africa, laying the conceptual foundation for China-Africa cooperative and common development. At the FOCAC Johannesburg Summit, Xi Jinping stated: "We must give full play to the advantages of China-Africa political mutual trust and economic complementarity, take production capacity cooperation and the 'three networks and industrialization' as the starting point, comprehensively deepen China-Africa cooperation in all fields, and let the Chinese and African peoples share the fruits of bilateral cooperation and development." At this summit, Xi Jinping proposed the "Ten Cooperation Plans" for China and Africa, covering cooperation in industrialization, agricultural modernization, infrastructure, finance, green development, trade and investment facilitation, poverty reduction and people's welfare, public health, people-to-people exchanges, and peace and security. It can be seen that China's concept of cooperation with Africa, while taking into account China's own development, is based on Africa's needs, focuses on areas where Africa urgently needs development, and continuously broadens and consolidates the foundation of cooperation. The "Ten Cooperation Plans" marked Africa's formal integration into the Belt and Road Initiative. Thereafter, China and Africa continuously aligned their development strategies, laying the foundation for close cooperation.

第二，坚持共同发展、合作共赢，是中非共建“一带一路”的精神内核。习近平在第一次访问坦桑尼亚时，提出了对非合作“真、实、亲、诚”四原则，奠定了中非合作发展、共同发展的理念基础。习近平在中非合作论坛约翰内斯堡峰会上提出：“我们要充分发挥中非政治互信和经济互补的优势，以产能合作、三网一化为抓手，全面深化中非各领域合作，让中非人民共享双方合作发展成果。”此次峰会上，习近平提出了中非“十大合作计划”，内容涵盖中非工业化合作、农业现代化合作、基础设施合作、金融合作、绿色发展合作、贸易和投资便利化合作、减贫惠民合作、公共卫生合作、人文合作、和平与安全合作。可以看出，中国的对非合作理念，在兼顾中国自身发展的同时立足于非洲需求，聚焦非洲亟需发展的领域，不断拓宽并夯实合作基础。“十大合作计划”标志着非洲正式融入“一带一路”倡议，此后，中非在发展战略上不断对接，为密切合作奠定了基础。

Third, adhering to honoring commitments and keeping promises is the foundation of trust for China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation. At the 2018 China-Africa Leaders' High-Level Dialogue with Business Representatives and the Sixth China-Africa Entrepreneurs Conference, Xi Jinping pointed out that China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation is a path of practical cooperation where words are followed by deeds and actions yield results. China-Africa cooperation identifies key bottlenecks hindering Africa's development, such as inadequate infrastructure, and uses funds where they are most needed, avoiding superficial gestures. On the eve of the 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit, the Chinese government announced that the economic and trade measures of the "Ten Cooperation Plans" for China and Africa determined at the Johannesburg Summit had been fully implemented, and China had been Africa's largest trading partner for nine consecutive years. China's commitment to honoring its promises is an important reason for winning Africa's sincere support for the Belt and Road Initiative.

第三，坚持重诺守信，是中非共建“一带一路”的信念基础。在2018年中非领导人与工商界代表高层对话会暨第六届中非企业家大会上，习近平指出，中非共建“一带一路”，是言必行、行必果的务实合作之路。中非合作找准基础设施不足等制约非洲发展的要害，把资金用在刀刃上，不搞花架子。2018年中非合作论坛北京峰会召开前夕，中国政府宣布在约翰内斯堡峰会上确定的中非“十大合作计划”经贸举措已全面落实完毕，中国已连续九年成为非洲第一大贸易伙伴国。中国重诺守信是赢得非洲国家对“一带一路”真诚支持的重要原因。

Fourth, China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation follows a pragmatic concept of progressing step by step, from the shallow to the deep. The 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit not only summarized the achievements of past China-Africa cooperation but also put forward new requirements for precise alignment to continue deepening cooperation. "We must seize the opportunity of aligning China-Africa development strategies, make good use of the major opportunities brought by jointly building the Belt and Road, align the Belt and Road construction with the implementation of the African Union's Agenda 2063, the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and the development strategies of African countries, open up new space for cooperation, tap new potential for cooperation, deeply cultivate traditional areas of advantage, and accelerate the cultivation of highlights in new economic fields." On the basis of the "Ten Cooperation Plans," this summit further proposed the "Eight Major Initiatives," focusing on strengthening cooperation in areas such as infrastructure connectivity, green industries, health and hygiene, people-to-people exchanges, and loan financing, while increasing support for industrial development, financing diversification, and youth vocational training in Africa's least developed countries. The COVID-19 pandemic became a new opportunity for deepening China-Africa cooperation. In June 2020, in response to Africa's vaccine shortage and difficult economic and livelihood conditions, Chinese and African leaders held an Extraordinary China-Africa Summit on Solidarity against COVID-19. Xi Jinping proposed accelerating the Belt and Road construction, with a focus on health and hygiene, work resumption and production recovery, and improving people's livelihoods, while also exempting some African countries from interest-free loans due to China by the end of 2020, and accelerating cooperation in areas such as the digital economy and new energy.

第四，中非“一带一路”合作遵循层层递进、由浅入深的务实理念。2018年中非合作论坛北京峰会既是对以往中非合作成果的总结，也为继续深化合作提出了精准对接的新要求。“我们要抓住中非发展战略对接的机遇，用好共建‘一带一路’带来的重大机遇，把‘一带一路’建设同落实非洲联盟《2063年议程》、联合国2030年可持续发展议程以及非洲各国发展战略相互对接，开拓新的合作空间，发掘新的合作潜力，在传统优势领域深耕厚植，在新经济领域加快培育亮点。”此次峰会在“十大合作计划”基础上又提出“八大行动”，重点加强基础设施互联互通、绿色产业、健康卫生、人文交流、贷款融资等领域的合作，并对非洲极不发达国家的产业发展、融资多元化及青年职业培训加大支持力度。新冠肺炎疫情成为中非深化合作的新机遇。2020年6月，针对非洲疫苗短缺、经济民生艰难的困境，中非领导人召开中非团结抗疫特别峰会，习近平提出要加快“一带一路”建设，重点向健康卫生、复工复产、改善民生倾斜，同时免除一些非洲国家到2020年底截止的对华无息贷款债务，加快在数字经济、新能源等领域的合作。

Fifth, the aspirational goal of China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation is to build a China-Africa community with a shared future. The "China-Africa community with a shared future" is the general direction of bilateral cooperative relations proposed by Xi Jinping during his first visit to Africa, and it is also the ultimate goal of China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation. The pragmatic cooperation of the Belt and Road has laid a solid foundation for accelerating the construction of a China-Africa community with a shared future. At the Eighth FOCAC Ministerial Conference held in 2021, Xi Jinping delivered a keynote speech titled "Upholding the Tradition of Standing Together Through Thick and Thin and Jointly Building a China-Africa Community with a Shared Future in the New Era," which more clearly linked China-Africa cooperation represented by the Belt and Road with the goal of building a bilateral community with a shared future, and won broad recognition from African countries.

第五，中非“一带一路”合作的信念目标是构建中非命运共同体。“中非命运共同体”是习近平首访非洲时提出的双方合作关系的总方向，也是中非共建“一带一路”的终极目标。“一带一路”的务实合作为中非命运共同体的加速构建奠定了坚实基础。在2021年召开的中非合作论坛第八届部长级会议上，习近平发表题为《同舟共济，继往开来，携手构建新时代中非命运共同体》的主旨演讲，将以“一带一路”为代表的中非合作与构建双边命运共同体目标更加明确地联系在一起，并赢得了非洲国家的广泛认同。

II. The Realistic Foundation for High-Quality China-Africa Belt and Road Cooperation

二、中非高质量共建“一带一路”的现实基础

After nearly a decade of practice, high-quality China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation has already acquired a solid material foundation, a multi-layered institutional foundation for cooperation, and a broad foundation of public support.

经过近十年的实践，中国与非洲高质量共建“一带一路”已经具备了坚实的物质基础、多层次的合作制度基础与广泛的民意基础。

First, a solid material foundation. Thanks to the support of Belt and Road Initiative projects and the continuous enhancement of mutual political trust between the two sides, China and Africa have formed a close, mutually beneficial, and win-win cooperative relationship. Trade between China and Africa has generally shown a rapid growth trend. Although the volume of bilateral trade temporarily declined under the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, it quickly recovered to its original level and rebounded sharply. In 2021, China-Africa bilateral trade volume reached US$254.2 billion, a year-on-year increase of 35%, and China has maintained its position as Africa's largest trading partner for 13 consecutive years. In the same year, China's direct investment in all industries in Africa increased by 26.1% year-on-year, and the value of newly signed contracts for contracted projects increased by 14.7% year-on-year. Driven by Belt and Road Initiative projects, China's achievements in infrastructure assistance and cooperation in Africa have also been recognized by authoritative Western institutions. According to a report by the British think tank *The Economist*, in 2020, 31% of infrastructure projects in Africa worth US$50 million or more were undertaken by Chinese enterprises, compared to only 12% in 2013. Existing research shows that Belt and Road Initiative cooperation has made significant contributions to Africa's industrial development. China has not only provided long-term substantial assistance to African agriculture but has also adhered to development-oriented poverty alleviation, transforming "blood transfusion" into "blood creation," exporting agricultural technology to Africa, training technical personnel, and helping African countries improve their level of agricultural modernization. On the industrial front, with China-Africa economic and trade cooperation zones as a precursor, the construction of industrial parks is flourishing, becoming important bases for China-Africa production capacity cooperation, policy coordination, and the integration of capital and technology. The co-construction of the "Digital Silk Road" between China and Africa has achieved notable results. China has established extensive cooperative relations with African countries in areas such as digital infrastructure, digital talent cooperation, digital payments, e-commerce, digital technology assistance and research and development, laying a solid foundation for the high-quality co-construction of the "Digital Silk Road" between China and Africa.

第一，坚实的物质基础。得益于“一带一路”项目的支持、双方政治互信的不断增强，中非双方已经形成紧密的互利共赢合作关系。中国与非洲的贸易总体上呈快速增长趋势，虽然在新冠肺炎疫情冲击下双方贸易额暂时有所下降，但很快就恢复到原来的水平并迅速反弹。2021年，中非双边贸易额达2542亿美元，同比增长35%，中国已连续13年保持非洲最大贸易伙伴国地位。同年，中国对非全行业直接投资额同比增长26.1%，承包工程新签合同额同比增长14.7%。在“一带一路”项目推动下，中国对非洲基础设施援建与合作取得的成绩也得到了西方权威机构的认可。英国著名智库“经济学人”报道，2020年非洲5000万美元及以上的基础设施项目中，31%由中国企业承建，2013年仅为12%。既有研究表明，“一带一路”合作为非洲产业发展作出了重要贡献。中国不仅长期向非洲农业提供大量援助，同时坚持开发式扶贫，将“输血”变为“造血”，向非洲输出农业技术、培训技术人才，帮助非洲国家提升农业现代化水平。工业方面，以中非经贸合作区为先导，产业园区建设蓬勃发展，成为中非产能合作、政策协调、资金技术融通的重要基地。中非共建“数字丝绸之路”已经取得明显成效。中国已经在数字基础设施、数字人才合作、数字支付、电子商务、数字技术援助与研发等领域与非洲国家建立了广泛的合作关系，为中非高质量共建“数字丝绸之路”奠定了坚实基础。

Second, a multi-layered cooperation system. The Belt and Road Initiative mechanism between China and Africa is a model of multilateral cooperation, reflecting the institutionalization, materialization, and standardization of cooperative relations. First, the China-Africa Belt and Road Initiative cooperation mechanism relies on the elevation of the overall China-Africa relationship. As of November 2021, China had established comprehensive strategic cooperative partnerships with nine African countries, comprehensive strategic partnerships with three countries, strategic partnerships with six countries, and comprehensive cooperative partnerships with seven countries. "China has established bilateral committees, diplomatic consultations, or strategic dialogue mechanisms with 21 African countries and the African Union Commission, and has established economic and trade joint (mixed) committee mechanisms with 51 African countries." "In 2017, China and South Africa established the first intergovernmental high-level people-to-people and cultural exchange mechanism between China and Africa." "Since 2012, China and Africa have held four forums on China-Africa local government cooperation." The elevation of the overall China-Africa relationship has laid the foundation for the high-quality development and institutionalization of the Belt and Road Initiative. Second, the China-Africa Belt and Road Initiative cooperation mechanism mainly exists at two levels. One is signing Belt and Road Initiative cooperation agreements with specific countries. In 2015, South Africa became the first country to sign a Belt and Road Initiative cooperation document with China; subsequently, North African countries such as Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia also signed Belt and Road Initiative cooperation documents with China; at the 2018 Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, another 28 African countries joined the Belt and Road Initiative cooperation framework. As of January 2021, 46 countries on the African continent had signed Belt and Road Initiative cooperation agreements with China. The second is the mechanism for overall cooperation and alignment with Africa. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, established in 2000, has become a solid institutional foundation for the co-construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation includes rich cooperation content in politics, economy, and people-to-people exchanges, achieving a perfect integration of the concepts and mechanisms of the Belt and Road Initiative. Currently, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation has developed into a multi-layered framework including leaders' summits, ministerial meetings, special summits, and specialized cooperation mechanisms, becoming the main mechanism for promoting multilateral Belt and Road Initiative cooperation between China and Africa. In June 2020, the "China-Africa Economic and Trade Expo" was established under the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, held regularly in Hunan Province every two years. Thus, China-Africa Belt and Road Initiative cooperation has multi-layered and broad-area cooperation mechanisms, providing multi-channel communication platforms for China-Africa economic and trade cooperation, and even cooperation in the security field.

第二，多层次的合作制度。中国与非洲的“一带一路”机制是多边主义合作的典范，体现出合作关系的固定化、实体化和规范化。首先，中非“一带一路”合作机制依托于中非整体关系的提升。截至2021年11月，中国已同非洲九个国家建立全面战略合作伙伴关系，同三个国家建立全面战略伙伴关系，同六个国家建立战略伙伴关系，同七个国家建立全面合作伙伴关系。“中国已同21个非洲国家和非盟委员会建立双边委员会、外交磋商或战略对话机制，同51个非洲国家建立经贸联（混）合委员会机制。”“2017年，中国同南非建立中非间首个政府间高级别人文交流机制。”“2012年以来，中非双方已举办4届中非地方政府合作论坛。”中非整体关系的提升为“一带一路”的高质量发展与机制化建设奠定了基础。其次，中非“一带一路”合作机制主要存在于两个层次。一是与具体国家签订“一带一路”合作协议。2015年，南非成为第一个与中国签署“一带一路”合作文件的国家；此后，埃及、摩洛哥、突尼斯等北非国家也与中国签署“一带一路”合作文件；在2018年中非合作论坛北京峰会上又有28个非洲国家加入“一带一路”合作框架。截至2021年1月，非洲大陆已经有46个国家与中国签署“一带一路”合作协议。二是跟非洲整体合作与对接的机制。成立于2000年的中非合作论坛，已经成为中非共建“一带一路”的坚实制度基础。中非合作论坛包括政治、经济、人文等丰富的合作内容，实现了“一带一路”倡议理念与机制的完美对接。当前，中非合作论坛已经发展为领导人峰会、部长级会议、特别峰会、专项合作机制等多层次框架，成为推动中非“一带一路”多边合作的主要机制。2020年6月，中非合作论坛下设“中国—非洲经贸博览会”，由湖南省定期举办，两年一届。由此可见，中非“一带一路”合作拥有多层次、宽领域的合作机制，为中非经贸合作，甚至安全领域的合作提供了多渠道沟通平台。

Third, a broad foundation of popular support. China adheres to the principle of "extensive consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits," honors its commitments in Belt and Road Initiative cooperation with Africa, and has achieved results that are evident to all. This has led to relatively positive evaluations of China's Belt and Road Initiative projects in Africa. Measuring the foundation of popular sentiment in Africa can be divided into two levels: first, the elite level. Political elites in Africa generally recognize the China-Africa Belt and Road Initiative as a path to common development and common prosperity, and they give high support to China's proposal of a China-Africa community with a shared future. Second, the mass level. Although there are some differences in the perceptions of China and the Belt and Road Initiative among the people of different African countries, and there has been a negative impact from the stigmatization of China by the West since the COVID-19 pandemic, positive perceptions have consistently remained mainstream. The well-known polling agency Afrobarometer shows that from 2019 to 2021, in 35 African countries, 63% of Africans believed that China's economic and political influence in Africa was "positive" or "very positive." A German polling agency found that 62% of African respondents hoped to participate in more Belt and Road Initiative projects. The agency also found that Africa's satisfaction with Belt and Road Initiative projects was higher than in any other region where China also has cooperation. Africa's positive perception stems from the positive contribution of Belt and Road Initiative projects to the region's economic development and is also an inevitable result of China and Africa strengthening people-to-people and cultural exchanges and building mutual understanding.

第三，广泛的民意基础。中国秉持“共商、共建、共享”的原则，在对非“一带一路”合作中重信守诺，取得了有目共睹的成绩。这使得中国“一带一路”项目在非洲有较积极的评价。衡量非洲的民心基础可分两个层次：一是精英层次。非洲政治界精英普遍认可中非“一带一路”是一条共同发展、共同繁荣之路，对中国提出的中非命运共同体倡议给予高度支持。二是大众层次。尽管不同的非洲国家民众对中国及“一带一路”倡议的认知存在一些差异，且受到新冠肺炎疫情以来西方污名化中国的消极影响，但是积极正面的认知一直占主流。著名民调机构“非洲晴雨表”显示，2019年—2021年，在35个非洲国家中，63%的非洲人认为中国在非洲的经济与政治影响力是“积极的”或“十分积极”。一家德国的民调机构发现，62%的非洲受访者希望参与到更多的“一带一路”项目中。该机构还发现，非洲对“一带一路”项目的满意度高于任何其他与中国也存在合作的地区。非洲的积极认知根源于“一带一路”项目对该地区经济发展的积极贡献，也是中非加强人文交流与民心相通的必然结果。

III. Realistic Dilemmas and Responses to the High-Quality Co-Construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa

三、中非高质量共建“一带一路”的现实困境与应对

Moving from co-constructing the Belt and Road Initiative to high-quality co-construction of the Belt and Road Initiative is both an inherent need for the economic development of China and Africa and an inevitable trend for maintaining sustainable cooperation between the two sides. However, high-quality co-construction of the Belt and Road Initiative requires overcoming some difficulties in current China-Africa cooperation. Only by solving these problems can the goal of "high standards, sustainability, and benefiting the people" be ensured. The main realistic dilemmas facing the high-quality co-construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa are as follows.

从共建“一带一路”到高质量共建“一带一路”，既是中非经济发展的内在需求，也是双方保持可持续合作的必然趋势。但是，高质量共建“一带一路”需要克服当前中非合作中的一些困难，只有解决好这些问题，才能确保实现“高标准、可持续、惠民生”的目标。中非高质量共建“一带一路”面临的主要现实困境有以下几点。

First, the challenge to the sustainability of the existing China-Africa cooperation model. China's Belt and Road Initiative projects in Africa mainly rely on Chinese financing, with relatively single channels, which also places increasingly heavy pressure on China. Some scholars have pointed out that the infrastructure contracting model supported by Chinese state loans is difficult to sustain. Currently, China's provision of infrastructure public goods to Africa faces not only financial and financing sustainability dilemmas but also issues of operation and maintenance after completion, and sometimes triggers dissatisfaction among local populations due to issues such as environmental protection. At the same time, African countries still hold high expectations for the continued investment of Chinese funds. Therefore, while China assumes corresponding responsibilities for aid to Africa, how to maintain a balance between input and output is an important guarantee for ensuring healthy Belt and Road Initiative cooperation and its sustainability.

第一，中非既有合作模式的可持续性挑战。中国在非洲的“一带一路”项目，主要依靠中方进行融资，渠道相对单一，也给中国带来越来越沉重的压力。有学者指出，以中国国家贷款为支撑的基础设施承包建设模式难以持续。当前，中国对非洲提供基础设施公共产品不仅面临财务与融资的可持续性困境，还面临建成后的经营与维护问题，有时也会因环保等问题引发所在国民众的不满。与此同时，非洲国家对中国资金的继续投入仍保持较高的期待。因此，中国在承担对非援助相应责任的同时，如何保持投入与产出的平衡，是确保“一带一路”健康合作及可持续性的重要保障。

The small scale of trade between Africa and China and the long-standing trade deficit are also detrimental to the sustainability of Belt and Road Initiative cooperation between the two sides. Overall, Africa is industrially backward, with underdeveloped manufacturing. The goods exported from Africa to China are mainly agricultural and mineral products. Although China is Africa's largest trading partner, Africa's position in China's trade is relatively low. In 2021, the China-Africa trade volume was far smaller than China's trade volumes with the European Union, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and other regions, and Africa's trade deficit with China reached US$43 billion. The current state of China-Africa trade is fundamentally constrained by the backward industrial conditions and structural problems of African countries, but it also easily triggers nationalist sentiments in some African countries, and even leads to xenophobic resistance to investment, products, and technology from China.

非洲与中国贸易规模小及长期存在贸易逆差，也不利于双方“一带一路”合作的可持续性。非洲总体上工业落后，制造业不发达，非洲出口到中国的商品主要是农矿产品。中国虽然是非洲第一大贸易伙伴，但非洲在中国贸易中的地位较低。2021年，中非贸易额远远小于中国跟欧盟、东南亚、拉美等区域的贸易额，且非洲对中国贸易逆差达430亿美元。中非贸易现状在根本上受制于非洲国家落后的产业状况及结构性问题，但也容易引起部分非洲国家的民族主义情绪，甚至引发对来自中国的投资、产品及技术的排外抵触心理。

Second, some African countries suffer from political instability, poor public security, and a lack of policy continuity. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the socio-economic conditions in some African countries have deteriorated, the gap between rich and poor has widened, youth unemployment has risen, and coups have occurred in several countries. From August 2020 to February 2022, a total of seven coups and attempted coups took place in Africa. In these countries, the new governments after the coups lack the capacity to govern the state, and their legitimacy is questioned, exacerbating political instability. Accompanying the coups is a significant increase in the number of attacks by the Islamic State and remnants of Al-Qaeda affiliates in some African countries (such as Mali, Burkina Faso, etc.). Data shows that between 2020 and 2021, attacks by armed Islamic organizations in African countries increased by 70%. The alternation of old and new governments often leads to the re-examination of existing Belt and Road Initiative projects, increasing the uncertainty of project implementation, while public security issues also affect the personal safety of employees in the project-hosting countries, increasing security costs and construction risks.

第二，部分非洲国家政局动荡、社会治安不佳、政策缺乏连贯性。新冠肺炎疫情发生以来，非洲一些国家的社会经济状况恶化，贫富差距扩大，青年失业率上升，多个国家发生政变。2020年8月至2022年2月，非洲共发生了7次政变及未遂政变。在这些国家，政变后的新政府缺乏治理国家的能力，其合法性遭到质疑，加剧了政局的不稳定性。与政变相伴随的是，部分非洲国家（如马里、布基纳法索等）被伊斯兰国和基地组织残余分支袭击的次数大幅度增多。数据显示，2020年—2021年，武装的伊斯兰组织在非洲国家的袭击次数增加了70%。新旧政府交替常导致既有的“一带一路”项目需要被重新审查，增加了项目落实的不确定性，而社会治安问题也影响到项目所在国员工的人身安全，增加了安保等安全成本及施工风险。

Third, there are differences in the perception of China among different African countries. Although African countries generally have a positive perception of China, it varies by country. The 2021 Afrobarometer shows that in Kenya, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, South Africa, Zambia, and other countries, more than half of the people believe that their governments have borrowed too much from China, posing a risk of a "debt trap." In Tunisia (30%), Zimbabwe (38%), South Africa (40%), Sierra Leone (43%), and Angola (44%), less than half of the people believe that China has had a positive impact on their country. Multiple factors influence public sentiment and perception. For example, some Chinese enterprises, due to insufficient understanding of local laws and regulations, have caused labor disputes and environmental problems, leading to negative emotions among the local population; there is also a rejection mentality among locals regarding the employment of Chinese laborers in their countries; additionally, the narrative of "neocolonialism" and "debt traps" promoted by Western political circles and media regarding China in Africa has also had an undeniable impact on local people.

第三，非洲不同国家对中国的认知存在差异。非洲国家尽管总体上对中国认知积极，但是因国而异。2021年“非洲晴雨表”显示，肯尼亚、埃塞俄比亚、摩洛哥、苏丹、南非、赞比亚等国有超过一半的民众认为，本国政府向中国借贷过高，存在“债务陷阱”的风险。突尼斯（30%）、津巴布韦（38%）、南非（40%）、塞拉利昂（43%）、安哥拉（44%）仅有不到一半的人认为中国对本国产生了积极影响。多重因素影响到民众的情绪与认知。如个别中国企业由于对当地法律法规不够了解导致劳资纠纷、环境问题，引起了当地群众的负面情绪；也有当地人对中国劳工在该国的就业存在排斥心态；另外，西方政界及媒体对中国在非洲搞“新殖民主义”“债务陷阱”的叙事也对当地民众产生了不容忽视的影响。

Fourth, the competition among major powers in Africa is becoming increasingly fierce. In recent years, some countries have become increasingly concerned about the expansion of China's Belt and Road Initiative in Africa, have also placed greater emphasis on engagement with Africa, and have launched strategies towards Africa with a clear competitive color against China. In 2018, the U.S. Congress passed the Better Utilization of Investments Leading to Development Act (BUILD), doubling the default protection fees for U.S. investment in infrastructure projects in developing countries. This is widely seen as a major U.S. attempt to counter China's Belt and Road Initiative infrastructure projects, especially cooperative projects in Africa. After Biden took office, the United States has placed greater emphasis on cooperation with Africa. Although the U.S. is unlikely to increase aid for Africa's economic development, it will demonstrate its influence in areas such as disease prevention, climate change, and promoting democracy. The European Union is a traditional and important aid donor and partner for Africa. The EU has also proposed a response strategy to the rise of China's influence in Africa. In December 2021, the European Commission launched the "Global Gateway" strategy, aiming to "develop smart, clean, and secure digital, energy, and transport industries to strengthen influence in global health, education, and research systems." Africa is an important component of this strategy, which is seen as Europe's response to China's New Silk Road. In addition, India and Japan each have their own platforms for cooperation with Africa, namely the India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) and the Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD). Both countries have extensive cooperation with Mozambique, Zambia, South Africa, and others in agriculture, infrastructure, minerals, and energy.

第四，大国在非洲的博弈越来越激烈。近年来，一些国家对中国“一带一路”倡议在非洲的拓展越来越感到担忧，也更加重视与非洲的交往，并推出了带有明显与中国竞争色彩的对非战略。2018年，美国国会通过《更好利用投资引导发展法案》（BUILD），将美国对发展中国家基础设施项目投资的违约保护费增加了一倍，这被普遍视为美国试图对抗中国“一带一路”基础设施项目的重要法案，特别是在非洲的合作项目。拜登上任后，美国更加重视与非洲的合作。美国虽然不太可能增加对非洲经济发展的援助，但是会在疾病防治、气候变化、促进民主等方面对非洲显示其影响力。欧盟是非洲传统且重要的援助方及合作伙伴。欧盟对中国在非洲影响力的上升也提出了应对战略。2021年12月，欧盟委员会启动了“全球门户”战略(Global Gateway)，旨在“发展智能、清洁及安全的数字、能源和交通产业，以加强在全球卫生、教育和研究系统的影响力”。非洲是该战略的重要组成部分，这被视为欧洲对中国新丝绸之路的回应。此外，印度和日本各自都有同非洲合作的平台，即印度—非洲论坛峰会(IAFS)和东京非洲发展国际会议(TICAD)。两国同莫桑比克、赞比亚和南非等国在农业、基础设施、矿产和能源等方面合作广泛。

Although facing many challenges, the foundation of China-Africa cooperation is solid. By properly addressing issues such as sustainability, policy communication, and precise alignment in bilateral cooperation, the prospects for high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa will be very broad. The main issues that need to be resolved for the future high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa are as follows.

虽然面临诸多挑战，但是中非合作基础牢固，解决好双方合作中的可持续性、政策沟通、精准对接等问题，中非高质量共建“一带一路”的前景将十分广阔。未来中非高质量共建“一带一路”需解决的主要问题有以下几个方面。

First, high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative needs to be precisely aligned with the industries that Africa urgently needs to develop. The high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa needs to pay further attention to the weak links in Africa's industrial development. Africa's agricultural foundation is weak, self-sufficiency has not been achieved, and there is extremely high dependence on external aid and food imports; since the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Africa's food supply issue faces greater security threats. Africa's manufacturing industry also suffers from backward technology, a lack of high-end labor, insufficient output, and quality shortcomings; additionally, Africa's infrastructure gap remains large. Future industrial alignment between China and Africa needs to be empowered by technology and digital technology, developing green ecological agriculture and high-value-added manufacturing, while infrastructure projects must be highly integrated with local industries.

第一，高质量共建“一带一路”需要与非洲亟需发展的产业精准对接。中非高质量共建“一带一路”需要进一步关注非洲产业发展的薄弱环节。非洲农业基础薄弱，自给自足一直没有实现，对外部援助及粮食进口存在极高的依赖；俄乌冲突爆发后，非洲粮食供应问题面临更大的安全威胁。非洲制造业还存在技术落后、缺乏高端劳动力、产出不足及质量短板；另外，非洲的基础设施缺口依然很大。未来中国与非洲的产业对接，需要以科技与数字技术赋能，发展绿色生态农业、高附加值制造业，而基础设施项目要与当地产业实现高度融合。

Second, it is necessary to further improve the cooperation system for the joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) has played an undeniably platform role in promoting the joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between the two sides. However, FOCAC currently faces issues such as institutional innovation, regulation of cooperation scale, and expansion of cooperation content. It also faces pressure from competition with international rules and norms dominated by Western countries, as well as challenges from reduced space for cooperation against the backdrop of strengthened momentum for African integration. Given the current trend of simultaneous enhancement in Africa's integration process and its pursuit of autonomous development, China needs to adopt a two-pronged approach, strengthening institutional cooperation with African countries at both the overall and specific industry levels. On the one hand, it is necessary to promote the establishment of a docking mechanism between the Belt and Road Initiative and African integration. At the top-level design, the docking and policy communication mechanism with the African Union should be strengthened; at the specific project level, the mechanism construction for cross-border infrastructure, digital connectivity, and industrial integration capabilities should be reinforced. On the other hand, it is necessary to deeply understand the needs of each African country and establish cooperation mechanisms around the development of specific industries. For example, an integrated cooperation platform could be established around China-Africa agricultural cooperation, providing one-stop services such as policy communication and investment and financing consulting for China-Africa agricultural development.

第二，需要进一步完善中非共建“一带一路”的合作制度。中非合作论坛在推动双方共建“一带一路”方面发挥了当之无愧的平台作用。但是，当前中非合作论坛面临机制体制创新、合作规模调控、合作内容拓展等问题，也面临西方国家主导的国际规则与规范竞争的压力，同时也面临非洲一体化动力加强背景下合作空间减少的挑战。鉴于当前非洲在一体化进程及本国谋求自主性发展方面同时增强的趋势，中国需要双管齐下，加强与非洲国家在整体和具体产业两个层面的制度合作。一方面，要推动建立“一带一路”与非洲一体化的对接机制。在顶层设计上，要加强与非洲联盟的对接与政策沟通机制；在具体项目上，要强化跨国基础设施、数字互联互通与产业融合能力的机制建设。另一方面，要深入了解各个非洲国家的需求，围绕某一产业发展建立合作机制，如可围绕中非农业合作建立一体化合作平台，为中非农业发展提供政策沟通、投融资咨询等一站式服务。

Third, the high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Africa needs to pay more attention to cultivating the autonomy of Africa's international development. China's aid to Africa has lasted for decades, and this current cooperation model faces challenges of sustainability. Relevant departments need to conduct a comprehensive assessment of Chinese loan-supported projects in Africa, and on this basis, strengthen policy communication with African countries. High-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative should place greater emphasis on cultivating the autonomous development capacity of African countries. It is necessary to explore diversified and flexible methods in investment, financing, and profit returns, and also to mobilize the strength of local African national enterprises, while improving the standardization and transparency of the financing process. Before bidding for projects, Chinese enterprises should strengthen the assessment of the local government's ability to effectively maintain the operation of the project after delivery, to avoid resource waste caused by the other party's inability to operate after project delivery, or even damage to the reputation of Chinese contracted projects.

第三，中非高质量共建“一带一路”需更加注重培育非洲国际发展的自主性。中国对非援助已经持续了几十年，当前这种合作模式面临可持续性的挑战。有关部门有必要对中国贷款支持的非洲项目进行全面评估，在此基础上加强与非洲国家的政策沟通。高质量共建“一带一路”应更加重视非洲国家的自主发展能力培养，在投融资及利润回报上需探索多元灵活的方式，也需要调动非洲本土民族企业的力量，同时提高融资过程的规范性与透明度。中国企业在竞标项目之前，要加强对项目交付之后当地政府能否有效维持其运转的能力评估，避免在交付项目之后，对方因无力经营而导致资源浪费，甚至令中国承建项目的声誉受损。

Fourth, tell the story of China-Africa Belt and Road Initiative cooperation well, and provide positive guidance for public opinion related to China in Africa. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, Western countries have intensified their smear campaigns against China and the Belt and Road Initiative projects, which has had a negative impact on some African people. Currently, there is a cognitive gap of "government enthusiasm, public indifference" regarding China and the Belt and Road Initiative projects in Africa. The Chinese government and enterprises need to strengthen communication and exchange with local people through multiple channels, especially by selecting talents who understand the local language and culture to localize the promotion of China's Belt and Road Initiative story; in addition, it is necessary to fully leverage the natural advantages of local employees trained by Chinese enterprises, who understand both Chinese culture and can easily communicate with local people, guiding them to strengthen the promotion of Chinese culture, Chinese brands, and Belt and Road Initiative projects, which will achieve twice the result with half the effort.

第四，讲好中非“一带一路”合作故事，做好对非涉华舆情的正面引导。新冠肺炎疫情发生以来，西方国家加大了对中国及“一带一路”项目的抹黑宣传，对部分非洲民众产生了负面影响。当前中国及“一带一路”项目在非洲存在“政府热、民间冷”的认知温差。中国政府、企业需要多渠道加强与当地民众的沟通交流，特别是需要选派一些懂当地语言、了解当地文化的人才，将中国“一带一路”的故事进行本地化宣传；另外，要充分发挥中国企业培训的当地员工既懂中国文化、又易与当地民众沟通的天然优势，引导他们加强对中国文化、中国品牌及“一带一路”项目的宣传，这将发挥事半功倍的效果。

Practice has proven that China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation has clear objectives, is advanced pragmatically, and has established stable and close cooperation mechanisms, making Belt and Road projects an inevitable choice for building a China-Africa community with a shared future. Under the current complex international situation, China needs to take “high standards, sustainability, and betterment of people’s livelihoods” as its goals, to raise the quality of China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation and ensure that China-Africa cooperation proceeds steadily and sustainably. Although China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation faces many problems and challenges, it also contains new opportunities for improving the quality of cooperation. The Chinese government and enterprises need to fully recognize the current problems in China-Africa Belt and Road cooperation, take the resolution of these problems as a lever, and push China-Africa cooperation to a higher stage.

实践证明，中国与非洲共建“一带一路”目标明确、务实推进，并建立了稳定、密切的合作机制，使“一带一路”项目成为构建中非命运共同体的必然选择。在当前复杂的国际形势下，中国需要以“高标准、可持续、惠民生”为目标，提升中非共建“一带一路”的质量，确保中非合作行稳致远。中非“一带一路”合作尽管存在诸多问题与挑战，但同时蕴含着提高合作质量的新机遇。中国政府与企业需要充分认识到当前中非“一带一路”合作中的问题，以解决这些问题为抓手，将中非合作推向更高的阶段。

(Author: Tong Fei, Director and Associate Researcher of the Security Research Office, China-Africa Institute)

（作者：仝菲，中国非洲研究院安全研究室主任、副研究员）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心