The Vietnamese Communist Party’s Indigenous Exploration in Advancing Modernization

“Modernization,” as a trend in social development and a state of civilizational progress, has become synonymous with the pursuit of civilization and progress for countries and nations around the world today. However, for some time, a myth that “modernization equals Westernization” has taken shape and exerted a broad influence in various countries, especially in some less developed nations and regions. Currently, the Chinese-path modernization led by the Communist Party of China has shattered this myth, sparking widespread discussion and attention regarding socialist modernization. This article attempts to sort out and analyze the process of socialist modernization under the leadership of the Vietnamese Communist Party, with the aim of providing another kind of material and support for related research and discussion.

“现代化”作为一种社会发展潮流、一种文明进步状态，已成为当今世界各个国家和民族追求文明进步的代名词。但一段时间以来，一种“现代化=西方化”的迷思，在各国特别是一些欠发达国家和地区形成并影响广泛。当前，中国共产党领导的中国式现代化打破了这种迷思，引发了对社会主义现代化的广泛热议与关注。本文试图梳理和分析越南共产党领导下的越南社会主义现代化建设历程，以期为相关研究和讨论提供另一种素材和支持。

I. The Historical Process of the Vietnamese Communist Party’s Advancement of Modernization

一、越南共产党推进现代化建设的历史进程

In the mid-18th century, Britain, leveraging the opportunity of the Industrial Revolution, pioneered a path of modernization driven by industrialization and achieved great success, exerting a profound influence on many late-developing countries, including Vietnam. After the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, under the direct influence of the Soviet modernization model, industrialization was also set as the fundamental path for the country to escape poverty and backwardness, create development opportunities, and catch up with advanced countries in the world. Therefore, Vietnam’s modernization construction began with industrialization, and its practical process can be roughly divided into the following three stages.

十八世纪中叶，英国借助工业革命的契机，率先开辟出一条以工业化推进现代化的路径并取得了巨大成功，对包括越南在内的许多后发国家造成了深远影响。越南民主共和国成立之后，在苏联现代化模式的直接影响下，也将工业化设定为本国摆脱贫穷落后、创造发展机遇和追赶世界先进国家的根本路径。因此，越南的现代化建设以工业化起步，其实践进程大致可以分为以下三个阶段。

(I) Early Exploration Stage (1954–1986): Initiating Vietnam’s Modernization Process through Industrialization

（一）早期探索阶段（1954-1986年）：以工业化开启越南的现代化建设进程

The Vietnamese Communist Party’s earliest understanding of modernization can be traced back to the early days of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. As early as September 1946, Truong Chinh, then leader of the Central Committee of the Vietnamese Communist Party, mentioned in his work *On the August Revolution in Vietnam*: “There is no doubt that if the country is to become strong and the people happy, Vietnam must transform from an agricultural country into an industrial country (because only an industrially developed country can manufacture weapons to defend itself and produce more goods, food, and tools to improve people’s livelihoods).” The official commencement of the Vietnamese Communist Party’s exploration of the path of socialist modernization began after Vietnam’s victory in the War of Resistance Against France, when North Vietnam transitioned from the national-democratic revolution to a new period of socialist revolution.

越南共产党关于现代化的最早认识可以追溯到越南民主共和国成立之初。早在1946年9月，当时的越共中央领导人长征就在其著作《论越南八月革命》中提到：“毫无疑问的，如果要使国家强盛，人民幸福，越南就必须要从一个农业国变成一个工业国（因为一个工业发达的国家才能自制武器来保卫自己，才能出产更多商品、食物和用具来改善民生）。”越共正式开启对社会主义现代化建设道路的探索，则始于越南取得抗法战争胜利，越南北方从民族民主革命转入到社会主义革命的新时期。

In 1960, the Vietnamese Communist Party convened its Third National Congress, which, based on an analysis of the forward direction of Vietnam’s revolutionary path, for the first time proposed the policy of socialist industrialization in North Vietnam. The Vietnamese Communist Party pointed out that the forward direction of Vietnam’s revolution “can only be socialism, not capitalism.” To change the country’s backward state and lead Vietnam “from a predominantly small-scale production to large-scale socialist production, besides the path of socialist industrialization, we have no other road to take. Therefore, socialist industrialization is the central task of our entire transitional period.” The Vietnamese Communist Party further stated that “socialist industrialization is an objective law of development for all economically backward countries taking the socialist path” and that “realizing socialist industrialization is to establish the material and technical foundation for socialism and create the basic conditions for the victory of socialism.” Specifically, realizing socialist industrialization in the North meant “while rationally giving priority to the development of heavy industry, making great efforts to develop agriculture and light industry, establishing a modern socialist economy based on heavy industry, combining industry and agriculture, and developing proportionally,” so as to turn Vietnam “into a country with modern industry and modern agriculture.”

1960年越共召开第三次全国代表大会，在分析越南革命道路前进方向的基础上首次提出越南北方实施社会主义工业化的政策主张。越共指出，越南革命的前进方向“只能是社会主义而不能是资本主义”，要想改变目前国家的落后状态，把越南“从以小生产为主，引向社会主义大生产，除了社会主义工业化的道路之外，我们再也没有别的道路可走。因此，社会主义工业化是我国整个过渡时期的中心任务。”越共进一步指出，“社会主义工业化是一切经济落后国家走上社会主义道路的客观发展规律”，“实现社会主义工业化就是为了建立社会主义的物质和技术基础，为社会主义的胜利创造基本条件”。具体说来，北方实现社会主义工业化就是要在“合理地优先发展重工业的同时，努力发展农业和轻工业，建立一个以重工业为基础的、工业和农业相结合、按比例发展的现代化社会主义经济”，使越南“变成一个有现代工业、现代农业的国家”。

Deeply influenced by the Soviet modernization model and driven by an urgent desire to change the country’s poverty and backwardness, the Vietnamese Communist Party believed that with the help of fraternal socialist countries and the joint efforts of its own people, Vietnam could complete socialist industrialization in a relatively short period and then build socialism. Consequently, “advancing toward socialism quickly, vigorously, and steadily” became the slogan for modernization construction during this period. To achieve such speed and goals, the Vietnamese Communist Party formulated the policy of “giving priority to the development of heavy industry,” regarding heavy industry as the foundation of the socialist economy and the key to industrialization. At the Fourth National Congress, the Vietnamese Communist Party still prioritized the development of heavy industry as the primary task and core strategy, planning to basically complete the transformation from small-scale production to large-scale production in about 20 years. In the Second Five-Year Plan, it used the contracting mechanism to centrally allocate large amounts of human, financial, and material resources to heavy industrial sectors such as machinery manufacturing, energy, and chemicals, building a large number of heavy industrial production units, further tilting industrialization construction toward heavy industry.

由于深受苏联现代化模式的影响，加上改变国家贫穷落后现状的急切心情，越共认为在社会主义兄弟国家的帮助和本国人民的共同努力下，越南可以在相当短的时期里完成社会主义工业化，进而建成社会主义。于是，“快、猛、稳地向社会主义迈进”成为这个时期现代化建设口号。为了达到这样的速度和目标，越共制定了“优先发展重工业”的方针，把重工业视为社会主义经济的基础和工业化的关键。在第四次全国代表大会上，越共依然把优先发展重工业作为首要任务和核心战略，计划用大约20年的时间基本完成小生产向大生产的转变，并在“二五”计划中利用包给机制将大量的人力、财力、物力集中调配到机械制造、能源化工等重工业部门，兴建大批重工业生产单位，使工业化建设进一步向重工业部门倾斜。

However, the development policy of “giving priority to heavy industry” and “advancing quickly, vigorously, and steadily” did not achieve the expected results; instead, it caused the national economy to lose balance and fall into crisis. In 1982, at its Fifth National Congress, the Vietnamese Communist Party began to identify the crux of the problem and initially recognized that the policy of “giving priority to heavy industry” was detached from the actual conditions of Vietnam’s economy and society, directly hindering the development of industrialization. Based on this, the Vietnamese Communist Party proposed that the primary task of Vietnam’s industrialization throughout the 1980s was to solve the production problems of food, foodstuffs, and consumer goods, and that “efforts should be concentrated on developing agriculture, making agriculture the primary front.” However, because the Vietnamese Communist Party failed to resolutely overcome subjective and impetuous thinking during this period, the shift in production focus was not completed, and the development of agriculture, light industry, and handicrafts still did not receive sufficient attention.

不过，“优先发展重工业”“快、猛、稳”的发展方针并未达到预期效果，反而使国民经济失去平衡而陷入危机。1982年，越共在第五次全国代表大会上开始寻找问题症结，并初步认识到，“优先发展重工业”的方针脱离越南经济社会的实际，是造成越南工业化发展受阻的直接原因。基于此，越共提出整个20世纪80年代越南工业化的首要任务是解决好粮食、食品和消费品的生产问题，“应当集中发展农业，将农业作为首要战线”。但由于这一时期越共未能坚决克服主观、急躁思想，生产重心的转变没有完成，农业、轻工业及手工业的发展仍没有得到足够重视。

Although the Vietnamese Communist Party’s early exploration of modernization construction deviated in understanding and took some detours in practice, it clarified the relationship between Vietnam’s socialist cause and industrialization construction, making clear that the path of industrialization was the decisive factor for the victory of Vietnam’s socialist revolution and the only way to escape backwardness. Overall, during this period, the Vietnamese Communist Party’s understanding of modernization was mainly focused on industrialization.

越共对现代化建设的早期探索，虽然认知上出现了偏差，实践上走了一些弯路，但却厘清了越南的社会主义事业与工业化建设之间的关系，明确了工业化道路是越南社会主义革命取得胜利的决定性因素和摆脱落后状态的唯一道路。总的说来，这一时期，越共对于现代化的认知主要聚焦于工业化。

(II) Major Turning Point Stage (1986–1996): Shifting from “Industrialization” Construction to “Industrialization and Modernization” Construction

（二）重大转折阶段（1986-1996年）：由“工业化”建设转向“工业化、现代化”建设

During this period, the Vietnamese Communist Party continuously deepened its understanding of industrialization and modernization, proposing that “industrialization must proceed in tandem with modernization,” ushering in a new period of exploring a modernization path suited to Vietnam’s national conditions. During this time, the Vietnamese Communist Party straightened out the internal relationship between “industrialization” and “modernization,” steering Vietnam’s industrialization construction onto a new track of modernization.

这一时期，越共不断深化对工业化和现代化的认识，提出“工业化必须与现代化相辅并行”，开启了探索符合越南国情的现代化道路新时期。在这期间，越共理顺了“工业化”和“现代化”之间的内在关联，将越南工业化建设引上了现代化的新轨道。

The Vietnamese Communist Party believed that, first, economic and social progress, along with strengthened cooperation with other countries and international organizations, laid a solid foundation for Vietnam to further advance industrialization and modernization. Second, industrialization and modernization were important means for Vietnam to escape backwardness, maintain political and social stability, defend sovereignty, and adhere to the socialist development direction. The essence of industrialization was to build the material and technical foundation of socialism; it was not simply about increasing the proportion of industry in the gross national product or its growth rate, but a process of structural transformation related to fundamental technological innovation, laying the foundation for rapid, efficient, and sustained growth of the entire national economy. Finally, combining the two concepts of industrialization and modernization was an inevitable requirement of the new development stage. Industrialization construction in the new stage “not only requires developing industry, but also, in accordance with the requirements of technological progress, truly realizing structural transformation across all sectors, fields, and the entire national economy; not only requires sequentially going through the development steps of mechanization, automation, and informatization, but also simultaneously integrating achievements from multiple fields and possessing cutting-edge technologies to achieve a ‘shortcut’; not only requires applying advanced technologies, but also making good use of traditional technologies and modernizing them…” Therefore, “industrialization must proceed in tandem with modernization” was the inherent requirement and inevitable trend of industrial development in the new stage. On the one hand, it indicated that Vietnam’s actual national condition of a low level of industrialization determined that Vietnam needed to continue strengthening industrialization construction to promote modernization development, with industrialization still being the key content of modernization construction in the new stage. On the other hand, the requirement of combining step-by-step development with the opportunity to achieve a “shortcut” in development determined that modern cutting-edge technologies must be used to lead industrial development in the new stage. To avoid understanding industrialization and modernization as two separate contents, the Central Committee of the Vietnamese Communist Party ultimately decided to change the formulation “industrialization and modernization” to “industrialization, modernization.”

越共认为，首先，经济社会的进步以及同其他国家、国际组织加强合作，为越南能够进一步推进工业化和现代化奠定了坚实基础。其次，工业化和现代化是越南摆脱落后、维护政治和社会稳定、保卫主权和坚持社会主义发展方向的重要途径。工业化的实质是要建设社会主义的物质技术基础，它不是简单地提高工业在国民生产总值中的比重或者发展速度，而是一个与技术的根本革新相关的结构转变过程，为整个国民经济的快速、高效和持久性增长奠定基础。最后，将工业化与现代化两个概念结合起来是新发展阶段的必然要求。新阶段的工业化建设“不仅要发展工业，而且要按照技术进步的要求，真正实现各部门、各领域和整个国民经济的结构转变；不仅要依次经历机械化、自动化、信息化的发展步骤，而且要同时整合多个领域的成就，并有实现‘走捷径’的尖端技术；不仅要应用先进技术，而且要善于利用传统技术并使之现代化……”因此，“工业化必须与现代化相辅并行”是新阶段工业化发展的内在要求和必然趋势。它一方面表明，越南工业化水平不高的现实国情，决定了越南需要继续加强工业化建设推进现代化发展，工业化仍然是新阶段现代化建设的重点内容。另一方面，将循序渐进的发展步骤与实现“走捷径”的发展机遇相结合的要求，决定了必须运用现代化的尖端技术来引领新阶段的工业化发展。为了避免将工业化和现代化理解为两个独立的内容，越共中央最终决定把“工业化和现代化”的提法改为“工业化、现代化”。

Resolution No. 07, discussed and adopted at the Seventh Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam [CPV], provided a concrete explanation of the conceptual connotation of Vietnam’s industrialization and modernization. The resolution states: “Industrialization and modernization are a process of fundamental and comprehensive transformation. This entire transformation is built on the foundation of industrial development and scientific-technological progress, concretely manifested in the shift of all production, business, service, and management activities in the economy and society from primarily relying on manual labor to the widespread use of advanced, modern technology, tools, and methods, thereby raising social labor productivity.” The resolution determined that the long-term goal of Vietnam’s industrialization and modernization construction is “to build the country into an industrial nation with a modern material-technical foundation, a rational economic structure, advanced relations of production suited to the level of development of the productive forces, a high material and spiritual standard of living, solid national defense and security, a prosperous people, a strong country, and a socially equitable and civilized society.” [3]3 *đổi mới*: The Vietnamese term for “renewal” or “reform,” referring to the comprehensive economic and political reform policy initiated by the Communist Party of Vietnam in 1986, analogous to China’s reform and opening up. Furthermore, the resolution clarified the nature and direction of Vietnam’s industrialization and modernization construction: Vietnam’s “industrialization and modernization must be oriented toward socialism.”

越共七届七中全会讨论通过的第07号决议，对越南工业化、现代化的概念内涵进行了具体阐释。决议指出：“工业化、现代化是一种根本性、全面性的转变过程。整个转变建立在工业发展和科技进步的基础上，具体表现为经济社会中的各项生产、经营、服务和管理活动从主要依赖手工劳动转变为广泛使用先进、现代的技术、工具和方法，从而提高社会劳动生产率。”决议确定了越南工业化、现代化建设的长期目标是“把国家建设成为一个拥有现代物质技术基础，经济结构合理，拥有符合生产力发展水平的先进的生产关系，物质和精神生活水平高，国防安全稳固，民富、国强、社会公平、文明的工业国”。此外，决议还明确了越南工业化、现代化建设的性质和方向，越南的“工业化、现代化必须以社会主义为定向”。

(III) The Phase of Rapid Advancement (1996 to the present): Implementing “Speed Enhancement and Efficiency Improvement” for Modernization Construction

（三）快速推进阶段（1996年至今）：对现代化建设实施“提速增效”

Practice has proven that the CPV’s adjustment strategy for Vietnam’s modernization was timely and correct. It not only lifted Vietnam’s economy and society out of the crisis quagmire of the 1980s but also propelled Vietnam’s modernization construction

实践证明，越共对越南现代化的调整策略是及时的，也是正确的。它不仅使越南经济社会走出了20世纪80年代的危机泥潭，而且推动越南现代化建设进入新时期。

From 1996 to the present, the CPV has continuously explored how to accelerate and enhance the efficiency of Vietnam’s modernization. First, by building and perfecting the socialist-oriented market economy system, Vietnam’s economy and society have shed the shackles of the bureaucratic, centralized, and subsidy-based planned economy system, thereby accelerating the pace of industrialization and modernization. Second, to adapt to the trends and currents of global economic integration, the CPV has adopted policy measures to proactively, extensively, and deeply integrate into the international community, utilizing both domestic and international markets and resources, organically combining “internal strength” and “external strength,” thereby expanding the development space for industrialization and modernization. Finally, by developing a knowledge economy and implementing national digital transformation policies, Vietnam has seized the rare opportunities brought by the Fourth Industrial Revolution, using the leverage of the scientific and technological revolution to accelerate industrialization and modernization and achieve leapfrog development. The introduction and implementation of these policy measures have become effective pathways for Vietnam’s modernization to “accelerate and enhance efficiency.” According to statistics, Vietnam’s GDP in 1996 was 24.66 billion USD, 1.75 times the 14.09 billion USD in 1985, while Vietnam’s GDP in 2022 was 408.8 billion USD, 16.6 times that of 1996. In 2022, Vietnam’s total import and export volume of goods was 732.5 billion USD, 4.7 times that of 2010 and 39.8 times that of 1996. The WTO’s *World Trade Statistics Report 2020* shows that among the world’s 50 largest merchandise trading countries, Vietnam rapidly rose from 39th place in 2009 to 23rd place in 2019.

从1996年至今，越共围绕越南现代化建设如何实现提速增效进行了持续探索。首先，建设和完善越南社会主义定向市场经济体制，使越南经济社会摆脱了官僚集中包给的计划经济体制的束缚，从而加快了工业化、现代化建设步伐。其次，为适应全球经济一体化的潮流和趋势，越共采取主动、广泛、深入地融入国际社会的政策措施，利用国内、国际两个市场和两种资源，将“内力”和“外力”有机结合，为工业化、现代化建设拓展了发展空间。最后，发展知识经济和实行国家数字化转型政策，使越南紧抓第四次工业革命带来的难得机遇，利用科技革命的杠杆加速推动工业化、现代化实现跨越式发展。这些政策措施的出台和落实成为越南现代化建设“提速增效”的有效途径。据统计，1996年越南GDP为246.6亿美元，是1985年140.9亿美元的1.75倍，而2022年越南GDP为4088亿美元，则是1996年的16.6倍。2022年越南商品进出口总额7325亿美元，是2010年的4.7倍和1996年的39.8倍。世贸组织《2020世界贸易统计数据报告》显示，在世界50个最大商品贸易国中，越南从2009年第39位快速提升至2019年的第23位。

In October 2022, the CPV convened the Sixth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, which reviewed and adopted Resolution No. 29 “On Continuing to Advance the Cause of National Industrialization and Modernization to 2030 with a Vision to 2045.” This resolution summarized the achievements and lessons of Vietnam’s modernization cause over 35 years of *đổi mới* (reform and opening up) and proposed vision goals for 2030 and 2045. At the session, CPV General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng, integrating the goals and tasks set by the 13th National Congress of the CPV and new changes in the national and international situation, further supplemented and developed the CPV’s theory of modernization. Trọng emphasized that industrialization and modernization are a fundamental and comprehensive transformation process of the economy and social life, increasingly dependent on the development of industry and services, based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress, reform and innovation, and the Fourth Industrial Revolution; it is an important pathway for Vietnam to build an independent, autonomous, and self-reliant economy, achieve rapid and sustainable economic development, and become a high-income developed country. Continuing to advance the cause of national industrialization and modernization is an objective requirement of the new situation, a central task of the national economic and social development strategy, and a common cause of the entire people and the whole political system. In the new period, Vietnam’s industrialization and modernization must be people-centered, with enterprises as the main body; ensure that economic development goals are coordinated with the requirements of maintaining social fairness and progress, cultivating and promoting national cultural values, and protecting resources and the environment; and be closely integrated with urbanization, new rural construction, growth model innovation and economic restructuring, and labor force structural transformation.

2022年10月，越共召开十三届六中全会，审议通过了“关于将国家工业化、现代化事业继续推进到2030年及2045年远景展望”的第29号决议。该决议总结了革新开放35年来越南现代化事业的建设成就和经验教训，并提出到2030年和2045年的远景目标。会上，越共中央总书记阮富仲结合越共十三大提出的目标、任务，以及国家和国际形势发生的新变化，进一步补充发展了越南共产党的现代化理论。阮富仲强调，工业化、现代化是经济和社会生活在科技进步、改革创新和第四次工业革命成就的基础上，日益依赖于工业和服务业的发展而发生的根本性、全面性的转变过程；它是越南建设独立、自主、自强经济，实现经济快速可持续发展，成为高收入发达国家的重要途径。继续推进国家工业化、现代化事业是新形势的客观要求，是国家经济社会发展战略的中心任务，是全体人民和整个政治系统的共同事业。新时期越南的工业化、现代化建设要以人民为中心，企业为主体；确保经济发展目标与维护社会公平、进步，培育和弘扬民族文化价值，保护资源、环境的要求相协调；与城市化进程、新农村建设、增长模式革新和经济结构调整、劳动力结构转变紧密结合。

In summary, along with the advancement of industrialization and modernization practice, the CPV’s theoretical understanding of modernization has continuously deepened and developed, thereby enriching and developing Vietnam’s theory of socialist construction.

综上所述，伴随着工业化、现代化建设实践的推进，越共关于现代化的理论认知也在不断深化并向前发展，从而丰富发展了越南的社会主义建设理论。

II. Main Measures of the Communist Party of Vietnam in Advancing Modernization

二、越南共产党推进现代化建设的主要举措

Since *đổi mới*, the CPV has drawn on the experiences and lessons of its own modernization construction, learned from the beneficial experiences of other countries, and gradually forged a path of modernization with Vietnamese characteristics.

革新开放以来，越共吸取本国现代化建设的经验教训，学习借鉴其他国家有益经验，逐步走出了一条具有越南特色的现代化建设道路。

(1) Timely Transformation of Development Concepts, Seeking a Balance between Speed and Efficiency in Sustainable Development

（一）及时转变发展理念，在可持续发展中寻求速度与效益的平衡

Before *đổi mới*, the CPV’s subjective and impatient ideological malady led it to one-sidedly pursue high speed, making “fast” and “fierce” the keynote of Vietnam’s modernization development concept during this period. After experiencing the severe economic and social crisis of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the CPV began to deeply reflect on the “speed first” development concept, proposing to start from the national conditions of the early stage of the transition period, comprehensively consider the speed, effectiveness, and sustainability of development, and gradually form a new concept of modernization development characterized by “rapid and sustainable development.”

在革新开放之前，越共主观急躁的思想弊病导致其片面追求高速度，使“快”和“猛”成为这一时期越南现代化发展理念的总基调。在经历了20世纪70年代末和80年代上半期经济社会严重危机后，越共开始对“速度至上”的发展理念进行深刻反思，提出要从过渡时期初期阶段的国情出发，统筹考虑发展的速度、效果和可持续性问题，并逐步形成“快速、可持续发展”的现代化发展新理念。

Throughout the 1990s, the CPV emphasized the need to comprehensively consider economic growth and social progress, fairness, cultural development, and environmental protection, focusing on the quality and effectiveness of development. Entering the new century, the CPV also specifically discussed the relationship between rapid development and sustainable development, emphasizing that the two must be coordinated and parallel. In 2021, the 13th National Congress of the CPV formally proposed, from the institutional level, to establish and perfect a “sustainable development system for the economy, politics, culture, society, and environment,” injecting new impetus into the country’s modernization construction.

整个20世纪的90年代，越共强调要统筹考虑经济增长与社会进步、公平、文化发展和环境保护等问题，注重发展的质量和效果。进入新世纪后，越共还专门讨论了快速发展和可持续发展的关系，强调两者必须协调并行。2021年越共十三大则从体制层面的高度正式提出建立健全“经济、政治、文化、社会、环境可持续发展体制”，为国家现代化建设注入新动力。

Protecting resources and the environment is an important measure for achieving sustainable development. Since *đổi mới*, the CPV has repeatedly emphasized that in industrialization and modernization construction, great importance must be attached to the development and protection of resources and the environment, and immediate interests and long-term interests, economic needs and national defense needs must be considered comprehensively. In the development and utilization of resources, the CPV requires that all resources put into use must be taxed or pay rent; the state must specifically stipulate the rights and responsibilities for using resources, determine resource ownership to end the stateless status of resources; for renewable and non-renewable resources, development and protection must be given equal weight to prevent resource depletion. In terms of environmental protection and pollution prevention, the CPV requires the state to promulgate relevant decrees, regularly inspect pollutant treatment, and widely carry out environmental protection publicity and education activities for citizens from childhood; requires enterprises to treat production waste and not cause pollution and noise to residential areas; environmental protection and pollution control work must be combined with local mass movements, establish a resource and environmental protection system from the central to the local level, and extensively participate in relevant coordination activities of international and regional environmental protection organizations.

保护资源环境是实现可持续发展的重要举措。革新开放以来，越共反复强调在工业化、现代化建设中要高度重视资源和环境的开发保护工作，将眼前利益和长远利益、经济需要和国防需要统筹考虑。在资源的开发利用方面，越共要求所有投入使用的资源都要纳税或支付租金，国家要具体规定使用资源的权利和责任，确定资源的所有权以结束资源无主状态；对可再生资源和非可再生资源要做到开发和保护并重，防范资源枯竭。在环境保护和污染防治方面，越共要求国家颁布相关法令，定期检查污染物处理情况，对公民从儿童时代起就广泛开展环保宣传教育活动；要求企业必须处理生产废物，不给居民区造成污染和噪音；环保治污工作必须与地方性群众运动相结合，建立从中央到地方的资源环境保护系统，并广泛参加国际性、区域性环保组织的相关协调活动。

Continuously adjusting the economic structure and innovating the growth model are important pathways for maintaining rapid and sustainable development. In terms of economic restructuring, the CPV, starting from the 7th National Congress, has been committed to building a reasonable, modern, efficient, and sustainable “agriculture-industry-services” economic structure, simultaneously carrying out structural adjustments in key areas and critical sectors. Regarding the innovation of the growth model, the CPV advocates shifting from mainly relying on extensive expansion to an effective combination of extensive expansion and intensive development; promoting the development of the knowledge economy; developing competitive, high-value-added industries, agriculture, and high-tech service industries; and effectively participating in global production networks and global value chains.

不断调整经济结构、革新增长模式是保持快速、可持续发展的重要途径。在经济结构的调整方面，越共从七大开始就致力于建设合理、现代、高效而可持续发展的“农业-工业-服务业”经济结构，对重点领域和关键部门同步进行结构调整。关于增长模式的革新问题，越共主张从主要依靠外延式扩张向外延式扩张和内涵式发展有效结合的方向转变；推动知识经济的发展，发展具有竞争力和高附加值的工业、农业和高科技服务业，有效参与全球生产网络和全球价值链。

(2) Continuously Perfecting Development Steps, Effectively Advancing Industrialization and Modernization

（二）不断完善发展步骤，有效推进工业化、现代化建设

The Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) clarified that Vietnam’s socialist transition period is a long, complex struggle encompassing multiple stages of development, requiring gradual steps and measures to advance modernization in an orderly manner. The CPV held that the primary task of modernization in the 1980s and 1990s was to stabilize the economy and society, emerge from crisis, and lay the foundation for the next stage of modernization. By the time of the Eighth National Congress in 1996, Vietnam’s economy and society had emerged from crisis; the CPV therefore indicated that Vietnam’s modernization had entered a new phase of comprehensive and rapid advancement, and set the goal of basically turning Vietnam into an industrial country by 2020. However, by the Twelfth National Congress in 2016, the CPV realized that many of the targets for building an industrial country by 2020 were difficult to achieve, so it removed the specific year from the political report, replacing it with the formulation “strive to become an industrial country as soon as possible.” Nevertheless, for the first time the CPV designed an overall “three-step” plan for the advancement of national modernization at the macro level: the first step is to create preconditions for industrialization and modernization; the second step is to rapidly advance industrialization and modernization; the third step is to improve the quality of industrialization and modernization.

越共六大明确了越南的社会主义过渡时期是一个包含多个发展阶段的漫长、复杂的斗争过程，要以适当的步骤和措施，循序渐进地推进现代化建设。越共认为20世纪80-90年代现代化建设的首要任务是稳定经济社会和走出危机，并为下一阶段的现代化打好基础。到1996年越共八大召开时，越南经济社会已经走出危机，越共因此指出越南的现代化开始进入全面快速推进的新阶段，并提出到2020年要把越南基本建成工业国的奋斗目标。不过，2016年十二大召开时，越共意识到2020年将越南建成工业国的很多指标难以实现，于是在政治报告中去掉了建成工业国的具体年份，改为“争取早日建成工业国”的提法。尽管如此，越共却首次从宏观上对国家现代化建设的推进步骤进行了“三步走”的总体设计：第一步为工业化、现代化创造前提条件；第二步是快速推进工业化、现代化；第三步是提高工业化、现代化质量。

In 2021, the CPV convened its Thirteenth National Congress, supplementing the “three-step” strategic design for national industrialization and modernization. The CPV proposed to advance the national modernization cause in tandem with the reform (đổi mới) cause, striving to turn Vietnam into a developed country oriented toward socialism by the middle of the 21st century. The specific goals are: by 2025, the 50th anniversary of the complete liberation of the South and national reunification, to escape lower-middle income status and become a developing country with industry oriented toward modernization; by 2030, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Party, to become an upper-middle-income developing country with modernized industry; and by 2045, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, now the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, to become a high-income developed country.

2021年越共召开十三大，对国家工业化、现代化“三步走”的战略设计进行补充。越共提出要将国家的现代化事业与革新事业同步推进，力争到二十一世纪中叶把越南建成社会主义定向的发达国家。其具体目标是：到纪念南方完全解放、祖国统一五十周年的2025年，摆脱中等偏下收入水平，成为工业面向现代化的发展中国家；到纪念建党一百周年的2030年，成为工业现代化的中等偏上收入的发展中国家；到纪念越南民主共和国，即现在的越南社会主义共和国成立一百周年的2045年，成为高收入的发达国家。

Since the reform and opening up (đổi mới), the CPV has gradually overcome subjective and impatient tendencies. Under the guidance of the concept of rapid and sustainable development, it has continuously revised and improved the step-by-step design of industrialization and modernization in accordance with the actual conditions of economic and social development, making it both respectful of objective reality and strategically forward-looking, thereby effectively guiding the country’s modernization.

革新开放以来，越共逐步克服主观、急躁情绪，在快速、可持续发展的理念指导下根据经济社会发展的实际状况不断修正和完善工业化、现代化的步骤设计，使其既尊重客观实际又具有一定的战略前瞻性，从而有效引导本国的现代化建设。

(3) Timely Adjusting the Strategic Focus, Reshaping a New Path for Vietnam’s Modernization through Positive Interaction between Agriculture and Industry

（三）适时调整战略重心，在农业和工业的良性互动中重塑越南现代化发展新道路

Because it deviated from the fundamental principle of proceeding from reality, for a period the CPV failed to identify the correct focal point for the country’s modernization, mistakenly treating “priority development of heavy industry” as the primary task, with the result that the modernization cause fell into chaos. After the Sixth National Congress, the CPV recognized that it must proceed from the reality that Vietnam was still a backward agricultural country, decisively made major adjustments to the previously irrational production and investment structure, established agricultural production as the “primary front,” and shifted the construction focus from heavy industry to agriculture.

由于偏离从实际出发这一根本原则，越共在一段时间内没能找准本国现代化建设的着力点，误将“优先发展重工业”当成首要任务来抓，结果使得现代化事业陷入混乱。六大召开后，越共认识到必须从越南仍是落后农业国的实际出发，果断地对原来不合理的生产和投资结构进行重大调整，将农业生产确立为“首要战线”，把建设重心从重工业领域转向农业领域。

Agriculture becoming the “primary front” has two meanings: first, developing agriculture was the most important and most urgent task in the entire national economic construction at that time; second, as the foundation of the national economy, agriculture must receive priority support in terms of production, investment, and the allocation of technical forces. The CPV held that, as two main sectors of the national economy that interact with and promote each other, industry and agriculture must develop in parallel and in close combination. The national conditions of a backward agricultural country, combined with the severe destruction caused by prolonged war, resulted in an extremely weak industrial base and extreme poverty among the people. This determined that, before the modernization cause could get on track, Vietnam must first undergo a preparatory phase of relying on and utilizing agriculture to lay the foundation for industrial development—that is, first placing the construction focus on agriculture. When the economic and social situation stabilized and a certain material foundation had been established, it would be necessary to strengthen industrial construction, give play to industry’s role in driving agriculture and promoting agriculture through industry, and form a positive interaction between industry and agriculture. By truly clarifying the relationship between agriculture and industry, Vietnam’s modernization cause found the correct direction for steady progress.

农业成为“首要战线”具有两层含义：其一，发展农业是当时整个国民经济建设中最重要也是最紧迫的任务；其二，农业作为国民经济的基础，在生产、投资、技术力量配备方面必须得到优先扶持。越共认为，作为国民经济相互影响、相互促进的两个主要部门，工业和农业的发展必须相辅并行，紧密结合。落后农业国的国情与长期战争造成的严重破坏，导致越南工业基础极其薄弱，人民生活极度贫困，由此决定了越南的现代化事业在步入正轨之前，首先要经历一个依靠和利用农业为工业发展奠定基础的前期准备阶段，即将建设的着力点首先放在农业上。而当经济社会形势得以稳定，有了一定的物质基础之后，就要加强工业建设，发挥工业带动农业、以工促农的作用，在工业与农业之间形成良性互动。由于真正捋清了农业与工业之间的关系问题，越南的现代化事业就此找到了稳步前进的正确方向。

Entering the 1990s, as the economic and social situation improved, the CPV began to emphasize the role of industry in driving agriculture, stressing that while taking agricultural development as the top priority, it should increase the speed and proportion of industrial development and accelerate the development of the service sector. The CPV specifically pointed out that Vietnamese agriculture should be understood in a broad sense: it is neither pure agriculture nor backward agriculture, but agriculture that promotes mutual progress with industry and services and develops in the direction of industrialization and modernization. To this end, the CPV required vigorously promoting mechanization, electrification, and water conservancy in agricultural production, introducing modern technical equipment and techniques into all links of agricultural production. At the same time, it actively adjusted the economic structure of agriculture and rural areas, encouraging the development of rural industry and services. The Seventh National Congress of the CPV further integrated the development of agriculture and the rural economy with industrialization and modernization, raising new requirements for realizing the industrialization and modernization of agriculture and rural areas, and regarding this as the most important task in the national modernization cause.

进入20世纪90年代，随着经济社会形势好转，越共开始重视发挥工业对农业的带动作用，强调在将农业发展作为第一要务的同时，提高工业发展的速度和比重，并加快发展服务业。越共特别指出，对于越南农业要广义地理解，它既不是单纯的农业，也不是落后的农业，而是与工业、服务业相互促进并朝着工业化、现代化方向发展的农业。为此，越共要求在农业生产中大力推进机械化、电气化、水利化，将现代化的技术装备和工艺引入农业生产的各个环节。同时，积极调整农业和农村的经济结构，鼓励发展农村工业、服务业。越共七大进一步将农业、农村经济的发展与工业化、现代化建设结合起来，提出实现农业和农村工业化、现代化的新要求，并将其视为国家现代化事业中最重要的一项任务。

Since the reform and opening up (đổi mới), the CPV has consistently placed agriculture in a strategic position in the country’s modernization. In August 2008, the Seventh Plenary Session of the Tenth Central Committee of the CPV prominently raised the issue of peasants and adopted Resolution No. 26 specifically on the “three rural issues” (agriculture, rural areas, and peasants). The resolution emphasized that the “three rural issues” have a strategic position in the cause of national industrialization, modernization, and national defense, are the foundation for maintaining sustainable economic and social development, political stability, and national security, and must be resolved simultaneously in the process of advancing national industrialization and modernization. In June 2022, the CPV convened the Fifth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee, making new arrangements for advancing work on the “three rural issues” under the new situation. The CPV required that national resources must continue to be invested with priority in agriculture, peasants, and rural areas to ensure harmonious development between urban and rural areas and among regions, closely integrate agricultural development with the development of industry and services, and closely link sustainable rural development with the urbanization process, developing in the direction of “ecological agriculture, modern countryside, and civilized peasants.” In October of the same year, the Sixth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee of the CPV once again affirmed that the industrialization and modernization of agriculture and rural areas is the primary task given priority in Vietnam’s national modernization strategy.

革新开放以来，越共始终坚持将农业放在本国现代化建设的战略位置。2008年8月，越共十届七中全会将农民问题着重提了出来，并形成了关于“三农”问题的第26号专门决议。决议强调“三农”问题在国家工业化、现代化建设和保卫祖国事业中具有战略地位，是维护经济社会可持续发展、维护政治稳定、确保国防安全的基础，必须在推进国家工业化、现代化进程中得到同步解决。2022年6月越共召开十三届五中全会，对新形势下推进“三农”工作作出新的部署。越共要求，国家资源必须继续优先投资于农业、农民和农村地区，以确保城乡之间、各地区之间的和谐发展，把农业发展与工业、服务业的发展紧密结合起来，把农村可持续发展与城镇化进程紧密联系起来，朝着“生态农业、现代农村、文明农民”的方向发展。同年10月，越共十三届六中全会再次明确农业和农村的工业化、现代化是越南国家现代化战略中优先发展的首要任务。

Starting from the reform of thinking at the Sixth National Congress, the CPV, based on the country’s national conditions, established agriculture as the “primary front,” completed the shift in the strategic focus of national modernization, continuously advanced the industrialization and modernization of agriculture and rural areas through positive interaction between agriculture and industry, simultaneously resolved the “three rural issues,” and reshaped a new path for Vietnam’s modernization development.

越共六大从革新思维开始，基于本国国情，将农业确立为“首要战线”，完成了国家现代化建设战略的重心转移，在农业和工业的良性互动中不断推进农业和农村工业化、现代化建设，同步解决“三农”问题，重塑越南现代化发展新道路。

(4) Using the Scientific and Technological Revolution as a Lever, Striving for Leapfrog Development

（四）以科技革命为杠杆，努力追求跨越式发展

In learning from the experience of modernization in developed countries, the CPV recognized that only by combining adherence to gradual development steps with seizing opportunities for “taking shortcuts” could leapfrog development be achieved. Among these, grasping the trends and opportunities of the modern scientific and technological revolution, promoting the country’s scientific and technological progress and the development of high-quality human resources, and facilitating the transformation and widespread application of modern scientific and technological achievements and new knowledge in all walks of life are the levers for achieving leapfrog development. To this end, the CPV successively adopted a number of special resolutions on scientific and technological progress and education and training, and established both as the country’s “supreme national policies,” regarding them as the “key driving forces” for national industrialization and modernization.

在学习借鉴发达国家现代化建设的经验中，越共认识到，只有将坚持循序渐进的发展步骤与抓住“走捷径”的发展机遇结合起来，才能实现跨越式发展。而其中，紧抓现代科技革命的潮流和机遇，推动本国科技进步和高素质人力资源开发，促进现代科技成果和新知识在各行各业的转化和广泛应用，是实现跨越式发展的杠杆。为此，越共先后通过了多项针对科技进步和教育培训工作的专门决议，并把两者确立为国家的“最高国策”，视为国家工业化、现代化建设的“关键动力”。

With the development of the technological revolution, the role of knowledge and innovation factors in enhancing national strength is growing. Entering the 21st century, the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) began to emphasize the significant role of the knowledge economy in accelerating and improving the efficiency of industrialization and modernization. Subsequently, new propositions and models for developing the knowledge economy emerged in Vietnam. The VCP’s Ninth National Congress first proposed the idea of developing a knowledge economy. The Tenth Congress stressed the policy of closely combining the promotion of industrialization and modernization with the development of the knowledge economy. The Eleventh Congress identified “accelerating national industrialization and modernization, combined with developing the knowledge economy, protecting resources, and the environment” as the primary basic strategy for building a socialist country in Vietnam. The VCP believes that combining modernization with the knowledge economy is both a major trend in world development today and a new requirement for Vietnam’s national development in the new period. Its essence is to implement an acceleration strategy for modernization based on knowledge. In 2021, the VCP’s Thirteenth National Congress seized upon “digitalization,” the latest achievement of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, to expand the content of knowledge economy development. The Sixth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee established the digital transformation of the economy and society as a new method to accelerate and improve the efficiency of national industrialization and modernization.

随着科技革命的发展，知识和创新因素在增强国家实力方面的作用越来越大。进入21世纪，越共开始重视发挥知识经济在工业化、现代化提速增效中的重大作用，随后越南出现了发展知识经济的新主张和新模式。越共九大首次提出发展知识经济的主张，十大强调推进工业化、现代化与发展知识经济要密切结合的方针，十一大则将“加快推进国家工业化、现代化，与发展知识经济、保护资源、环境相结合”确定为越南社会主义国家建设的首条基本方略。越共认为，把现代化发展与知识经济结合起来既是当今世界发展的重大潮流，也是新时期越南国家发展的新要求，其本质上是实施以知识为基础的现代化加速战略。2021年越共十三大紧抓“数字化”这个第四次工业革命的最新成果，对发展知识经济的内容进行了扩充，十三届六中全会将经济社会的数字化转型确立为国家工业化、现代化提速增效的新方式。

Based on the national reality of being a backward developing country, the VCP learns from the advanced experience of developed countries, seizes the trends and opportunities of the technological revolution, takes science, technology, knowledge, and high-quality human resources as the main driving forces for industrialization and modernization, uses the development of the knowledge economy and the promotion of national digital transformation as accelerating levers, and optimizes methods and pathways to pursue leapfrog development.

越共基于本国是落后发展中国家的现实国情，学习发达国家先进经验，抓住科技革命的潮流和机遇，以科学、技术、知识和高素质人力资源为工业化、现代化的主要动力，以发展知识经济，推动国家数字化转型为加速杠杆，优化方法路径追求跨越式发展。

(5) Advancing the national modernization cause within the development of a socialist-oriented market economy and international integration

（五）在发展社会主义定向市场经济和融入国际中推进本国的现代化事业

Any model of modernization must first resolve the issues of construction resources, especially the questions of “where does capital come from” and “how is it allocated.” Vietnam’s modernization faced the test of these two major challenges from the very beginning. Regarding the source of capital, having previously received substantial aid from fraternal socialist countries like the Soviet Union, while filling the funding gap for national industrialization, it also fostered a mindset of over-reliance on external aid in Vietnam. In terms of foreign economic and trade relations, Vietnam at that time focused its efforts mainly on interactions with member states of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) [8]8 The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon) was an economic organization of socialist states led by the Soviet Union, active from 1949 to 1991., leading to a narrow range of foreign economic relations and reducing the channels for construction capital. Regarding resource allocation, deeply influenced by the Soviet planned economy model, resources were primarily allocated through administrative methods of “allocation and remittance,” one-sidedly exaggerating the role of planning and government while neglecting the functions of market mechanisms such as commodity-money relations. This formed a bureaucratic and rigid economic administrative management mechanism, severely constraining the potential of human, financial, and material resources. From the lessons of the failures in early modernization, the VCP gradually recognized that to accumulate sufficient capital for national modernization and allocate it efficiently, it must first handle major relationships such as “plan and market,” “internal and external forces,” and “economic independence and proactive international integration.”

任何模式的现代化建设都必须首先解决建设资源，特别是资金“从何而来”和“如何配置”的问题。越南的现代化建设从一开始也面临着这两大难题的考验。在资金来源上，由于之前曾得到苏联等社会主义兄弟国家的大量援助，在弥补本国工业化建设资金缺口的同时，也使越南养成了过度依赖外援的思想；在对外经贸关系上，当时的越南把精力主要放在了与经互会成员国的交往上，导致了对外经济关系单一，缩小了建设资金的来源渠道；在资源的配置方面，由于深受苏联计划经济模式的影响，主要以“拨发-上缴”的行政方式来调配资源，片面夸大计划和政府的作用而忽视商品货币关系等市场机制的功能，从而形成了官僚僵化的经济行政管理机制，严重束缚了人财物等资源潜力的发挥。越共从早期现代化建设失败的教训中逐渐认清，要为本国现代化建设积累足够的资金并能高效配置，就要首先处理好“计划与市场”“内力与外力”“经济独立自主与主动融入国际”等重大关系。

The VCP continuously deepened its understanding and recognition of the laws of the market economy, such as commodity-money relations, gradually clarifying that market mechanisms play a “decisive role” in price formation and resource allocation. This is the most effective means to stimulate economic vitality and rapidly accumulate construction capital. From the Sixth National Congress first proposing that Vietnam should develop a commodity economy, to the Ninth Congress further requiring the construction of a socialist-oriented market economy as the overall model for national economic development during the transitional period, the VCP gradually recognized that developing a socialist-oriented market economy is the inevitable path for Vietnam to achieve socialist modernization.

越共不断深化对商品货币关系等市场经济规律的认识和理解，逐步明确了市场机制在价格形成和资源配置中发挥着“决定性作用”，这是激发经济活力、快速积累建设资金的最有效手段。从六大首次提出越南要发展商品经济的主张，到九大进一步要求建设社会主义定向市场经济作为过渡时期国家经济发展的总体模式，越共逐步认识到发展社会主义定向市场经济是越南实现社会主义现代化的必由之路。

In handling the relationship between “internal and external forces,” the VCP emphasizes that “internal forces,” i.e., domestic resources, are the foundation and play a decisive role in development; “external forces,” i.e., external resources, are supplementary and play a crucial role in development. Only when “internal forces” are strengthened can economic independence be ensured, and can “external forces” be effectively attracted and utilized. Vietnam’s modernization must base its foothold on relying on “internal forces,” actively seeking foreign capital, technology, and management experience as supplementary resources for national modernization while practicing self-reliance and hard work.

在“内力与外力”关系的处理上，越共强调“内力”即国内资源是基础，对发展起着决定性作用；“外力”即外部资源是补充，对发展起着至关重要的作用。只有“内力”得到加强，才能确保经济独立自主，才能有效吸引和利用“外力”。越南的现代化建设必须将立足点放在依靠“内力”上，在自力更生、艰苦奋斗的同时积极争取国外的资本、技术和管理经验作为本国现代化建设的补充资源。

In handling the relationship between “economic independence and proactive international integration,” the VCP requires respecting and conforming to the trend of international economic integration, persisting in expanding openness, developing multilateralized and diversified foreign economic relations, effectively participating in global production networks and value chains, and continuously improving the technological and managerial levels of national modernization as well as international competitiveness. At the same time, the VCP points out that while proactively integrating internationally, it must ensure the security, stability, and sustainable development of the national economy. It is necessary to maintain macroeconomic balance, ensure the security of key sectors such as food and energy, and achieve deeper and more efficient international integration by enhancing the independence and autonomy of the national economy.

在“经济独立自主和主动融入国际”关系问题的处理上，越共要求尊重和顺应国际经济一体化的趋势，坚持扩大开放，发展多边化、多样化的对外经济关系，有效参与全球生产网络和价值链，不断提高国家现代化的技术和管理水平以及国际竞争力。同时，越共指出，在主动融入国际的同时必须确保本国经济的安全稳定和可持续发展。要保持经济宏观平衡，保障粮食、能源等关键部门的安全，通过提高本国经济的独立自主性更加深入、高效地融入国际。

Since the reform and opening up (Đổi Mới) [9]9 Đổi Mới (Renovation) is the Vietnamese term for the comprehensive economic and political reforms initiated by the VCP in 1986, analogous to China’s reform and opening up., based on the changed understanding of the sources and allocation of modernization capital, the VCP has continuously deepened its understanding and recognition of the laws of Vietnam’s socialist economic construction, advancing the national modernization cause through the correct application of the objective laws of the socialist-oriented market economy and proactive, extensive international integration.

革新以来，越共基于对现代化建设资金来源和配置问题的认识转变，不断深化对越南社会主义经济建设规律的认识和理解，在正确运用社会主义定向市场经济的客观规律和主动、广泛地融入国际中推进本国的现代化事业。

III. Notable Achievements of the Vietnamese Communist Party in Advancing Modernization

三、越南共产党推进现代化建设的显著成就

After years of arduous exploration, Vietnam’s modernization has achieved remarkable results. It has not only emerged from the ranks of low-income countries but has also been recognized by the United Nations as one of the first countries to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, and has entered the ranks of countries with a relatively high Human Development Index. The achievements of Vietnam’s modernization are specifically manifested in the following aspects.

经过多年的艰辛探索，越南现代化建设成就显著，不仅走出了低收入国家的行列，而且被联合国公认为率先实现千年发展目标的国家之一，并跻身世界上人类发展指数较高的国家行列。越南现代化建设的成就具体表现在以下几个方面。

First, Vietnam’s economy has grown steadily, the economic scale has continuously expanded, and the major balances of the economy have been increasingly ensured. According to statistics, Vietnam’s average GDP growth rate was approximately 4.8% from 1986 to 1990, about 7.6% from 1991 to 2000, about 6.6% from 2001 to 2010, and about 6.2% from 2011 to 2020, making it one of the fastest-growing countries in the region and the world. Vietnam’s economic scale has continued to expand: GDP was $6.47 billion in 1990, $31.173 billion in 2000, $147.2 billion in 2010, $346.62 billion in 2020, and reached $408.8 billion in 2022. Major balances in the economy, such as accumulation-consumption, savings-investment, energy, food, and labor-employment, have been increasingly ensured, and the macroeconomic foundation has been continuously consolidated. In 2020, Vietnam’s total GDP surpassed that of Singapore and Malaysia, becoming the fourth-largest economy in ASEAN after Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines.

首先，越南经济稳步增长，经济规模不断扩大，经济的大平衡日益得到保障。据统计，越南GDP平均增速在1986-1990年约为4.8%，1991-2000年约为7.6%，2001-2010年约为6.6%，2011-2020年约为6.2%，是该地区和世界增长最快的国家之一。越南经济规模持续扩大，1990年国内生产总值为64.7亿美元，2000年为311.73亿美元，2010年为1472亿美元，2020年为3466.2亿美元，2022年达到4088亿美元。经济在积累-消费、储蓄-投资、能源、粮食、劳动力-就业等方面的大平衡不断得到保障，宏观经济基础日益夯实。2020年越南GDP总量超越新加坡、马来西亚，成为继印度尼西亚、泰国、菲律宾之后的东盟第四大经济体。

Secondly, Vietnam’s industrial structure, labor structure, and economic growth model have undergone positive transformations, with industry contributing increasingly to economic development. According to statistics, in 1988, agriculture accounted for as much as 46.8% of Vietnam’s GDP, while industry and services accounted for 23.9% and 29.7% respectively. In 2010, the share of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in GDP fell to 18.9%, and by 2022 it had dropped to 11.88%, while the share of industry, construction, and services rose from 81.1% in 2010 to 88.12% in 2022. Industry, construction, and services play a leading role in economic development and make the main contribution to economic growth. At the same time, the labor structure has also undergone positive changes along with the optimization of the industrial structure. The share of labor in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries fell from 48.6% in 2010 to 34% in 2020; the share of labor in industry and construction rose from 21.7% to 30.3%, and the share of labor in services rose from 29.7% to about 35.7%. Economic growth has gradually reduced its dependence on natural resource extraction, raw material exports, cheap labor, and credit expansion, and has instead turned to relying on the application of strong science and technology and reform and innovation. Within industry, the share of processing and manufacturing has been rising continuously, while the share of mining has been declining. As Vietnam’s industrial structure has been continuously optimized, its global competitiveness has also been rising. The 2020 Global Industrial Competitiveness Ranking released by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization shows that Vietnam’s Competitive Industrial Performance Index (CIP) ranks 38th globally and 4th among South Asian and Southeast Asian countries.

其次，越南产业结构、劳动力结构、经济增长模式发生积极转变，工业对经济发展的贡献越来越大。据统计，1988年越南农业占GDP的比重高达46.8%，工业和服务业分别占比23.9%和29.7%。2010年，越南农、林、渔业占GDP的比重下降到18.9%，到2022年下降到11.88%，工业、建筑业和服务业的比重则从2010年的81.1%提高到2022年88.12%。工业、建筑业和服务业在经济发展中发挥引领作用，为经济增长作出主要贡献。与此同时，劳动力结构也随着产业结构的优化而发生积极变化。农、林、渔业的劳动力占比从2010年的48.6%下降到2020年的34%;工业和建筑业的劳动力占比则从21.7%提高到30.3%，服务业的劳动力占比从29.7%提高到35.7%左右。经济增长逐渐降低了对自然资源开采、原料出口、廉价劳动力和信贷扩张的依赖，而转向依靠应用强大的科技和改革创新上。工业中，加工、制造业的比重不断上升，而采矿业的比重则不断下降。越南工业结构在不断优化的同时，其全球竞争力也在不断提升。联合国工业发展组织发布的2020年全球工业竞争力排名显示，越南工业竞争力绩效指数（CIP）在全球排名第38位，在南亚和东南亚国家中排名第4位。

Thirdly, Vietnam’s urbanization process has accelerated, agriculture has achieved stable and sustainable development, and the construction of new rural areas has achieved positive results. Driven by industrialization and modernization, Vietnam’s urbanization pace has quickened, with the number of urban systems growing rapidly, their scale expanding, and their quality gradually improving. As of November 2023, Vietnam’s urbanization rate was approximately 42.6%. Agricultural production has shifted toward a commercialized, centralized, and specialized direction closely linked to the market. The modernization of agriculture has laid a solid foundation for national food security, and its role is increasingly affirmed. At the same time, the rural economic structure has undergone positive changes, with the share of industry and services continuously rising, and farmers’ incomes and spiritual life steadily improving. As of July 2023, among 8,177 townships nationwide, 6,022 had met the standards for new rural construction, accounting for 73.65% (an increase of 11.3% compared to the end of 2020); 1,331 had met the “upgraded version” standards for new rural areas; and 176 had met the standards for new rural demonstration villages. In addition, 263 county-level units in 58 provinces and centrally administered cities had completed the tasks of new rural construction and received certificates from the Prime Minister.

再次，越南城市化进程加快，农业实现稳定和可持续发展，新农村建设取得积极成效。在工业化、现代化推动下，越南城市化步伐加快，城市系统的数量快速增长，规模不断扩大，质量逐步提高。截至2023年11月，越南城镇化率约为42.6%。农业生产转向与市场紧密联系的商品化、集中化、专业化方向。农业的现代化为国家的粮食安全奠定了坚实的基础，其作用日益得到肯定。与此同时，农村经济结构发生积极转变，工业和服务业比重不断提高，农民收入和精神生活不断改善。截至2023年7月，越南全国8177个乡镇中达到新农村建设标准的有6022个，占73.65%（较2020年底增长11.3%），达到新农村“升级版”标准的有1331个，达到新农村示范村标准的有176个。此外，全国有58个省和直辖市的263个县级单位完成新农村建设任务并获得政府总理颁发的证书。

Finally, people’s livelihoods in Vietnam have been guaranteed and improved, and society has become more civilized and progressive. The “socialist-oriented” nature of Vietnam’s industrialization and modernization determines that its ultimate focus is on improving the living conditions of the people. In 2020, Vietnam’s per capita income was 3,512 USD, more than 17 times the per capita income in 1986 (less than 200 USD). At the same time, Vietnam’s poverty rate has declined year by year. According to statistics, by government standards, Vietnam’s poverty rate fell from 58% in 1993 to 5.8% in 2016, and by 2020 the number of poor people in Vietnam had decreased to 5 million. Calculated according to the 2022-2025 multidimensional poverty standard, Vietnam’s national multidimensional poverty rate in 2022 was 7.52%, and the total number of poor households and multidimensional relatively poor households had decreased to 1.9727 million. The number of teachers and enrolled students has been increasing continuously. In the 1986-1987 academic year, the number of university teachers in Vietnam was 19,000, and the number of enrolled university students was 126,600; by 2018, these two figures were 73,000 and 1.526 million respectively. As of the 2019-2020 academic year, the number of primary and secondary school teachers nationwide reached 812,000, and the number of enrolled primary and secondary school students reached 17.042 million. Citizens’ awareness of self-protection has strengthened. At the end of 2015, 12 million people participated in social insurance, about 10 million participated in unemployment insurance, and 75% participated in medical insurance. In 2020, the proportion of people participating in medical insurance reached 90.7%. The quality of medical and health care work has been continuously improving. In 1991, the average life expectancy was 65.2 years; in 2000, it was 68.3 years; and in 2020, it further increased to 73.7 years. Pollution prevention and environmental protection work have been actively promoted. In 2020, the proportion of urban residents using water that met clean water standards was about 90%, and for rural residents it was about 90.2%, a significant increase compared to 2015.

最后，越南民生得到保障和改善，社会更加文明进步。越南工业化、现代化“以社会主义为定向”的性质决定了其最终落脚于人民群众生存状态的改善上。2020年越南人均收入为3512美元，是1986年人均收入（不足200美元）的17倍多。与此同时，越南的贫困率逐年下降。据统计，按照政府标准，越南贫困率从1993年的58%下降到2016年的5.8%，到2020年越南贫困人口减少至500万人。按照2022-2025年多维贫困标准计算，2022年越南全国多维贫困率为7.52%，贫困户和多维相对贫困户总数减少到197.27万户。教师队伍和在校学生人数不断增加。1986-1987学年越南高校教师人数为1.9万，在校大学生人数为12.66万，到2018年这两个数据分别为7.3万和152.6万。截至2019-2020学年，全国中小学教师队伍人数达81.2万，中小学在校学生人数达1704.2万。公民的自我保障意识增强。2015年底有1200万人参加社会保险，约1000万人参加失业保险，75%的人参加医疗保险。2020年参加医疗保险的人数比例达到90.7%。医疗卫生保健工作质量不断提高。1991年人均寿命为65.2岁，2000年为68.3岁，2020年进一步提高到73.7岁。污染防治和环境保护工作积极推进。2020年，用水符合净水标准的城市居民比例约为90%，农村居民约为90.2%，比2015年大幅增加。

IV. Problems Faced by the Communist Party of Vietnam in Advancing Modernization

四、越南共产党推进现代化建设面临的问题

Vietnam’s modernization, as a localized and contemporary innovative exploration, has gradually forged a development path with Vietnamese characteristics. However, it is undeniable that while achieving brilliant accomplishments, Vietnam’s modernization also faces many problems, prominently manifested in the following aspects.

越南的现代化建设作为一种本土化、时代化的创新性探索，逐步走出了一条具有越南特色的发展道路。但不可否认的是，在取得辉煌成就的同时，越南现代化也面临着不少问题，突出表现在如下几个方面。

First, while the economic scale continues to expand, economic growth faces downside risks. A report from the Central Institute for Economic Management of Vietnam points out that, taking a ten-year cycle as a unit, Vietnam’s GDP growth rate has shown a downward trend. In the ten years from 1991 to 2000, the GDP growth rate was 7.34%; from 2001 to 2010, it fell to 6.82%; and from 2011 to 2020, it was 6.2%, lower than the targets set in the economic development strategy for the same period. At the same time, compared with neighboring countries South Korea and China, Vietnam’s economic growth rate lags behind in both duration and magnitude. From 1990 to the present, the period with the highest economic growth rate in Vietnam was the five years from 1991 to 1995, with an average annual growth rate of 8.21%, while South Korea’s average annual GDP growth rate over the 30 years from 1960 to 1990 was 9.58%, and China’s average annual GDP growth rate over the 30 years from 1977 to 2007 was as high as 10.02%.

一是经济规模在持续扩大的同时，经济增速面临下行风险。越南中央经济管理研究所的一份报告指出，以十年为一周期，越南GDP增长速度有下降趋势。1991-2000年的十年，GDP的增长速度为7.34%，2001-2010年降至6.82%，2011-2020年则为6.2%，低于同期经济发展战略中的预定目标。同时，与邻国韩国和中国相比，越南的经济增速在持续时间和幅度上都相对落后。从1990年至今，越南经济增速最高的时期是1991-1995年的5年时间，年均增速达8.21%，而韩国在1960-1990年的30年间GDP年均增速达到9.58%，中国在1977-2007年的30年间GDP年均增速则高达10.02%。

Second, Vietnam’s internal economic strength is still relatively weak, with heavy dependence on foreign investment and inefficient use of foreign capital. The global trade consulting firm Hinrich Foundation believes that Vietnam has currently formed an “FDI-led” economic model, with a very high degree of dependence on foreign capital and foreign markets. According to statistics, as of February 2023, 141 countries and regions were investing in Vietnam, with a total registered capital of nearly 440 billion USD. In 2022, in Vietnam’s traditional advantageous industries such as textiles and garments, leather and footwear, the contribution rate of foreign direct investment (FDI) exceeded 60%, while in the electronics and computer industries, the contribution rate of FDI reached 100%. Exports by foreign-invested enterprises accounted for three-quarters of Vietnam’s total exports. Vietnam’s trade surplus is almost entirely achieved by foreign capital, while domestic enterprises have been in a state of huge trade deficits. Furthermore, domestic enterprises have not yet formed close ties with foreign-invested enterprises, especially in important industries such as electronics and information technology, which adversely affects the ability of local Vietnamese enterprises to improve their production and management levels through technology transfer and also prevents foreign direct investment in Vietnam from generating chain effects.

二是越南经济的内力还相对较弱，对外资依赖严重，且外资利用效率不高。全球贸易咨询机构辛里奇基金会认为，越南目前形成了一种“以外国直接投资为主导”的经济模式，对外资和国外市场的依赖度非常高。据统计，截至2023年2月，正在越南开展投资的国家和地区有141个，注册资本总额接近4400亿美元。2022年，在纺织服装、皮革和鞋类等越南传统优势行业，外国直接投资（FDI）的贡献率超过60%，而电子和计算机行业，FDI的贡献率达到100%。外资企业出口额占到越南出口总额的四分之三。越南的贸易顺差几乎全部由外资实现，国内企业一直处于巨额贸易逆差的状态。此外，国内企业与外国直接投资企业尚未形成紧密联系，特别是在电子、信息技术等重要行业，这就对越南本土企业想要通过技术转让而提高生产和管理水平造成不利影响，也使外国在越南的直接投资没能形成连锁效益。

Third, Vietnam’s industry lacks a high degree of independence and autonomy, its development still lacks stability, the added value of industries is low, and it has not yet deeply participated in regional and global value chains. At present, Vietnam’s industrial development is in a transitional period of rising from the first stage to the second stage, and this transition process is progressing relatively slowly; the industrial capacity for technology absorption and the level of production management remain limited. Because many raw materials and components needed for the development of its domestic industry cannot yet be produced independently and still require large-scale imports from abroad, the independence and stability of Vietnam’s industrial development have been weakened. At the same time, the quality of Vietnamese enterprises’ participation in global value chains is low, and they are basically stuck in the processing and assembly links at the lowest end of the value chain, where profits are only 5-10%. Furthermore, a Vietnamese government report points out that the localization rate of products in many industrial sectors is very low. For example, in 2020, the average localization rate for 9-seat private cars in Vietnam was only 7-10%, far below the planned target of 30-40%. Another example is the textile and footwear industries, where the price of raw and auxiliary materials accounts for 68-75% of the value structure, yet their localization rate is only 40-45%. For electronics, information technology and telecommunications, and specialized electronics and high-tech industries, the localization rates are even lower, at 15% and 5%, respectively.

三是越南工业的独立自主性不高，发展还缺乏稳定性，产业附加值低，还没有深入参与到区域和全球的价值链中。当前，越南的工业发展正处于从第一阶段向第二阶段上升的转变期，且这一转变过程进展比较缓慢，工业的技术吸收能力和生产管理水平仍然有限。由于本国工业发展的许多原料和配件还不能实现自主生产，仍需大量从国外进口，越南工业发展的独立性、稳定性遭到削弱。同时，越南企业参与全球价值链的质量较低，基本处于利润只有5-10%的价值链最低端的加工、组装环节。此外，越南政府报告指出，许多工业部门的产品本地化率很低。比如，2020年越南9座的私家车本地化率平均只有7-10%，远低于30-40%的计划目标。又如纺织业和制鞋业，原辅料价格占到了价值结构的68-75%，但其本地化率却只有40-45%。而电子、信息技术和电信，专用电子和高科技产业的本地化率更低，分别为15%和5%。

Fourth, although state-owned enterprises are the core force of the state-owned economy, their leading and driving role in economic development is limited, and the domestic private sector has not yet become an important engine for promoting industrialization and modernization. Many state-owned enterprises have poor production and operational efficiency and low contribution rates, which are disproportionate to the resources invested by the state; some are also heavily indebted and suffer huge losses. At the same time, the reform of the management mechanism for state-owned enterprises is slow, efficiency is low, and openness and transparency are also insufficient, failing to meet the requirements of international norms. Vietnam’s private economy mostly consists of small-scale individual businesses; whether in terms of technological level, management level, financial capacity, or product quality and competitiveness, they are all at a relatively low level and cannot meet the requirements of regional and global value chains. At the same time, the laws and various mechanisms and policies encouraging the development of the private economy lack synchronization and still have many shortcomings and defects.

四是虽然国有企业是国有经济的核心力量，但它对经济发展的引领和推动作用有限，国内私营经济部门尚未成为推动工业化、现代化发展的重要动力。许多国有企业的生产经营效益差、贡献率低，与国家投入的资源并不相称，还有的负债累累，亏损巨大。同时，国有企业管理机制改革缓慢，效率低下，公开性和透明度也不高，尚未达到国际规范的要求。越南的私营经济大多是规模较小的个体户，无论是技术水平、管理水平、财务能力，还是产品质量和竞争力都处于较低水平，无法满足区域和全球价值链的要求。同时，鼓励私营经济发展的法律和各项机制、政策缺乏同步性，还存在许多不足和缺陷。

Beyond this, the Vietnamese Communist Party itself is also soberly aware that its understanding of industrialization and modernization still contains many defects that are unclear or unrealistic. Particularly in the fields of science, technology, and innovation, high-quality human resources are very scarce; systems, mechanisms, and policies have many deficiencies; and standards and norms systems are backward, making it difficult to incentivize the development and application of science and technology. These problems and challenges also indicate that Vietnam’s modernization still has a long way to go.

除此之外，越南共产党自身也清醒地意识到，其对于工业化、现代化的认识还存在许多内容不明确或不切实际的缺陷。特别是在科技和创新领域，高素质的人力资源十分匮乏，体制、机制、政策还有许多不足，标准和规范体系落后，难以激励科技的发展和应用。以上这些问题和挑战也预示着越南的现代化还有很长的路要走。

In summary, although Vietnam’s modernization cause still has many problems, its development prospects are still worth anticipating. Like China’s modernization, Vietnam’s modernization has not only achieved a breakthrough from the traditional Soviet model of modernization but has also broken the myth that “modernization equals Westernization” regarding the principled requirement that industrialization and modernization must be “socialist-oriented.” As an exploratory practice of indigenization and adaptation to the times, Vietnam’s modernization construction, while exhibiting uniqueness, has also enriched the experience of modernization construction for socialist countries worldwide. Recently, the joint statement by the top leaders of the two Parties and two countries of China and Vietnam on “deepening the China-Vietnam comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership and building a China-Vietnam community with a shared future that carries strategic significance” has pushed China-Vietnam relations into a new stage of development. This will undoubtedly become a favorable opportunity to promote the vigorous development of the modernization causes of both countries.

综上，越南的现代化事业虽然还存在着不少的问题，但其发展前景仍然值得期待。同中国的现代化一样，越南的现代化不仅实现了对苏联传统现代化模式的突破，而且对工业化、现代化必须“以社会主义为定向”的原则性要求也打破了“现代化=西方化”的迷思。作为一种本土化、时代化的探索性实践，越南的现代化建设在呈现出独特性的同时，也丰富了世界社会主义国家的现代化建设经验。近期，中越两党两国最高领导人关于“深化中越全面战略合作伙伴关系，构建具有战略意义的中越命运共同体”的联合声明，推动中越关系进入到新的发展阶段，这必将成为促进两国现代化事业蓬勃发展的良好契机。

(Author profiles: Wang Chengjiu, Researcher at the School of Marxism, Guangxi University; Lai Huiting, Doctoral Candidate at the School of Marxism, Guangxi University)

（作者简介：王承就，广西大学马克思主义学院研究员；赖慧婷，广西大学马克思主义学院博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心