A Study of the Development of Vietnam’s Socialist Democratic Theory since the Đổi Mới Reform and Opening Up

Theoretical exploration is a key link in the construction of democratic politics and an indispensable driving force for political progress. Socialist democracy is one of the three pillars of the Vietnamese socialist model, serving as both the goal and the driving force of the Đổi Mới reform and opening up, national development, and the socialist construction cause, and it holds an important position in Vietnamese socialist theory and practice. Vietnamese socialist democratic theory is guided by Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi Minh Thought, takes affirming the role and status of the people in the democratic political system as its basic principle, and takes building a state that belongs to the people, comes from the people, and serves the people as its value orientation; it is an important component of Vietnamese socialist theory. The Communist Party of Vietnam, through long-term practice, has continuously developed socialist democratic theory, providing important guidance for Vietnam’s construction of socialist democratic politics, also offering a useful reference for constructing a discourse system of socialist democracy, and contributing experience to the development of democracy under the conditions of a socialist market economy.

理论探索是民主政治建设中的关键环节，是推进政治进步不可或缺的动力。社会主义民主是越南社会主义模式的三大支柱之一，是革新开放、国家发展、社会主义建设事业的目标和动力，在越南社会主义理论与实践中具有重要地位。越南社会主义民主理论以马克思列宁主义、胡志明思想为指导，以肯定人民在民主政治制度中的作用和地位为基本遵循，以建立属于人民、来自人民和为了人民的国家为价值旨归，是越南社会主义理论的重要组成部分。越南共产党在长期实践中不断发展社会主义民主理论，为越南的社会主义民主政治建设提供了重要指导，也为构建社会主义民主的话语体系提供了有益借鉴，为社会主义市场经济条件下发展民主贡献了经验。

I. The Background of Vietnam’s Development of Socialist Democratic Theory since the Đổi Mới Reform and Opening Up

一、革新开放以来越南发展社会主义民主理论的背景

Since the Đổi Mới reform and opening up, Vietnam’s socialist democratic theory and practice have developed rapidly, and the people have intuitively felt the realization of democracy in their lives. The level and height of democratic theory determine the effectiveness and realm of democratic practice. The development of democratic theory has its own laws of development. It is necessary to correctly understand the historical position of the economy and society and to develop a theory that is compatible with them.

革新开放以来越南社会主义民主理论与实践快速发展，人民直观感受到生活中民主的实现。民主理论的水平和高度决定民主实践的效度和境界。民主理论的发展有其自身发展的规律。要正确认识经济、社会所处的历史方位，发展与之相适应的理论。

(I) Economic Reform and Transformation Drive the Renewal of Democratic Theory

（一）经济革新转型推动民主理论更新

The economic base has a decisive role in the superstructure, including the political system and ideological concepts. Economic transformation drives the renewal of democratic concepts and requires democratic theory to adapt to the requirements of reform and to continuously develop and enrich itself. The Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam put forward the policy of Đổi Mới reform and opening up and emphasized “the guiding principle of ‘taking the people as the root’ and the democratic requirements of ‘the people know, the people discuss, the people do, the people inspect’.” [1]1 The phrase “taking the people as the root” (dân vi gốc) is a Vietnamese adaptation of the classical Chinese Confucian concept of “the people as the root of the state” (民惟邦本). The slogan “the people know, the people discuss, the people do, the people inspect” (dân biết, dân bàn, dân làm, dân kiểm tra) is a standard Vietnamese Communist Party formulation for grassroots democratic participation.

经济基础对上层建筑，包括政治制度和思想观念，具有决定性作用。经济转型推动民主观念更新，并要求民主理论适应革新要求，持续发展丰富。越南共产党第六次全国代表大会提出革新开放的政策，并强调了“‘以民为本’的指导原则和‘民知、民谈、民做、民检’的民主要求”。

After the Đổi Mới reform and opening up, Vietnam shifted from a planned, closed economic model to a market-oriented, open economic system. To attract more foreign investment, the Vietnamese National Assembly passed a new Law on Foreign Investment in 1988, allowing foreign enterprises to establish wholly-owned companies and granting tax incentives. In 1990, the law was further revised, expanding the scope of international cooperation for the private economy. In 2020, Vietnam further simplified the approval process for foreign-invested enterprises and increased tax incentives and rent reductions for agriculture, education, and supporting industries. Vietnam joined the World Trade Organization in 2007 and became a negotiating member of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (hereinafter referred to as “TPP”) in 2010. To join the TPP, Vietnam formulated relevant policies in areas such as industrial policy, market opening, government functions, and state-owned enterprise reform, promoting domestic economic system reform and industrial restructuring. These measures significantly promoted Vietnam’s economic transformation and internationalization process.

革新开放后，越南从计划的、封闭的经济模式，转向市场导向的、开放的经济体制。为吸引更多外资，越南国会于1988年通过新的《外国投资法》，允许外企设立独资公司并实行税收优惠。1990年又对该法律做了进一步修订，扩大了私营经济国际合作的范围。2020年，越南进一步简化了对外资企业的审批流程，加大了对农业、教育和辅助工业的税收优惠与租金减免。越南2007年加入世界贸易组织，2010年成为跨太平洋伙伴关系协定（以下简称“TPP”）的谈判成员。为加入TPP，越南在产业政策、市场开放、政府职能、国有企业改革等方面制定相关政策, 促进国内经济体制改革和产业结构调整。这些举措显著推动了越南的经济转型和国际化进程。

Vietnam’s steady economic growth has provided a material foundation for the innovative development of democratic theory. Economic reform requires Vietnam to pay attention to the needs of the market and society when formulating and implementing economic policies, and to attach importance to citizens’ rights and social fairness, so as to ensure that the fruits of economic growth can fairly benefit the broad masses of the people. The existing socialist democratic theory has clearly become unable to continue explaining and guiding Vietnam’s democratic practice, and there is an urgent need to develop a democratic theory compatible with the economic level.

越南经济的稳步增长为民主理论的创新发展提供了物质基础。经济革新要求越南在制定和执行经济政策时重视市场和社会的需求，重视公民权利和社会公平，以确保经济增长的成果能够公正地惠及广大民众。既有的社会主义民主理论显然已经无法继续解释和指导越南的民主实践，亟需发展与经济水平相适应的民主理论。

(II) Political System Reform Requires the Synchronous Development of Democratic Theory

（二）政治体制改革要求民主理论同步发展

The Communist Party of Vietnam advocates the coordinated promotion of economic reform and political reform, taking economic development as the center and Party building as the key, focusing on developing the economy, and relying on economic achievements to gradually innovate the political system, theoretical thinking, economic thinking, work style, and the Party’s leadership methods.

越南共产党主张统筹推进经济革新与政治革新，以经济发展为中心、党建为关键，着力发展经济，依靠经济成就逐步创新政治体系、理论思维、经济思维、工作风格和党的领导方式。

The achievements of Vietnam’s political reform are remarkable, especially reflected in the major reforms of the National Assembly, the administrative system, and the judicial system. National Assembly reform is the “bellwether” of political reform. Vietnam has strengthened the role of the National Assembly in the supervision system and enhanced its status and responsibility in deciding major national issues, significantly raising the people’s awareness of participation and enthusiasm, making the National Assembly an important platform for the people to express their will and supervise the government. In 2001, the Vietnamese government approved the “Master Plan for National Administrative Reform 2001-2010,” which had four important reform dimensions: institutional reform, organizational reform, civil service development, and public finance. The goal was to “build a democratic, clean, strong, professional, modern, effective, and efficient national administrative system.” The reform created an atmosphere of democracy and openness in Vietnamese society and established corresponding mechanisms to safeguard the people’s democratic rights.

越南政治革新的成效显著，尤其体现在国会、行政和司法体系的重大改革中。国会改革是政治革新的“领头羊”。越南加强了国会在监督体系中的作用，并提高了国会在决定国家重大问题上的地位和责任，显著提升了人民群众的参与意识和积极性，使国会成为民众表达意愿和监督政府的重要平台。2001年越南政府批准了《2001—2010年国家行政改革总体计划》，该计划共有制度改革、组织改革、公务员发展与公共财政四个重要改革面向，目标是“建立一个民主、廉洁、坚强、专业、现代化的、活动有效力和高效的国家行政体系”。改革在越南社会上形成了一种民主和开放的氛围，为保障人民的民主权利确立了相应的机制。

When reviewing the achievements and shortcomings of the 30 years of Đổi Mới reform, the Twelfth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam pointed out that “political system reform is not synchronized with economic reform, and the capacity and effectiveness of the political system do not meet the requirements of the tasks,” and emphasized that once reform deviates from or violates the interests of the people, it is bound to fail. The aspirations and creative practices of the people are one of the bases for the formation of the Communist Party of Vietnam’s reform line. Reform must implement the viewpoint of “taking the people as the root,” unleash the people’s strength, seek benefits for the people, and ensure that all power belongs to the people.

越南共产党第十二次全国代表大会回顾革新30年取得的成效与不足时，指出“政治体制改革与经济革新不同步，政治体系的能力和成效达不到任务要求”，并强调一旦革新偏离或违背人民群众的利益，必将遭遇失败。人民群众的愿望和创造性实践是越南共产党革新路线形成的依据之一，革新必须贯彻“以民为本”的观点，发挥人民力量，为人民谋利益，保障一切权力属于人民。

With the continuous deepening of the Đổi Mới reform and opening up, the Communist Party of Vietnam not only faces the threat of peaceful evolution by foreign forces under the guise of “freedom” and “human rights,” but must also be constantly vigilant against the erosion of its political authority by domestic and intra-Party interest groups, preventing “self-evolution” and “self-transformation.” [2]2 “Self-evolution” (tự diễn biến) and “self-transformation” (tự chuyển hóa) are Vietnamese Communist Party terms referring to the internal ideological and organizational decay of Party members and cadres, often linked to the influence of hostile external forces. Therefore, constructing a socialist democratic discourse system and promoting the construction of socialist democratic politics is an inevitable requirement for “defeating hostile and reactionary forces” and building a “clean and strong Party and political system.”

随着革新开放的持续深入，越南共产党不仅面临国外势力打着“自由”“人权”等幌子进行和平演变的威胁，也要时刻警惕国内、党内利益集团对其政治权威的侵蚀，防止“自我演变”和“自我转化”。因此，构建社会主义民主话语体系，推动社会主义民主政治建设是“挫败敌对和反动势力”、建设“廉洁强大的党和政治体系”的必然要求。

(III) Changes in Social Structure Require a Response from Democratic Theory

（三）社会结构变迁需要民主理论回应

With the deepening of reform, especially the establishment of the socialist-oriented market economy system, Vietnam’s social structure has undergone significant changes, with new social strata such as private entrepreneurs and the middle class emerging. Since 2002, the proportion of the middle class in Vietnam’s total population has gradually increased, from 10.8% in 2002 to 35.3% in 2018, with an average annual growth rate of 1.5%. In contrast, the proportion of farmers decreased from 58.0% in 2002 to 39.2% in 2018, with an average annual decline rate of 1.2%, as the scale of farmers shrank and they moved towards the middle class. However, it should be noted that although Vietnam’s poverty reduction work has achieved certain results, the wealth gap between different strata remains a serious problem, and due to income inequality, there are significant differences in the quality of life between the rich and the poor.

随着革新的深入发展特别是社会主义定向的市场经济体制的建立，越南的社会结构发生了显著变化，新的社会阶层如私营企业家、中产阶层等出现。2002年以来，越南中产阶层占总人口的比例逐渐上升，从10.8%增长到2018年的35.3%，年平均增长率为1.5%。相比之下，农民的比例从2002年的58.0%下降到2018年的39.2%，年平均下降率为1.2%，农民规模缩小，向中产阶层迈进。但要注意的是，虽然越南的减贫工作取得了一定的成绩，但是不同阶层之间的贫富差距仍然是一个严重问题，由于收入不平等，富人和穷人的生活质量存在明显差异。

With the changes in Vietnam’s social structure, especially the continuous expansion of opening up and the popularization of the internet, the lifestyles and value concepts of rural and urban residents have undergone significant changes. People have begun to pay more attention to their own rights and obligations, as well as the impact of policies on personal life. In particular, the rapid development of information technology has brought diverse life experiences and broader channels for opinion expression to the Vietnamese people, with social media and online forums becoming new platforms for discussing social issues. Against this background, the Communist Party of Vietnam regards socialist democracy as the driving force of reform and emphasizes the need to integrate the interests and demands of various strata through democratic mechanisms, in order to achieve social harmony and stability and the great unity of the entire nation. Developing socialist democratic theory is not only a requirement for Vietnam’s socialist construction cause but also an inevitable choice for Vietnam’s political development under the conditions of opening up and globalization.

随着越南社会结构的变化，特别是对外开放的持续扩大和互联网的普及，农村和城市居民的生活方式及价值观念发生了显著改变，人民开始更加关注自身权利和义务以及政策对个人生活的影响。尤其是信息技术的快速发展为越南人民带来了多样化的生活体验和更广泛的意见表达渠道，其中社交媒体和网络论坛等成为探讨社会问题的新平台。在这一背景下，越南共产党将社会主义民主视为革新的动力，强调要通过民主机制统合各阶层的利益诉求，以实现社会的和谐稳定和全民族的大团结。发展社会主义民主理论不仅是越南进行社会主义事业建设的要求，也是对外开放和全球化背景下越南政治发展的必然选择。

II. The Development of Vietnam’s Understanding of Socialist Democratic Theory since the Đổi Mới Reform and Opening Up

二、革新开放以来越南社会主义民主认识理论的发展

After the Đổi Mới reform and opening up, the Communist Party of Vietnam realized that the construction of democratic politics must be combined with the country’s specific conditions. Its socialist democratic theory gradually exhibited more Vietnamese characteristics in the process of localizing Marxism, forming a series of new understandings. “The Communist Party of Vietnam’s theory on democracy and socialist democracy has continuously made new progress, gaining a more fully and profoundly deeper understanding of the essence, form, nature, role, and status of socialist democracy.”

革新开放后，越南共产党意识到民主政治建设必须与本国国情相结合,其社会主义民主理论逐渐在马克思主义本土化的过程中呈现出更多越南特色，形成了一系列新认识。“越南共产党关于民主和社会主义民主的理论不断取得新进展，更加充分深刻认识社会主义民主的本质、形式、性质、作用、地位。”

(I) The Understanding of the Essence of Socialist Democracy is Continuously Renewed

（一）对社会主义民主本质的认识不断更新

The Fourth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam proposed that the prerequisite for the socialist revolution is to establish and continuously strengthen the dictatorship of the proletariat, establish a socialist system of collective mastery, and realize and continuously bring into play the collective mastery rights of the working people. "Establishing a socialist system of collective mastery means building our country into a society where the organized working people, with the working class as the leading force and the worker-peasant alliance as the backbone, are the true masters, and the social community is the true master." [3]3 The Fourth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam was held in December 1976, shortly after the reunification of North and South Vietnam. It formally adopted the line of socialist construction for the entire country. In particular, to establish collective mastery rights in the economy, it was required that "the capitalist private ownership system must be abolished, the individual ownership of peasants and handicraft workers must be transformed, and through appropriate methods and steps, two forms of socialist ownership must be established: ownership by the whole people and ownership by the collective."

越南共产党第四次全国代表大会提出，社会主义革命的先决条件是建立和不断加强无产阶级专政，建立社会主义集体作主制度，实现和不断发挥劳动人民的集体作主权，“建立社会主义集体作主制度就是将我国建设成以工人阶级为领导、以工农联盟为骨干的有组织的劳动人民集体为真正主人、社会共同体为真正主人的社会”。特别是为了建立经济上的集体作主权，要求“必须取消资本主义私有制，改造农民和手工业者的个体所有制，通过适当的方法和步骤，确立两种形式的社会主义所有制：全民所有制和集体所有制”。

The convening of the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam marked the beginning of reform and opening up. The congress drew lessons from the period since Vietnam's reunification in judging the national conditions and determining the goals and steps of socialist construction, and decided to reform the economic structure and the economic management system. However, Vietnamese socialist democratic theory was not simultaneously reformed; it still inherited the previous understanding of the essence of democracy. After a period of reform, the Communist Party of Vietnam gradually realized that the forms of ownership by the whole people and ownership by the collective did not conform to Vietnam's level of economic development and actual conditions at the time. The Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam formed a new understanding of socialist democracy, beginning to no longer use the concepts of "collective mastery rights" and "system of collective mastery." Nguyen Van Linh pointed out at the congress: "Democracy is the law of the formation, development, and self-perfection of the socialist political system." [4]4 Nguyen Van Linh (1915–1998) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 1986 to 1991, and is regarded as the architect of the Đổi Mới (Renovation) reforms. The "Platform for National Construction in the Period of Transition to Socialism" (hereinafter referred to as the "1991 Platform") adopted by the congress stated: Socialist democracy is ensuring that all power belongs to the people.

越南共产党第六次全国代表大会的召开标志着革新开放的开始，大会吸取了越南统一以来在判断国情、确定社会主义建设目标和步骤方面的教训，决定对经济结构和经济管理体制进行革新。但是，越南社会主义民主理论并未同步革新，仍旧继承了此前对民主本质的认识。经过一段时间的改革后，越南共产党逐渐认识到全民所有制和集体所有制形式不符合当时越南的经济发展水平与现实条件。越南共产党第七次全国代表大会形成了对社会主义民主新的认识，开始不再使用“集体作主权”和“集体作主制度”的概念。阮文灵在会上指出：“民主是社会主义政治制度的形成、发展和自我完善的规律。”大会通过的《社会主义过渡时期国家建设纲领》（以下简称“1991年纲领”）中指出：社会主义民主是确保所有权力属于人民。

(II) The understanding of the subject of socialist democracy is continuously deepened

（二）对社会主义民主主体的认识不断深化

The 1991 Platform summarized the experience of the revolutionary cause as "of the people, by the people, for the people," pointing out that the characteristic of Vietnamese socialism is "the working people are the masters of the country." The change from "working people" to "people" not only represents a further deepening of the understanding of the subject of socialist democracy but also reflects the development of theory adapting to the practice of reform and opening up: updating class concepts, promoting national unity, and emphasizing the role of entrepreneurs and the private economy.

1991年纲领总结革命事业“属于人民、来自人民、为了人民”的经验，指出越南社会主义特点就是“劳动人民当家作主”。。由“劳动人民”改为“人民”，既是对社会主义民主主体认识的进一步深化，也体现了理论适应革新开放实践的发展：更新阶级观念，促进民族团结，强调企业家和私营经济的作用。

Vietnamese socialist democracy has a distinct class character and broad mass character. Its Constitution clearly states: "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a socialist rule-of-law state of the people, by the people, and for the people," and "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a state where the people are the masters; all state power belongs to the people, based on the alliance between the working class, the peasant class, and the intelligentsia." [5]5 The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was most recently amended in 2013. "People" is a concept that includes all Vietnamese citizens, regardless of age, gender, wealth, ethnicity, class, belief, or religion, and treats everyone equally. The working people, composed of the working class, the peasant class, and the intelligentsia, constitute the vast majority of the "people." Ensuring that state power truly serves the interests of the majority of society is the essence of socialism, which determines that the working people are the foundation of state power in Vietnam, reflecting a distinct class character. Vietnamese socialist democracy is based on the alliance of the working class, the peasant class, and the intelligentsia, led by the Communist Party, and is committed to serving the interests of the working class, the people, and the entire nation, reflecting its broad mass character.

越南社会主义民主具有鲜明的阶级性与广泛的群众性，其宪法明确指出：“越南社会主义共和国是属于人民的、由人民所组成、一切为了人民的社会主义法制国家”，“越南社会主义共和国由人民当家作主，国家的一切权力属于以工人阶级与农民阶级和知识分子队伍之间的联盟为基础的人民”。“人民”是一个所有人平等的，不分年龄、性别、贫富、民族、阶级、信仰和宗教，包括所有越南公民的概念。工人阶级、农民阶级和知识分子所构成的劳动人民，占了“人民”中的绝大多数。确保国家权力真正为社会大多数人服务的社会主义本质决定了劳动人民阶层是越南国家权力的基础，体现了鲜明的阶级性。越南的社会主义民主以工人阶级与农民阶级和知识分子的联盟为基础，由共产党领导，致力于服务于工人阶级、人民以及整个民族的利益，体现了广泛的群众性。

(III) The status of socialist democracy continues to rise

（三）社会主义民主的地位持续提高

The status of socialist democracy in the reports of successive National Congresses of the Communist Party of Vietnam and the programmatic documents issued has been continuously elevated, indicating that the Communist Party of Vietnam increasingly values the role of democratic principles within the Party and in national development. The Eighth and Ninth National Congresses of the Communist Party of Vietnam successively included "democracy" in the overall goals of national construction and revolution, emphasizing the need to continue promoting reform and opening up, ensuring that democracy is reflected in policy resolutions and implementation processes, and achieving the goal of a prosperous people, a strong country, social fairness, democracy, and civilization, thereby raising high the banner of democracy. The Eleventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam adopted the "Platform for National Construction in the Period of Transition to Socialism (2011 Supplement)" (hereinafter referred to as the "2011 Platform"). The 2011 Platform stipulates that the socialist society built by the Vietnamese people is a society of prosperous people, strong country, democracy, fairness, and civilization, owned by the people. Placing democracy before fairness means that the Communist Party of Vietnam regards democracy as an important means and foundation for achieving fairness, prosperity, and social stability, representing a more complete and accurate understanding of the role of democracy. Nguyen Phu Trong delivered a report at the Twelfth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam titled "Strengthen the Building of a Pure, Strong Party; Bring into Full Play the Strength of the Entire Nation and Socialist Democracy; Comprehensively and Coordinately Promote the New Revolutionary Cause; Firmly Defend the Fatherland, Maintain a Peaceful and Stable Environment; Strive to Basically Turn Vietnam into a Modern Industrialized Country at an Early Date." [6]6 Nguyen Phu Trong (1944–2024) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 2011 until his death. Socialist democracy became the theme of the congress, indicating that it had reached a new height in Vietnam's political life.

社会主义民主在越南共产党历届全国代表大会报告和出台的纲领性文件中的地位不断提升，这表明越南共产党越来越重视民主原则在党内和国家发展中的作用。越南共产党第八次、第九次全国代表大会先后把“民主”列入国家建设和革命总体目标，强调了要继续推进革新开放，确保在政策决议和执行过程中体现民主，实现民富国强、社会公平、民主、文明的目标，高高举起了民主的旗帜。越南共产党第十一次全国代表大会通过了《社会主义过渡时期国家建设纲领（2011年补充案）》（以下简称“2011年纲领”）。2011年纲领规定：越南人民建设的社会主义社会是一个民富、国强、民主、公平、文明的社会，由人民拥有。将民主置于公平之前，意味着越南共产党认为民主是实现公平、繁荣和社会稳定的重要手段和基础，是对民主作用的更为充分和准确的认识。阮富仲在越南共产党第十二次全国代表大会上作了题为《加强建设纯洁、强大的党；发挥全民族和社会主义民主的力量；全面协调推动革命新事业；牢牢保卫祖国，保持和平稳定环境；为早日把越南基本建成现代化工业国而奋斗》的报告，社会主义民主成为大会主题，这表明其在越南的政治生活中达到新的高度。

Socialist democracy has been successively identified as the goal and driving force of "reform and opening up," "the cause of reform, construction, and defense of Vietnamese socialism," "national development," and "the cause of socialist construction." The 1991 Platform pointed out that the essence of reforming and perfecting the national political system is to build socialist democracy, which is both "the goal and the driving force of reform and opening up." The Tenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam further enriched this theory, proposing that socialist democracy is both the goal and driving force of the cause of reform, construction, and defense of Vietnamese socialism, and also reflects the close relationship between the Party, the state, and the people, clearly stating the need to gradually build and perfect socialist democracy and guarantee the rights of the people. The 2011 Platform regarded socialist democracy as the goal and driving force of "national development," pointing out that "socialist democracy is the essence of the Vietnamese state system, and is both the goal and the driving force of national development. Establish and gradually perfect socialist democracy, ensuring that democracy is realized in actual life at all levels and in all fields." Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized in 2021: "Democracy is the essence of socialism; it is both the goal and the driving force of the cause of socialist construction."

社会主义民主先后被确定为“革新开放”“革新、建设和保卫越南社会主义事业”“国家发展”“社会主义建设事业”的目标和动力。1991年纲领指出，国家政治体系改革和完善的本质是建设社会主义民主，这既是“革新开放的目标，也是动力”。越南共产党第十次全国代表大会进一步丰富了这一理论，提出社会主义民主既是革新、建设和保卫越南社会主义事业的目标与动力，也体现了党、国家和人民之间的密切关系，明确指出要逐步建设和完善社会主义民主，保障人民的权利。2011年纲领则将社会主义民主作为“国家发展”的目标和动力，指出“社会主义民主是越南国家制度的本质，既是国家发展的目标，又是国家发展的动力。建立和逐步完善社会主义民主，保证民主在各级、各领域的实际生活中得到实现”。阮富仲在2021年强调：“民主是社会主义的本质，它既是社会主义建设事业的目标，也是动力。

(IV) The connotation of socialist democracy is continuously enriched

（四）社会主义民主内涵不断丰富

The Communist Party of Vietnam's understanding of the connotation of democracy and socialist democracy has expanded to include the political system, values, forms of social organization and principles, as well as democracy in politics, economy, culture, society, and other aspects. Nguyen Phu Trong clearly pointed out: "Democracy is the essence of socialism... Building socialist democracy, ensuring that power truly belongs to the people, is an important long-term task of the Vietnamese revolution." He believes that socialist democracy is not only a political system but also a social system, a fundamental principle in all fields of socialist society. The society Vietnam pursues is people-centered, focusing on social progress and fairness, rather than exploiting human dignity for profit; it is a society that advocates benevolence, unity, mutual assistance, and progress, opposing serving only a minority and unfair competition; it is a society that ensures power truly belongs to, comes from, and serves the people, rather than serving only a few wealthy people. From a comparative perspective, the Communist Party of Vietnam believes that socialist democracy transcends "liberal democracy." "The democratic system based on the 'democratic freedom' formula that Western countries are enthusiastically promoting and imposing on the world cannot guarantee the most fundamental elements of democracy, where power truly belongs to the people, is exercised by the people, and serves the people. This power system is mainly still in the hands of a minority of wealthy people and serves those large capitalist groups."

越南共产党对民主和社会主义民主内涵的认识扩展到了政治制度、价值观、社会组织方式和原则，以及政治、经济、文化、社会等各个方面的民主。阮富仲明确指出：“民主是社会主义的本质……建设社会主义民主，确保权力真正属于人民，是越南革命长期的重要任务。”他认为，社会主义民主不仅是一种政治制度，更是一种社会制度，是社会主义社会所有领域的基本原则。越南追求的社会是以人为本，注重社会进步和公平，而非剥削人的尊严以谋求利润的社会；是倡导仁爱、团结、互助和进步，反对仅服务于少数人和不公平竞争的社会；是确保权力真正属于、来自和服务于人民，而非仅为少数富人服务的社会。从比较视野看，越南共产党认为社会主义民主是对“自由民主”的超越，“西方国家正在全球热衷推广、强加于全世界的‘民主自由’公式的民主体制无法保障权力真正属于人民、由人民行使、为人民服务的民主最根本要素。这个权力体系主要还掌握在少数富裕人群的手中并服务于那些大型的资本主义集团”。

Socialist democracy is Vietnam’s mode of state organization and the principle of political and social organization. This is manifested in the social value embodied in the guarantee of citizens’ rights and obligations and the degree of political participation, as well as in the outlook on life, worldview, and operational aims of various political and social forces. Vietnamese socialist democracy both emphasizes the leading role of a specific class and focuses on the common well-being of the entire society and the common interests of all the people; it both reflects the characteristics of Vietnam’s history, culture, and society and conforms to the common values of all humanity. It is “a unity between class character and people’s character, between national character and human character.”

社会主义民主是越南国家的组织方式、政治和社会组织的原则，这体现在公民权利义务保障和政治参与程度中的社会价值，以及各政治社会力量的人生观、世界观和活动宗旨上。越南社会主义民主既强调特定阶级的领导作用，又着眼于整个社会的共同福祉和全体人民的共同利益；既体现越南历史、文化和社会的特点，又符合全人类共同价值，是“阶级性与人民性、民族性与人类性之间的统一”。

III. The Development of Vietnam’s Theory of Socialist Democratic Construction since Reform and Opening Up

三、革新开放以来越南社会主义民主建设理论的发展

With the deepening of understanding of the essence, subject, status, and content of socialist democracy, the Communist Party of Vietnam has formed a series of theories on the construction of socialist democratic politics, namely: adhering to one overall model, grasping two important relationships, implementing three basic forms, and carrying out five main principles.

随着对社会主义民主本质、主体、地位、内涵认识的深化，越南共产党形成了关于社会主义民主政治建设的一系列理论，即坚持一个总体模式、把握两对重要关系、落实三种基本形式、贯彻五项主要原则。

(1) Adhering to the Overall Model of Socialist Democratic Political Construction

（一）坚持社会主义民主政治建设总体模式

The democratic mechanism currently implemented in Vietnam is a system led by the Party, managed by the state, and with the people as masters. The Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam [7]7 The Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (1986) initiated the Đổi Mới (Renovation) reforms, shifting from a centrally planned economy to a socialist-oriented market economy. determined the relationship among Party leadership, the people as masters, and state management as the common mechanism for managing the entire society. The Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam [8]8 The Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee (1987) further elaborated on political system reform within the Đổi Mới framework. began to use the concept of the “political system” and established Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters as the overall operational model of Vietnam’s political system. The Communist Party of Vietnam holds that the organization and operation of the political system are aimed at strengthening the leading role of the Party, enhancing the effectiveness of state management, promoting the people’s status as masters, strengthening the power and effectiveness of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and making the operation of organizations within the political system more dynamic and effective. “Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters are the most significant and fundamental relationships in Vietnam’s political and legal life.” All national congresses since the Eleventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam [9]9 The Eleventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (2011) adopted the 2011 Constitution and emphasized the socialist rule-of-law state. have emphasized the need to grasp and properly handle the relationship among these three. The Thirteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam [10]10 The Thirteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (2021) set the strategic direction for 2021-2030, focusing on national development and socialist democracy. added the Fatherland Front and other social organizations to this relationship, stipulating “Party leadership, state management, and the Fatherland Front and other political-social organizations as the pillars of the people as masters.” Resolution No. 28 adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam [11]11 Resolution No. 28 of the Sixth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee (2022) addressed the continuation of political system reform and the perfection of the overall operational model. once again emphasized strengthening and consolidating this relationship, requiring “continued research to perfect the overall model of the organizational structure of the political system, ensuring the smooth operation of the mechanism of ‘Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters.’”

越南当前实行的民主机制是一个由党领导、国家管理、人民当家作主的系统。越南共产党第六次全国代表大会把党的领导、人民当家作主、国家管理的关系确定为管理全社会的共同机制，越南共产党第六届中央委员会第六次全体会议开始使用“政治体系”的概念，并把党领导、国家管理、人民当家作主确定为越南政治体系的总体运作模式。越南共产党认为，政治体系的组织和运作是为了加强党的领导作用，提高国家管理的效能，促进人民的主人翁地位，增强无产阶级专政的力量和效能，并使政治体系中的组织运作更加充满活力和效力。“党领导、国家管理、人民当家作主是越南政治法律生活中最为重大和基本的关系”，越南共产党第十一次全国代表大会以来的历届全国代表大会都强调要注意把握和妥善处理三者之间的关系。越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会在这一关系中加入祖国阵线和其他社会组织，规定“党领导，国家管理，祖国阵线和其他政治社会组织作为人民当家作主的支柱”。越南共产党第十三届中央委员会第六次全体会议通过的第二十八号决议再次强调加强和巩固这种关系，要求“继续研究，完善政治体系组织结构的总体模式，顺畅运行‘党领导，国家管理，人民当家作主’的机制”。

The Party, the state, and the people are three elements in Vietnam’s political system that have a dialectically unified relationship. The Communist Party of Vietnam leads the political system while also being a part of it; Party leadership is the prerequisite for ensuring the operation of the mechanism. The organizational system of the Communist Party of Vietnam is implemented in accordance with the organizational system of the state, leading through the state. The responsibility of the state is to promptly institutionalize the Party’s guidelines and lines into policies and laws, and to promptly and thoroughly organize the implementation of these policies and laws. State management is the key factor that directly determines the success and efficiency of the mechanism’s operation. The people as masters is the core element of this model; the power of both the Communist Party of Vietnam and the state originates from the people.

党、国家、人民是越南政治体系中三个具有辩证统一关系的要素。越南共产党领导政治体系，同时又是政治体系的一部分，党的领导是确保机制运作的先决条件。越南共产党的组织制度是按照国家的组织制度施行的，通过国家来领导。国家的责任是要将党的主张、路线及时制度化成政策、法律，并及时、彻底地组织实施这些政策、法律。国家管理是直接决定机制运作是否成功与效率高低的关键因素。人民当家作主是这一模式的核心要素，越南共产党和国家的权力都源于人民。

Vietnamese socialist democratic theory organically unifies these three in serving the interests of the people. Nguyen Phu Trong [12]12 Nguyen Phu Trong (1944-) is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam since 2011, a key theorist of Vietnamese socialist democracy. emphasized that through the political model of Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters, the leadership methods of the Communist Party of Vietnam and the management methods of the state are continuously renewed, making socialist democracy truly a goal and driving force for development, creating an environment and conditions for the people to be masters in reality. “The relationship among the Party, the state, and the people is a relationship in which the goals and interests of each subject are unified; all the Party’s lines, all the state’s policies, laws, and activities are for the interests of the people, with the people’s happiness as the goal of struggle.” The nature of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the vanguard of the working class, the working people, and the Vietnamese nation determines its inherent character of being loyal to the interests of the working class, the working people, and the nation. Only under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam can a government belonging to the people be established, and the people can become true masters. “The government represents the people in exercising the right to be masters, and is also the organizer and implementer of the Party’s lines; it institutionally guarantees the people’s right to exercise direct democracy or representative democracy and to participate in social management in all areas of social life.”

越南社会主义民主理论将三者有机统一于为人民谋利益中。阮富仲强调，通过党领导、国家管理、人民当家作主的政治模式不断更新越南共产党的领导方式与国家的管理方式，使社会主义民主真正成为发展的目标和动力，为人民在现实中当家作主创造环境和条件。“党、国家和人民之间的关系是各主体的目标和利益相统一的关系；党的一切路线，国家的一切政策、法律和活动都是为了人民的利益，以人民的幸福为奋斗目标。”越南共产党作为工人阶级、劳动人民和越南民族的先锋队的性质决定了其忠于工人阶级、劳动人民和国家利益的本色。只有在越南共产党的领导下，才能建立起属于人民的政府，人民才能成为真正的主人。“政府代表人民行使当家作主的权利，同时也是党的路线的组织实施者；从制度上保障人民能够在社会生活各领域行使直接民主或代议制民主、参与社会管理的权利。”

(2) Grasping Two Important Relationships in Socialist Democratic Political Construction

（二）把握社会主义民主政治建设两对重要关系

1. Correctly Handling the Relationship between Democracy and Unity

1.正确处理民主与团结的关系

Vietnam’s population of over 100 million is composed of 54 ethnic groups, combined with the political tradition of a former North-South division, which together shape the unique challenges Vietnam faces in developing socialist democracy. In advancing socialist democracy, Vietnam has always emphasized the importance of unity among all ethnic groups and unity within the Party. Unity is not only a basic prerequisite for democratic practice but also key to凝聚社会共识 [13]13 凝聚社会共识 (ngưng tụ xã hội cộng thức) is a Chinese four-character idiom meaning "to build social consensus," used here in the Vietnamese context. and avoiding social fragmentation. In Vietnam’s socialist democratic theory, how to balance the relationship between democratic practice and unity has become an important issue.

越南一亿多人口由54个民族构成，加之曾经南北分野的政治传统，共同塑造了越南在发展社会主义民主过程中面临的独特挑战。越南在推进社会主义民主过程中，始终强调全民族团结和党内团结的重要性。团结不仅是民主实践的基本前提，也是凝聚社会共识、避免社会撕裂的关键。在越南的社会主义民主理论中，如何平衡民主实践与团结的关系，成为一项重要议题。

The Ninth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam [14]14 The Ninth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (2001) emphasized the role of the private sector and national unity in the context of globalization. proposed that the main driving force for national development is the unity of the entire people. To this end, the Communist Party of Vietnam and the government have formulated a series of guiding principles: fully affirming the key role of businessmen in promoting economic development, recognizing the private economic sector as an important driving force for national economic development; when dealing with ethnic and cultural affairs, emphasizing the elimination of isolationist attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination against religious believers, resolving religious issues within a broader framework, and preventing violations of freedom of belief and religion; showing a positive attitude towards overseas Vietnamese, creating favorable conditions for them to return and contribute, encouraging investment in Vietnam, and paying special attention to attracting overseas Vietnamese intellectuals.

越南共产党第九次全国代表大会提出，国家发展的主要动力是全国人民的团结。越南共产党和政府为此制定了一系列指导方针：充分肯定了商人在推动经济发展中的关键作用，承认私营经济部门是国家经济发展的重要推动力；处理民族和文化事务时，强调要消除对宗教信徒的孤立态度、刻板印象和歧视，在更广泛的框架内解决宗教问题，防止侵犯信仰和宗教自由的行为；对海外越南人表现出积极态度，为他们回国作贡献创造有利条件，鼓励向越南投资，并特别重视吸引海外越南知识分子。

The Report of the Thirteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (hereinafter referred to as the “Thirteenth Congress Report”) particularly emphasized the combination of great national unity with socialist democracy, ensuring that the people’s right to be masters is implemented, “bringing into play the strength of great national unity, promoting socialist democracy and the people’s right to be masters.” The strength of great national unity plays a key role in Vietnam’s national development. The Thirteenth Congress Report pointed out that the COVID-19 pandemic caused severe losses to the economy and society, but under the correct leadership of the Party, the advantages of the socialist system, the coordinated participation of the political system, and the strong support of the people, relying on the strength of great national unity, Vietnam gradually and effectively controlled the pandemic, resumed production, business, and social activities, and stabilized people’s livelihoods. Therefore, the Thirteenth Congress Report requires that people from all walks of life must jointly serve the national interest. Through socialist democracy and national unity,凝聚社会共识, it emphasizes that in the next ten years, it is necessary to “extensively practice and promote socialist democracy, as well as the people’s right to be masters and the role of self-governance, bring into play the strength of great national unity, boost and enhance the people’s confidence, and凝聚社会共识.”

越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会报告（以下简称“十三大报告”）特别强调了全民族大团结与社会主义民主相结合，保障人民当家作主的权利得到落实，“发挥全民族的大团结力量，发扬社会主义民主和人民当家作主的权利”。全民族大团结力量在越南国家发展中具有关键作用，十三大报告指出新冠疫情对经济社会造成了严重损失，但是在党的正确领导、社会主义制度优势、政治体系协同参与以及人民的大力支持下，凭借全民族大团结的力量，越南逐步有效控制了疫情，恢复了生产经营和社会活动，稳定了民生。因此，十三大报告中要求，各阶层人民须共同服务于民族利益。通过社会主义民主和民族团结凝聚社会共识，强调未来十年要“广泛践行并发扬社会主义民主以及人民当家作主权利和自治作用，发挥全民族大团结力量，提振并增强人民的信心，凝聚社会共识”。

2. Correctly Handling the Relationship between Democracy and the Legal System, Social Order

2.正确处理民主与法制、社会秩序的关系

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th century had a tremendous impact on Vietnam’s political situation. Different opinions emerged within the Communist Party of Vietnam. In response, the Communist Party of Vietnam emphasized that deepening and expanding socialist democracy requires ensuring it proceeds in the correct direction; therefore, under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam, steps adapted to political and social conditions must be cautiously implemented. Only in this way can the people’s right to be masters of the country be truly guaranteed. Nguyen Van Linh further pointed out: “Without centralism, discipline, and civic responsibility, democracy cannot be realized… True democracy opposes both autocracy and dictatorship, as well as anarchism and liberalism.” [15]15 Nguyen Van Linh (1915–1998) was General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 1986 to 1991, leading the country’s *Doi Moi* (Renovation) reforms. At the Fifth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam in June 1988, he stated that the most serious defect in Party building work was “violating the principle of democratic centralism,” that “expanding democracy must go hand in hand with strengthening discipline,” and that it was necessary to “strike down plots that use democracy to propagate opposition to the Party and the people’s cause.” The Sixth and Seventh Plenary Sessions reiterated that “expanding democracy… must be combined with centralism and discipline” and that “privatization, ‘pluralism,’ and a multi-party system aimed at negating Marxism-Leninism, socialism, and the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam would not be accepted.”

20世纪末苏联解体、东欧剧变对越南政治形势产生了巨大冲击。越南共产党内部出现了不同意见。对此，越南共产党强调，深化和扩大社会主义民主，需要确保它在正确的方向上，因此必须在越南共产党的领导下，审慎实施适应政治和社会条件的步骤，只有这样才能真正确保人民当家作主的权利得以实现。阮文灵进一步指出：“缺乏集中、纪律和公民责任，民主就不可能实现……真正的民主既反对专制主义、独裁主义，也反对无政府主义、自由主义。”他在1988年6月越南共产党第六届中央委员会第五次全体会议上指出，党的建设工作最严重的缺陷是“违反民主集中制原则”，“扩大民主与加强纪律并行”，必须“打击利用民主和宣传反对党和人民事业的图谋”，并在第六次、第七次全体会议上重申了“扩大民主……必须与集中、与纪律相结合”，“不接受以否定马列主义、社会主义、越共领导为目的的私有化、‘多元化’、多党制”。

The Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in 1991 initially clarified the relationship between democracy and the legal system, proposing that an important condition for promoting democracy is to establish and perfect a system of laws and regulations, using law to guarantee democracy. By raising the people’s level of knowledge, legal awareness, and legal consciousness, democracy is realized in the actual lives of the people across all fields of politics, economy, culture, and society. Nong Duc Manh formally proposed building a “socialist law-based state of the people, by the people, and for the people” at the Ninth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, and this was written into the constitution revised in 2001. He advocated reform and development within the framework of the rule of law, safeguarding the people’s rights and freedoms, and emphasized that promoting democracy must proceed simultaneously with maintaining discipline, strengthening the legal system, managing society according to law, educating and propagating to the people, and raising legal awareness. The Communist Party of Vietnam holds that democracy and the legal system complement and interact with each other. To achieve social justice and stability, the democratic process must proceed within the legal framework, while the legal system requires democratic supervision to ensure justice and fairness.

1991年越南共产党第七次全国代表大会初步明确了民主与法制的关系，提出促进民主的重要条件是建立和完善法律制度体系，以法律保障民主。通过提高人民的知识水平、法律知识和法律意识，使人民在政治、经济、文化和社会所有领域的实际生活中实现民主。农德孟在越南共产党第九次全国代表大会上正式提出建设“属于人民、来自人民、为了人民的社会主义法权国家”，并将其写入2001年修订的宪法中。他提倡在法治的框架下改革和发展，保障人民的权利和自由，并强调发扬民主要与维护纪律、加强法制、依法管理社会、宣传教育人民、提高法律意识等同时进行。越共认为，民主与法制相辅相成、相互作用。为了实现社会公正和稳定，民主进程需要在法律框架下进行，而法制则需要民主监督，以保证公正和公平

The 13th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam wrote “the relationship between practicing democracy and strengthening the legal system and strict social norms” into the congress report as an important relationship to grasp and handle in national development from 2021–2030 and beyond. It held that “democracy and law, the practice of democracy and the rule of law, and social norms have a dialectical relationship of interaction, dependence, and mutual reinforcement.” Practicing socialist democracy, strengthening the socialist legal system, and ensuring social order are closely linked, interdependent, and mutually foundational. The relationship among these three is: “A strict legal system is a factor that guarantees and maintains the practical implementation of the people’s democratic rights; at the same time, when the people’s democratic practice is expanded and brought into play, it strengthens the legal system and makes social norms more respected. Social norms are the fruit of the legal system and also its external manifestation.”

越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会将“践行民主与加强法制、严明社会规矩之间的关系”作为2021—2030年及以后国家发展中需要把握和处理好的重要关系写入党代会报告，认为 “民主与法律、践行民主与法治、社会规矩有着相互作用、依赖和相辅相成的辩证关系”，实行社会主义民主和加强社会主义法制、确保社会秩序密切联系，相互依存，互为基础。这三者的关系是:“严明法制，是保障和维护人民的民主权利在实践中得到切实践行的因素；同时，人民的民主实践得到扩大和发挥，会使得法制得到加强以及社会规矩更受尊重。社会规矩是法制的成果，也是法制的外在表现。”

(3) Implementing Three Basic Forms of Socialist Democratic Political Construction

（三）落实社会主义民主政治建设三种基本形式

The practice of democracy under the conditions of the Communist Party of Vietnam’s rule is the premise and foundation of Vietnam’s democratic political construction. To maintain this premise and foundation of one-party rule, it is necessary to ensure that democracy is fully exercised under the leadership of a single party, to translate the Communist Party of Vietnam’s views and theories on democracy into life, and to promote the people’s role and position as masters, in order to build and develop the goal of a “prosperous people, a strong country, democracy, fairness, and civilization.” Building democracy under a one-party system is determined by the inevitability of Vietnam’s historical development. The economy is not the sole determining factor of the political system; multiple forms of economic ownership do not lead to a two-party or multi-party system, and whether democracy exists does not depend on a multi-party, two-party, or one-party system, but rather on which class interests the ruling party represents and for what purpose it uses state power.

越南共产党执政条件下实行民主是越南民主政治建设的前提和基础。为了维护一党执政这一前提和基础，就必须保证在一党领导下充分发挥民主，把越南共产党关于民主的观点和理论落实到生活中，促进人民发挥主人翁的地位和作用，以建设和发展“民富、国强、民主、公平、文明”的目标。一党制下建设民主是由越南历史发展的必然性决定的，经济并不是政治体制的唯一决定因素，多种经济所有制不会导致两党制或多党制，且民主与否不取决于多党制、两党制或一党制，而是取决于执政党代表哪些阶级利益、将国家权力用于什么目的。

The 13th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in 2021 clarified three forms of Vietnam’s socialist democratic practice and emphasized the importance of “correctly and effectively implementing direct democracy, representative democracy, and especially grassroots democracy.” In fact, the Communist Party of Vietnam began exploring the realization of popular sovereignty through multiple forms in state governance from the 8th National Congress, proposing a combination of elected representatives and grassroots self-governance to implement the system of the people being masters of the country. By the 9th National Congress, the Communist Party of Vietnam further emphasized implementing democratic regulations and expanding direct democracy at the grassroots level, so that the people could more conveniently participate in social management, discuss and decide on important issues. The 11th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in 2011 proposed gradually establishing a system of representative (indirect) and direct democracy in the context of building and perfecting the socialist market economy system and the socialist law-based state. Vietnam’s 2013 Constitution stipulates: “The people exercise state power through direct democracy, through democracy in the National Assembly and People’s Councils, and through other state organs.” By the 12th National Congress, the Communist Party of Vietnam explicitly proposed the task of “concretizing and improving the quality of direct democracy and representative democracy.”

2021年的越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会明确了越南社会主义民主实践的三种形式，并强调了“正确、有效地落实直接民主、代议（表）民主，尤其是基层民主”的重要性。事实上，越共从第八次全国代表大会开始探索在国家治理中通过多种形式实现人民主权，并提出通过选举产生的代表与基层自治相结合的方式，落实人民当家作主的制度。到了第九次全国代表大会，越共进一步强调执行民主法规，扩大基层直接民主，以便人民能更便利地参与社会管理，讨论和决定重要问题。2011年越南共产党第十一次全国代表大会提出在建设和完善社会主义市场经济体制和社会主义法治国家的背景下，逐步建立代议制（间接）和直接民主制度。越南2013年宪法规定：“人民通过直接民主的途径、通过国会代表民主、人民议会代表民主的途径和通过国家其他的各个机关行使国家权力。”到了第十二次全国代表大会，越南共产党明确提出了“将直接民主和代表民主具体化并提高质量”的任务。

“‘Direct democracy’ is a form in which the people directly decide on important issues and affairs of the national and territorial community; laws are passed directly, without any intermediary. The main characteristic of the direct democracy form is speed.” The main forms include: implementing the electoral system, allowing citizens to participate in national political activities through elections, and permitting citizens to vote and be elected as representatives to national and local councils; guaranteeing the rights to complaint, appeal, petition, and proposal, with citizens having the right to recall elected representatives they do not trust, ensuring the effectiveness and representativeness of democracy; implementing a system of soliciting public opinion, allowing citizens to directly express opinions on major social and economic issues through referendums and other means; and promoting citizen participation in state management and supervision, including participation in law drafting and discussion to ensure that law-making reflects public opinion, and participation in the supervision of public officials to ensure the correct exercise of government power.

“‘直接民主’就是人民直接决定国家和领土共同体的重要问题和事务的形式；直接通过法律，无需任何中介。直接民主形式的主要特点是快速。”主要形式有落实选举制度，通过选举活动让公民参与国家政治活动，允许公民选举和被选举为国家和地方议会的代表；保障控诉、上诉、请求和建议的权利，公民有权罢免不信任的民选代表，确保民主的有效性和代表性；实施征求民意制度，通过公民投票等方式，让公民能够直接对重大社会、经济问题表达意见；促进公民参与国家管理和监督，包括参与法律起草和讨论，确保法律制定反映民意，参与对公务员的监督，确保政府权力的正确行使。

“Representative democracy is the form of the National Assembly and People’s Councils at all levels elected by universal suffrage.” Vietnamese law stipulates that each province and centrally administered city elects no fewer than three National Assembly deputies, with each province and centrally administered city further divided into several electoral units, each electing no more than three deputies. Election committees and election groups at all levels, from the central to the grassroots level, are established to lead the election work. National Assembly deputies represent not only the voters of their original electoral unit but also the will and aspirations of the entire people. Deputies must maintain close contact with voters, regularly report their work to them, and accept their supervision. They collect and reflect voters’ opinions, study, transmit, and supervise relevant agencies in handling the people’s suggestions, complaints, and accusations, and inform the people of the final results. The number of deputies to local People’s Councils at all levels and the election method are implemented according to legal provisions, with meetings held regularly as required. People’s Council deputies must also report the meeting results to voters after each People’s Council session, convey and explain the resolutions adopted by the People’s Council, and mobilize and actively work together with the people to implement these resolutions.

“代表的民主是通过全民选举出来的国会和各级的人民议会的形式。”越南法律规定，各省、中央直辖市选出不少于三名国会代表，其中各省、中央直辖市又被划分为若干选举单位，每个选举单位选出不多于三名代表。中央到基层单位成立各级选举委员会、选举小组领导选举工作。国会代表不仅代表原选举单位的选民，还代表全国人民的意志和愿望。国会代表要与选民保持密切联系，定期向他们汇报工作并接受监督。收集并反映选民的意见，研究、转达及监督相关机关处理民众的建议、申诉和控告，并向民众通报最终处理结果。地方各级人民议会的代表人数和选举方法按法律规定执行，定期按要求举行会议。人民议会代表还要在人民议会每次会议后向选民通报会议结果，传达解释人民议会通过的各项决议，动员并与民众一道为实施这些决议作出积极努力。

Grassroots democracy fully unleashes the role and creativity of the masses at the grassroots level and implements the democratic system. Vietnamese villages have a tradition of self-governance, and autonomy is one of their basic characteristics. Grassroots democracy provides the people with direct and extensive democratic rights; this is not only an important condition for realizing socialist democracy but also its purpose and essence. Grassroots democracy strengthens popular sovereignty. “In Vietnam’s reform and opening up cause and in the cause of building socialist democracy, realizing democracy at the grassroots level is one of the most urgent and important links.” [16]16 The original Chinese text cites a Vietnamese source; the quotation is translated from the Chinese. In 1998, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam issued Directive No. 30 on implementing democracy at the grassroots level, emphasizing that promoting the people’s role as masters at the grassroots level is an important and urgent task and the key to building a state of the people, by the people, and for the people. In 2022, the Fourth Session of the Fifteenth National Assembly of Vietnam passed the Law on Implementation of Grassroots Democracy, which stipulates “the implementation of democracy in communes, wards, and townships; the implementation of democracy in agencies and units; the implementation of democracy in enterprises; and the responsibilities of organizations implementing grassroots democracy.”

基层民主则是在基层充分发挥人民群众的作用和创造力，落实民主制度。越南村庄有自治的传统，自治是其基本特征之一。基层民主为人民提供了直接且广泛的民主权利，这不仅是实现社会主义民主的重要条件，也是其目的和本质。基层民主强化了人民主权，“在越南的革新事业中、建设社会主义民主事业中,实现基层的民主是最迫切、最重要的环节之一”。1998年越南共产党中央政治局发布在基层实施民主的三十号指示，强调推进基层人民当家作主是重要而紧迫的任务和建设民有民治国家的关键。2022年越南第十五届国会第四次会议通过了《基层民主实施法》，该法规定了“在乡、坊、镇实行民主；在机关和单位实行民主；企业实行民主；实施基层民主的组织的责任。”

(4) Implementing the Five Main Principles of Socialist Democratic Political Construction

（四）贯彻社会主义民主政治建设五项主要原则

The Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam proposed five basic principles for reform and opening up: “Adhere to the socialist path; adhere to Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi Minh Thought; adhere to the dictatorship of the proletariat and the leadership of the Party; adhere to socialist democracy; adhere to the combination of patriotism and proletarian internationalism, and the combination of national strength with the strength of the times under the new situation.” As one of the basic principles of reform and opening up, the construction of socialist democratic politics must follow the laws of development of socialist democratic politics and implement the “principle of popular sovereignty, the principle of political parties, the principle of the rule of law, the principle of democratic centralism, and the principle of supervision.” [17]17 The original Chinese text lists five principles; the source of this list is a Vietnamese Party document.

越南共产党第六届全国委员会第六次全体会议提出了革新开放的五项基本原则：“坚持社会主义道路；坚持马列主义、胡志明思想；坚持无产阶级专政和党的领导；坚持社会主义民主；坚持爱国主义与无产阶级国际主义相结合、民族力量和新形势下的时代力量相结合。”作为革新开放的基本原则之一，社会主义民主政治建设必须遵循社会主义民主政治的发展规律，贯彻“人民主权原则、政党原则、法制原则、民主集中制原则和监督原则”。

First, the principle of popular sovereignty. The Communist Party of Vietnam attaches great importance to popular sovereignty, adhering to the concept of belonging to the people, coming from the people, and for the people. To realize this concept, Vietnam implements the Party’s propositions and resolutions through the constitution and laws, striving to institutionalize and concretize the principle of popular sovereignty. Article 4 of the 1959 Constitution of Vietnam, Article 6 of the 1980 Constitution, and Articles 2 and 6 of the 1992 Constitution all stipulate that all state power belongs to the people, and that the people exercise state power through the election of the National Assembly and People’s Councils. The latest revised constitution of 2013 “provides a fuller, deeper, and more institutionalized interpretation of the views of the Vietnamese Party and state on enhancing popular sovereignty, promoting the advantages of socialist democracy, and ensuring that all state power belongs to the people. This is a basic view running through the content of the Constitution, indicating that the source, nature, purpose, and strength of state power come from the people and belong to the people; the people are the highest subject of state power.”

第一，人民主权原则。越南共产党高度重视人民主权，坚持属于人民、来自人民、为了人民的理念。为了实现这一理念，越南通过宪法和法律落实党的主张和决议，努力把人民主权原则制度化和具体化。越南1959年宪法第四条，1980年宪法第六条，1992年宪法第二条、第六条都规定了国家所有权力属于人民、人民通过选举产生国民议会和人民委员会行使国家权力。2013年最新修改的宪法“对越南党和国家有关提高人民主权，发扬社会主义民主优势，确保一切国家权力属于人民的观点进行了更充分、更深刻、体制化的阐释。这是贯穿《宪法》内容的基本观点，其表明国家权力的来源、本质、目的、力量都来自人民，属于人民，人民是国家权力的最高主体”。

Second, the principle of the Communist Party leading democratic political construction. The Communist Party of Vietnam believes that in the socialist democratic system, the leadership of the Communist Party is the primary factor ensuring the efficient operation of the democratic system, and can ensure that the people truly control the state and become the core force dominating political power. The construction of democratic politics is unified with the mission and tasks of the Communist Party of Vietnam; adhering to the leadership of the Communist Party and the socialist path is the inevitable path for Vietnam’s democratic development. The Twelfth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam proposed the goal of strengthening Party building and unleashing the power of socialist democracy. The report of this congress clearly stated that the overall goals for the next five years include: “Strengthen the building of a clean, strong Party, enhance the Party’s leadership capacity, governing capacity, and combat effectiveness, and build a solid political system. Unleash the strength of the entire nation and socialist democracy,” and emphasized the need to innovate the leadership methods of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The Thirteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam further emphasized the need to “continue to maintain and strengthen the absolute, direct, and comprehensive leadership of the Party” and to constantly innovate the Party’s leadership methods.

第二，共产党领导民主政治建设的原则。越共认为在社会主义民主体制中，共产党的领导是确保民主体制高效运作的首要因素，能够确保人民真正掌控国家、成为政治权力主宰的核心力量。民主政治建设与越南共产党的使命任务相统一，坚持共产党的领导和社会主义道路是越南民主发展的必由之路。越南共产党第十二次全国代表大会提出了加强越共党的建设和发挥社会主义民主力量的目标。此次大会报告明确指出未来五年的总体目标包括：“加强建设廉政、强大的党，提高党的领导能力、执政能力和战斗力，建设牢固的政治体系。发挥全民族和社会主义民主的力量”，并强调要革新越南共产党的领导方式。越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会进一步强调要“继续维护和加强党的绝对、直接、全面的领导”，经常革新党的领导方式。

Third, the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic centralism, as the core organizational principle of socialist democratic politics, plays a crucial role in ensuring the formulation and implementation of correct political lines, guidelines, and policies. “Only by highly promoting democracy can we mobilize the full strength of the people to advance the revolution; at the same time, only with a high degree of centralism can we unify the leadership of the people to carry out socialist construction.” Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized: “Democracy is the condition and prerequisite for centralism; centralism is the foundation and guarantee for the realization of democracy.” The Communist Party of Vietnam takes democratic centralism as its leadership and organizational principle, realizing this leadership principle within the Party through the combination of collective leadership and individual responsibility: collective leadership is democratic, individual responsibility is centralized, and collective leadership and individual responsibility together embody the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic centralism is not only the leadership and organizational principle of the Communist Party of Vietnam but also the organizational principle of the National Assembly, People’s Councils, the central government, and all state agencies. In Vietnam’s state management, the principles of democratic centralism, such as all power belonging to the people, lower levels obeying higher levels, and localities obeying the center, are consistently implemented.

第三，民主集中制原则。民主集中制作为社会主义民主政治的核心组织原则，对于确保正确的政治路线、方针和政策的制定与执行起到了至关重要的作用。“只有高度发扬民主，才能动员人民的全部力量，推进革命；同时，也只有高度的集中，才能统一领导人民，进行社会主义建设。”阮富仲强调：“民主是集中的条件和前提，集中是民主得以实行的基础和保证。”越南共产党以民主集中制作为领导和组织原则，在党内通过集体领导与个人负责相结合实现这一领导原则：集体领导是民主的，个人负责是集中的,集体领导与个人负责共同体现了民主集中制原则。民主集中制不仅是越南共产党的领导和组织原则，还是国会、人民议会、中央政府以及所有国家机关的组织原则。在越南的国家管理中也始终贯彻一切权力属于人民、下级服从上级、地方服从中央等民主集中制原则。

Fourth, the principle of the rule of law. The principle of the rule of law emphasizes that the construction of democratic politics must be carried out within the framework of the law, ensuring the organic combination of democracy and the rule of law. The Communist Party of Vietnam believes that socialist democracy can only be truly guaranteed under the conditions of building a socialist rule-of-law state, emphasizing the core role of the rule of law in maintaining democratic political order and protecting citizens’ rights and freedoms. Nguyen Phu Trong demanded “to continue building and perfecting the socialist rule-of-law state, realize democracy, abide by the principle of the rule of law, and at the same time create more positive and effective changes.” In essence, “under the socialist system, the rule of law is a tool to embody and realize the people’s right to be masters, and to guarantee and safeguard the interests of the vast majority of the people. Through the implementation of the law, the state ensures that the people are the subjects of political power.” Since reform and opening up, Vietnam has continuously promoted the modernization of the legal system, the reform of the legal system, and the popularization of the concept of the rule of law. Not only is the principle of the rule of law implemented throughout the political process, but Vietnam also guarantees citizens’ rights, establishes the legal framework for the market economy, and strengthens government transparency and accountability through the formulation and revision of various laws.

第四，法制原则。法制原则强调民主政治建设必须在法律的框架内进行，确保民主与法制的有机结合。越南共产党认为社会主义民主只有在建设社会主义法权国家的条件下才能真正得到保障，强调法制在维护民主政治秩序、保障公民权利和自由中的核心作用。阮富仲要求“要继续建设、完善社会主义法权国家，实现民主，遵守法治原则，同时要创造出更积极、有效的转变”。实质上，“社会主义制度下的法权是体现和实现人民当家作主权利、保障和维护绝大多数人民利益的工具。通过法律的实施，国家确保人民是政治权力的主体”。革新开放以来，越南不断推进法律体系的现代化、法律制度的改革以及普及法治观念。不仅将法治原则贯穿政治过程，越南还通过制定和修订各种法律来保障公民权利、确立市场经济的法律框架以及加强政府透明度和责任制。

Fifth, the principle of checks and supervision on the exercise of power. The organization of state power in Vietnam follows the basic principle of the division of powers among “legislation, administration, and judiciary.” “In the exercise of legislative, executive, and judicial powers by state agencies, state power is both unified and subject to division, coordination, and supervision.” In Vietnam’s state structure, the National Assembly is the highest organ of state power. In addition to possessing the power to formulate the constitution, legislate, and decide on major national issues, it also exercises supreme supervisory power over all activities of the state. In 2003, the Vietnamese National Assembly passed the Law on Supervisory Activities of the National Assembly, further regulating its supervision and checks on state power organs. In recent years, the role of the National Assembly in Vietnam’s political system has become increasingly important. Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized at the Twelfth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam the need to “continue to innovate the organization and activities of the National Assembly, ensuring that the National Assembly truly becomes the highest organ representing the people and the highest organ of state power,” and demanded that under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam, “continue to innovate and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of supervision, especially specialized supervision and interpellation activities.”

第五，权力运行的制约与监督原则。越南国家权力的组织遵循“立法、行政、司法”三权分工的基本原则，“国家机关在行使各种立法权、执法权、司法权中，国家权力既有统一，又有分工、配合、监督”。在越南国家机构中，国会是国家最高权力机关。除了拥有制定宪法、立法和决定国家重大问题的权力外，还对国家的全部活动实施最高监督权。2003年越南国会通过了《国会监督活动法》，进一步规范了其对国家权力机关的监督与制约。近年来，国会在越南政治体系中的作用越来越重要。阮富仲在越南共产党第十二次全国代表大会上强调要“继续创新国会的组织活动，保障国会真正成为代表人民的最高机关、国家最高权力机关”，要求在越南共产党的领导下“继续创新、提高监督尤其是专项监督、质询等活动的效力和效果”。

The supervision exercised by the Vietnam Fatherland Front and other political-social organizations constitutes an important component of the state power supervision mechanism. The 1992 Constitution of Vietnam stipulated the supervisory function of the Fatherland Front. The Tenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in 2006 proposed establishing institutions and mechanisms for supervision and social counter-argument. In recent years, the Communist Party of Vietnam has formulated many guidelines and policies aimed at bringing into play the leading and supervisory role of the Vietnam Fatherland Front and other political-social organizations over state organs. The 2011 Platform [18]18 The 2011 Platform refers to the "Platform for National Construction in the Period of Transition to Socialism (Supplemented and Developed in 2011)" adopted by the Communist Party of Vietnam at its Eleventh National Congress, which updated the 1991 platform and outlined the country's development direction. clearly states: "The Party and the state formulate policies and mechanisms to create conditions for the Fatherland Front and people's organizations to carry out activities effectively, fulfilling the role of supervision and social debate." Unlike the power supervision mechanism within state organs, this external supervision mechanism is not coercive; rather, it conveys "information" to state organs in the form of suggestions or public opinion. The Thirteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam emphasized: "Continue to renew the Party's leadership methods over the Fatherland Front and political-social organizations, ensuring the Party's centralized and unified leadership, while respecting the democratic consultation principle of the Vietnam Fatherland Front in its organization and activities, so that the Fatherland Front and political-social organizations can vigorously play their role, autonomy, dynamism, and creativity." In summary, during the process of reform and opening up, the Communist Party of Vietnam, in response to new domestic and international situations and problems, has formed a series of distinctive socialist democratic concepts and institutional arrangements. These have provided important guarantees for advancing the construction of the country's socialist democratic politics and have contributed theoretical understanding and practical experience to the construction of a socialist democratic theoretical system amid the changes unseen in a century in the world.

越南祖国阵线及其他政治社会组织的监督是国家权力监督机制的重要组成部分。越南1992年宪法规定了祖国阵线的监督功能，2006年越南共产党第十次全国代表大会提出要建立监督和社会反辩的制度与机制。近年来，越南共产党已经制定了许多方针和政策，旨在发挥越南祖国阵线及其他政治社会组织对国家机构的主导和监督作用。2011年《纲领》明确指出：“党、国家制定政策、机制，创造条件让祖国阵线和人民团体有效开展活动，实现监督和社会辩论的作用。”与国家机关内部的权力监督机制不同，这种外部监督机制并不具有强制性，而是通过建议或社会舆论的形式，向国家机关传达“信息”。越南共产党第十三次全国代表大会强调：“继续更新党对祖国阵线和各政治社会组织的领导方式，保障党的集中统一的领导，同时尊重越南祖国阵线在其组织和活动中的民主协商原则，让祖国阵线和各政治社会组织大力发挥作用、自主性、活跃性和创造性。”综上所述，越南共产党在革新开放过程中，根据国内外新情况和新问题，形成了一系列独具特色的社会主义民主理念和制度安排，为推进本国社会主义民主政治建设提供了重要保障，为世界百年未有之大变局中构建社会主义民主理论体系贡献了理论认识和实践经验。

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心