Religious Market, Open to Whom?

I

一

In a certain sense, although the study of Christian “house churches” in contemporary China has not yet formally ascended to the “hall of elegance,” it has, in the eyes of some scholars, virtually become a prominent field of study. Related writings, papers, and seminars have not only made it a distinctive feature of domestic academia but have also attracted the attention of scholars from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and abroad. As is well known, the emergence of “house churches” has its own internal causes, as well as profound and complex historical, cultural, and political backgrounds. Therefore, related research should naturally let a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend. However, surveying the current academic study of “house churches,” the approach of the sociology of religion stands alone, its voice the loudest. The reasons for this are, first, that “house churches” are relatively widely distributed, facilitating investigation and analysis; second, that the issue remains sensitive, and the value-neutral principle espoused by sociological research can serve as a kind of “protective umbrella.” Nevertheless, the theoretical basis that has pushed current “house church” research into a “climax” is undoubtedly Stark et al.’s “religious market theory.”

从某种意义上说，当前中国的基督教“家庭教会”研究虽然尚未正式登上“大雅之堂”，在某些学者那里俨然成为一门显学，相关著述、论文、研讨会不仅使之成为国内学界的一道风景，也吸引着港台与境外一些学者的眼球。众所周知，“家庭教会”的产生不仅有其自身原因，更有深刻复杂的历史、文化、政治背景。所以，相关的研究自应百花齐放，百家争鸣，但通观当前学界的“家庭教会”研究，宗教社会学进路一枝独秀，声音最高。究其原因，一则“家庭教会”分布相对广泛，便于调研、分析；再则，该问题还比较敏感，社会学研究标榜的价值中立原则可以起到某种“保护伞”作用。不过，将当前“家庭教会”研究推入“高潮”的理论依据当属斯达克等人的“宗教市场论”。

In the late 20th century, compared with the decline of religion in continental Europe, religious activity in American society was quite vigorous (among which the new religious movements characterized by the splitting of orthodox churches were the most conspicuous), posing a challenge to classical secularization theory. [1]1 Secularization theory posits that as modernity (rationalization, scientific advancement, etc.) progresses, religion’s social significance and influence inevitably decline. To explain this phenomenon, American sociologist Rodney Stark and others applied economic principles to the study of religion, reversing the traditional assertion that religious belief is “irrational.” They argued that not only do individual religious activities stem from meticulous rational choice, but the operation of religious groups or organizations also follows market laws: the rise and fall of religion depend on changes in the “supply-demand” relationship within the religious market and the degree of free market competition. The American religious market is free and pluralistic; religious enterprises, in order to capture market share, shift from passivity to initiative, promoting prosperity through competition. In contrast, religious activity in continental Europe has long been under government control and monopoly; religious enterprises lack vitality and motivation, and in such a vicious cycle, decline is inevitable.

20世纪后期，与欧洲大陆的宗教衰微相比，美国社会中宗教活动相当活跃（其中以分裂正统教会为特征的新宗教运动最为显眼），这给经典世俗化理论带来了挑战。①为了解释这种现象，美国社会学家罗德尼·斯达克（Rodney Stark）等人将经济学原理应用于宗教学研究，一反宗教信仰“非理性”的传统论断，认为不仅个体性的宗教活动源于精细的理性选择，宗教群体或组织机构的运作同样遵循市场法则：宗教兴衰取决于宗教市场内部“供求”关系的变化和市场自由竞争的程度。美国宗教市场自由、多元，宗教企业为抢占市场，变被动为主动，在竞争中促进了繁荣。而欧洲大陆的宗教活动长期处于政府管控与垄断之下，宗教企业缺乏活力与动力，如此恶性循环，日渐衰微在所难免。

Religious market theory is also translated as religious economics, religious economy theory, or religious rational choice theory. [2]2 The term “religious market theory” is used here as the primary translation, with the alternative translations noted. It “understands religion as rational, fairly well-informed actors choosing to ‘consume’ religious ‘commodities,’ just as they weigh costs and benefits when consuming secular commodities.” [3]3 This is a direct quotation from the source text, which itself cites the theory. This theory integrates relevant theories from modern sociology and classical economics, with a unique perspective and novel propositions, and possesses clear “scientific” indicators and operational rules. Since its emergence in the 1980s, it has gradually gained attention in American academia and is considered a Copernican revolution-style “paradigm shift” in the field of the sociology of religion. In the book *The Law of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion*, Stark and others declare that this theory “overturns” the old paradigm’s views that religion is irrational, destined to disappear, epiphenomenal, psychological, and that monopoly of belief is superior, sending the well-known secularization theory to its grave. [4]4 The book *The Law of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion* is the Chinese translation of Rodney Stark and Roger Finke’s *Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion*.

宗教市场论又译宗教经济学、宗教经济论、宗教理性选择理论等，② 它“把宗教理解理性的、相当明了情况的行为者选择‘消费’宗教‘商品’，就像他们消费世俗商品时权衡代价和利益一样。”③ 该学说融合了现代社会学与古典经济学相关理论，视角独特，命题新颖，具有显明的“科学”指标与操作规则，自20世纪80年代问世后，逐渐受到美国学界的重视，被认为是宗教社会学研究领域中一场哥白尼革命式“范式转换”。在《信仰的法则——解释宗教之人的方面》一书中，斯达克等人宣称，该学说“颠覆”旧范式认为宗教非理性、注定消亡、副现象、心理现象的、垄断信仰优越等观念，将为人熟知的世俗化理论送入坟墓。④

In January 2004, the Chinese translation of this book was published by Renmin University of China Press. On July 12 of the same year, the “China-US-Europe Summer Advanced Seminar in Religious Studies,” hosted by the Institute for the Study of Buddhism and Religious Theory at Renmin University of China, began its sessions. The theme of that session was “Theories and Methods in the Sociology of Religion,” and the American executive director, Professor Yang Fenggang, was also the Chinese translator of *The Law of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion*. In July 2005, the second seminar’s theme was “Social Scientific Research on Religion: Theories and Methods,” and Roger Finke, a major representative of religious market theory, came to China to lecture on the religious market theory system. In July 2006, the third advanced seminar invited Professor Stephen Warner from the University of Illinois at Chicago to give related lectures on religious market theory. The seminar participants came from all over the country, mostly young university teachers, who showed strong interest in this new theory. [5]5 The “China-US-Europe Summer Advanced Seminar in Religious Studies” was a series of academic training programs aimed at introducing Western theories of the sociology of religion to Chinese scholars.

2004年1月，该书中译本由中国人民大学出版社出版，同年7月12日，由中国人民大学佛教与宗教学理论研究所主办的“中美欧暑期宗教学高级研讨班”开班授课。该期的主题就是“宗教社会学的理论与方法”，美方执行主任杨凤岗教授也是《信仰的法则——解释宗教之人的方面》的中文译者。2005年7月，第二届研讨班主题为“宗教的社会科学研究：理论与方法”，宗教市场论的主要代表罗杰·芬克（Roger Finke）来华主讲宗教市场论体系。2006年7月第三届高级研讨班又聘请伊利诺伊州立大学芝加哥校区的斯蒂芬·沃讷（Stephen Warner）教授作了宗教市场论的相关演讲。研讨班学员来自全国各地，多为高校青年教师，他们对这一新理论产生浓厚兴趣。⑤

To date, this seminar has been held consecutively for seven sessions. Although each session’s theme has differed in emphasis, “religious market theory” has always been its keynote. As the organizer, Professor Wei Dedong, stated on his blog: “In 2004, the Chinese edition of the classic work on religious market theory, *The Law of Faith*, was published, becoming a bestseller in religious studies in recent years. At this year’s annual conference, [6]6 This likely refers to the annual conference of the Chinese sociological or religious studies community. many scholars used religious market theory to study contemporary Chinese religion. While providing apt explanations for the development of contemporary Chinese religion, they also enriched and developed the new paradigm itself, attracting attention from the international academic community. It can be predicted that, with the modern development of Chinese religion, in the next 20 years, social scientific research on Chinese religion will inevitably achieve breakthrough leaps, and in turn nourish the West, making Chinese contributions to global religious scholarship.” [7]7 This is a direct quotation from Wei Dedong’s blog, as cited in the source text. The sudden rise of religious market theory has even raised concerns among some scholars about its potential to “monopolize” related research, forcing the introducers of the theory to come forward and clarify. In October 2008, the China Religion and Society Summit Forum and the Fifth International Conference on the Social Scientific Study of Religion were held at Peking University. In the edited proceedings of the conference, *From the Study to the Field: Proceedings of the Summit Forum on the Social Scientific Study of Religion* (Volumes 1 and 2), the editors explained: “In terms of theory, over the past few years, due to the continuous translation and publication of several books on religious economics or rational choice theory, and also due to the application of some of their concepts by scholars, including ourselves, to study Chinese religion and society and test their propositions, this has led some scholars to express concerns about the monopoly of a single theory. Such concerns are understandable, because a monopoly of a single theory can only stifle academic vitality. However, this concern is based on a misunderstanding. The internationalization path of the social scientific study of religion has, from the start, been pluralistic and open. From the composition of the main lecturers at successive summer seminars on the social scientific study of religion and the keynote speakers at international conferences, to the composition of the invited scholars at this China Religion and Society Summit Forum, we have been striving to accommodate and even encourage theoretical pluralism. There are many theoretical schools prevalent in the international social scientific study of religion today; it is just that those already translated and introduced to China are still very limited. In this regard, more efforts from interested individuals are needed.” [8]8 This is a direct quotation from the editors’ preface to the conference proceedings, as cited in the source text. This has a somewhat “protesting too much” quality.

目前，该研讨班已连续举办7届，虽然各届研讨主题侧重不同，“宗教市场论”一直是其基调。正如主办方魏德东教授在其博客中所言：“2004年，宗教市场论的经典著作《信仰的法则》中文版问世，成为近年来宗教学界的畅销书。在今年的年会上，⑥ 许多学者都运用宗教市场论研究当代中国宗教，在对当代中国宗教的发展作出妥帖解释的同时，也丰富与发展着新范式自身，引起了国际学术界的关注。可以预计，随着中国宗教的现代开展，在未来的20年，对中国宗教的社会科学研究必将出现突破性的飞越，并以此反哺西方，对世界宗教学术作出中国人的贡献”。⑦ 宗教市场论的异军突起甚至引起了一些学者对其可能“垄断”相关研究的疑虑，该理论的引介者不得不出面澄清。2008年10月中国宗教与社会高峰论坛暨第五届宗教社会科学国际研讨会在北京大学召开，在会后编辑的论文集《从书斋到田野——宗教社会科学高峰论坛论文集》（上、下）书中，主编者解释说：“在理论方面，过去几年来，由于连续翻译出版了几本宗教经济学或理性选择理论的书籍，也由于包括我们自己在内的一些学者应用其中一些概念来研究中国宗教与社会，检验其命题，这引起一些学者表达对于一元理论垄断局面的担心。这种担心是可以理解的，因为理论的一元垄断只能窒息学术活力。不过，这种担心却是建立在误解基础上的。宗教社会科学的国际化道路，从一开始就是多元的和开放的。从历届宗教社会科学暑期研讨班的主要讲员和国际研讨会的主题发言学者，到这次中国宗教与社会高峰论坛的特邀学者的构成来看，我们都在努力容纳甚至鼓励理论的多元性。当今国际宗教社会科学界流行的理论学派有很多，只是已经翻译介绍到中国的仍然还很有限。在这方面，还需要有心人士的更多努力。”⑧ 有点此地无银三百两之意。

II

二

After being introduced to China, religious market theory was quickly favored by young domestic scholars and regarded as a “diamond drill” for interpreting the current state of religion in contemporary China. Related papers (conference, journal, master’s, doctoral) are numerous. To better explain the religious situation in Chinese society, Yang Fenggang supplemented this theory, proposing a “three-color market” theory of Chinese religion. Yang’s “religion” is religion in a broad sense, also encompassing illegal organizations designated as cults by the Chinese government. According to this theory, China’s religion currently has three markets: a red market (officially recognized religious organizations), a black market (cults), and a gray market (religious organizations in between legality and illegality). The article emphasizes: (1) As long as religious organizations are restricted by the government in number and activity, a black market will inevitably emerge. (2) As long as the red market is restricted and the black market is suppressed, a gray market will inevitably emerge. (3) The stricter the religious regulation, the larger the religious gray market. In an interview with *Southern People Weekly*, Professor Yang also said: “At present, looking at China’s religious ‘red market,’ the unified figure is about 100 million religious believers. The population of the religious ‘black market’ is difficult to count. And more Chinese people are in the religious ‘gray market.’” [9]9 *Southern People Weekly* is a Chinese current affairs magazine.

宗教市场论被引介到中国后，很快受到国内青年学者的青睐，被视作诠释当代中国宗教现状的一颗“金刚钻”，相关的论文（会议、期刊、硕士、博士）俯拾皆是。为了更好地解释中国社会中宗教状况，杨凤岗又对该学说进行了补充，提出了中国宗教“三色市场”理论。杨氏的“宗教”是广义的宗教，被我国政府定性为邪教的非法组织也被网络其中，按照该理论，目前中国宗教有红市（官方认同的宗教组织）、黑市（邪教）、灰市（处在合法与非法之间的宗教组织）三个市场。该文强调，（1） 只要宗教组织在数量和活动上受到政府限制，黑市就必然会出现。（2） 只要红市受到限制和黑市受到镇压，灰市就必然会出现。（3） 宗教管制越严，宗教灰市越大。杨教授在《南方人物周刊》的一次访谈中，又说：“目前来看，中国宗教的‘红市’，统一口径的说法是有大约1亿宗教信徒。宗教‘黑市’人口难以统计。而更多的中国人是在宗教‘灰市’里。” ⑨

The “gray market” mentioned here includes not only traditional folk beliefs but, in a certain sense, is almost synonymous with Christian “house churches.” As mentioned earlier, the emergence of “house churches” has not only complex historical causes but also a profound international political background.

这里所说的“灰市”不仅包括传统的民间信仰，在某种意义上说，几乎就是基督教“家庭教会”的代名词。如前文所言，“家庭教会”的产生不仅有复杂的历史原因，更有深刻的国际政治背景。

As is well known, during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, there was not only a struggle of “hard power” but also a contest of “soft power.” In his book *The Real War*, Nixon wrote: “Today’s Kremlin leaders find religion to be an unbreakable rock. Because Pope John Paul II returned triumphantly to Poland, the Soviets had to ponder a remark Stalin made in the 1930s. At that time he had asked contemptuously: How many divisions does the Pope have? Indeed, the Pope has no armored divisions, but the power he possesses is not something Soviet tanks can crush. The emotions he triggered penetrate the core of the human spirit, and those who do not understand religious faith often underestimate this power.” [10]10 Richard Nixon, *The Real War* (New York: Warner Books, 1980), p. 303. The quotation is a paraphrase of Stalin’s famous rhetorical question about the Pope’s military divisions. *The Washington Post* once called Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) [11]11 Pope John Paul II (Karol Józef Wojtyła, 1920–2005) was the head of the Catholic Church from 1978 to 2005. His Polish origin and his support for the Solidarity movement in Poland are widely seen as having contributed to the fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe. a “political pope,” while Reagan praised him as “one of the heroes who ended authoritarian rule.” John Paul II was well deserving of this “special honor.” In June 1982, he held a secret meeting with President Reagan in the Vatican Library, where they reached a joint plan to topple Poland. In August 1991, after his successful visit to Poland, religious fervor in Eastern Europe quickly heated up. A former Soviet journalist warned: “The linguistic seeds John Paul II sowed in Poland will blossom in the Soviet Union.” Sure enough, ten years later, the Soviet Union collapsed. Some contemporary historians believe that among the three figures (Gorbachev, Reagan, and the Pope) who contributed to the drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, the Pope’s role was even greater than that of the other two. This Cold War legacy is still fondly discussed by certain members of today’s “house churches.” [12]12 “House churches” (家庭教会) are Christian congregations in China that operate outside the state-sanctioned Protestant Three-Self Patriotic Movement and the Catholic Patriotic Association. They are not officially registered and have sometimes faced government restrictions. On May 11, 2006, President Bush met at the White House with three leaders of Chinese “house churches,” one of whom advised him: “President Reagan became one of the greatest presidents in American history because he buried the communist systems of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Helping China undergo such a change may be the historical mission God has given you, Mr. President.” Because this “conforms both to God’s righteousness and to America’s national security.”

众所周知，美苏冷战期间，既有“硬实力”的厮杀，更有“软实力”较量。尼克松在《真正的战争》一书中说：“今天的克里姆林宫领导人发现宗教是一块不可破的岩石。由于教皇若望保禄二世凯旋而回波兰，苏联人不得不思索斯大林在三十年代说过的一番话。当时他曾经带着轻蔑的口吻问到：教皇有多少军队?的确，教皇没有装甲师，但是他拥有的力量不是苏联的坦克所能粉碎得了的。他触发的情绪深入人的精神的核心，不理解宗教信仰的人往往低估这种力量。” ⑩ 《华盛顿邮报》曾称罗马教皇约翰-保罗二世（即若望保禄二世，1920-2005）{11} 为“政治教皇”，而里根则赞颂他是“结束专制统治的英雄之一”。约翰-保罗二世获此“殊荣”是当之无愧的。1982年6月，他与里根总统在梵蒂冈图书馆密会，达成联手倒波（兰）计划。1991年8月，在他成功访问波兰后，东欧宗教热迅即升温。一位前苏联记者警告说：“约翰-保罗二世在波兰撒下的语言种子，将会在苏联开花。”果不其然，10年后，苏联轰然倒地。当代一些历史学家认为，在促使苏东巨变的三人（戈尔巴乔夫、里根、教皇）中，教皇的作用甚至比前两位更大。这一冷战遗产深为今天某些“家庭教会”成员津津乐道。2006年5月11日，布什总统在白宫会晤了3位中国“家庭教会”骨干，其中一位向他进言说：“里根总统因为埋葬了苏联东欧的共产制而成为美国历史上最伟大的总统之一。帮助中国发生这种变化，也许是上帝给总统先生的历史使命。”因为这“既符合上帝的公义，也符合美国的国家安全”。

The clash of civilizations is still ringing in our ears, and the battle for souls is already shrouded in smoke. In 1997, then-Secretary of State Madeleine Albright declared in a State Department document titled *U.S. Policy in Support of Religious Freedom: Focus on Christianity*: “We advocate religious freedom for reasons that go beyond the expression of American ideals; this position is a source of our power in the world. Without it, our cause is unsustainable, and it would be very naive to think we could advance our interests without it. To fulfill our convictions, we actively promote the formation of a permissive environment for all lawful religious believers, and we do not hesitate to point out acts that persecute religion or fail to ensure the safety of any religious group. At the same time, we use all means, in coordination with official governments around the world, to effectively promote internal change in those societies.” [13]13 Madeleine Albright, *U.S. Policy in Support of Religious Freedom: Focus on Christianity*, U.S. Department of State, 1997. This document is cited as an example of U.S. foreign policy linking religious freedom to strategic interests. The following year, the *International Religious Freedom Act of 1998* was enacted. This act is one of the most comprehensive human rights legislations in U.S. history and also “a foreign policy aimed at religion abroad,” representing a concentrated manifestation of trends such as the legalization, institutionalization, internationalization, and grassroots-level focus of religion in U.S. foreign policy. [14]14 The *International Religious Freedom Act of 1998* (IRFA) is a U.S. law that established the Office of International Religious Freedom and the Commission on International Religious Freedom, mandating annual reports on religious freedom in other countries and authorizing sanctions against violators. The United States is the birthplace of pragmatism. The U.S. government’s high-profile attention to other countries’ religious policies is not really about “caring” for their human rights; there is a deeper meaning. Pat Robertson, a prominent representative of the American religious right, bluntly stated: “There will never be world peace until God’s house and God’s people gain legitimate leadership at the pinnacle of the world. How can there be peace when drunkards, communists, atheists, New Age Satan worshippers, secular humanists, oppressive dictators, greedy currency traders, revolutionary assassins, adulterers, and homosexuals stand above us?” [15]15 Pat Robertson (born 1930) is a televangelist and conservative Christian political figure in the United States, founder of the Christian Coalition of America. The quotation is from his writings or speeches, reflecting a worldview that identifies certain groups as enemies of Christian values. China is the primary socialist country after the Cold War. Therefore, when David Aikman claims in *Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power* that the lambs of Jesus will defeat the Chinese dragon, we should not be surprised at all. [16]16 David Aikman, *Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power* (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 2003). The book argues that the growth of Christianity in China will have major political implications.

文明冲突言犹在耳，灵魂争夺战已硝烟弥漫。1997年，时任国务卿的奥尔布赖特在国务院《美国支持宗教自由的政策：以基督教为重点》的文件中宣称：“我们倡导宗教自由比表达美国理念更多的原因，是这一立场是我们在世界上力量的源泉。没有它我们的事业难以为继，如果认为没有它就可以发展我们的利益，那将是非常幼稚的。为完成我们的信念，我们积极促进各种合法宗教徒信教的宽松环境的形成，并毫不犹豫地指出那些迫害宗教或不能确保任何一种宗教团体安全的行径。同时，也动用所有手段，会同全世界官方政府，有效地促进那些社会的内部改变。” {12} 第二年，《1998年国际宗教自由法案》出笼，该法案是美国有史以来最全面的人权立法之一，也是“一项针对国外宗教的外交政策”，是宗教在美国对外政策中出现的立法化、机构化、国际化、草根化等趋势的集中体现。{13} 美国是实用主义的发源地，美国政府如此高调地关注他国的宗教政策，并非真的“关心”他国人权，而是另有深意。美国宗教右翼的著名代表帕特·罗伯逊赤裸裸地说：“上帝的居室和上帝的臣民在世界顶峰获得合法性的领导地位以前，世界是决不会有和平的。试问当酒徒、共产主义者、无神论者、新时代的撒旦崇拜者、世俗的人文主义者、压迫人的独裁者、贪婪的外汇交易商、主张革命的暗杀者、通奸者和同性恋者站在我们头上时，又怎么可能有和平呢?”{14} 中国是冷战后最主要的社会主义国家，所以，当大卫·艾克曼在《耶稣在北京：基督教如何改变中国及全球力量平衡》中称要耶稣的羔羊将战胜中国龙时，我们就丝毫不用惊讶了。{15}

Three

三

In the interview “Thanking ‘Sister Lin’ – A Conversation with Purdue University Scholar Yang Fenggang,” Professor Yang elaborated on the relationship between Christianity and the market economy. He said: “A society without ethical and moral norms will inevitably degenerate into a wolf-eat-wolf struggle. The nature of capital makes it easier for people to release this wolfish nature. … The United States has had a market economy for over two hundred years. It has neither decayed nor is it dying; instead, it has developed stably and in an orderly manner. An important reason is that churches are everywhere. Churches purify people’s hearts, manifest human nature, and tame the wild wolfishness of capital. Along with the Industrial Revolution and the Information Revolution, there have been continuous religious revival movements and spiritual renewal movements. Without churches, the American market economy would have collapsed long ago.” Yang’s words are essentially a footnote to Weber’s theory of the Protestant ethic promoting the development of capitalism. The United States is a model of contemporary “democratic” countries, implying that for other countries to move toward democracy and modernization, introducing Christianity and opening the religious market is a necessary path. Yang also suggested: “The United States has an open religious market. Almost any religion in the world, no matter how strange, can find believers in the United States. However, the United States has not fallen into religious conflict or social unrest as a result. … The more diverse the religion, the more harmonious the society. A rational, open economic market brings material prosperity; similarly, a rational, open religious market brings spiritual prosperity. Therefore, establishing an open and fair religious market is worth learning from.” [17]17 Yang Fenggang is a Chinese-American sociologist of religion at Purdue University, known for applying the religious market theory to the study of religion in China. “Sister Lin” (林妹妹) is a reference to Lin Daiyu, a character from the classic Chinese novel *Dream of the Red Chamber*, used here as a playful or ironic address.

在《感谢“林妹妹”——访美国普度大学学者杨凤岗》访谈中，杨教授对基督教与市场经济之间的关系进行了阐述，他说：“一个没有伦理道德规范的社会，必然会堕落为狼与狼之间的厮杀，资本的特性，更容易使人释放出这种狼性来。……美国搞了市场经济二百多年了，既没有腐朽也没垂死，而是有秩序地稳定发展，一个重要原因就是到处都是教堂，教堂净化了人心，彰显了人性，驯服了资本的野蛮狼性。伴随着工业革命、信息革命等，不断有宗教复兴运动、心灵更新运动。假如没有教堂，美国的市场经济早就崩溃了。”杨氏此言实是韦伯新教伦理促进资本主义发展论之注脚。美国是当代“民主”国家的样板，言外之意，其他国家要走向民主、现代化，引进基督教、开放宗教市场是一条必由之路。杨氏并建言说：“美国宗教市场开放市场，世界上的所有宗教，无论多么奇异，几乎都能在美国找到信徒。不过，美国并未因此陷入宗教冲突或社会动乱。……宗教越多元，社会越和谐。理性的，开放的经济市场带来物质繁荣，同样，理性的，开放的宗教市场也会带来精神繁荣。所以，建立开放、公平的宗教市场，这值得借鉴。”{16}

“The more diverse the religion, the more harmonious the society” is actually a specious pseudo-proposition. Philip Jenkins, a professor of history and religious studies at Pennsylvania State University, acknowledges in his book *The Next Christendom* that missionary work and religious migration movements have not only caused major changes in global religion but could also lead to major changes in global politics. “He points out that among the 25 most populous countries in the world today, at least 10 are experiencing severe conflict and confrontation between Christianity and Islam. Therefore, these countries are all likely to become ‘stages for serious religious conflict.’” [18]18 Philip Jenkins, *The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). The book argues that the center of gravity of Christianity is shifting to the Global South, often leading to conflict with Islam. India, known as the largest democratic country and a “museum of religions,” has long been plagued by social conflicts tinged with religious overtones, which remain the biggest challenge to its development.

“宗教越多元，社会越和谐”其实是个似是而非的伪命题。美国宾夕法尼亚州立大学历史与宗教学教授詹金斯（Philip Jenkins）在《下一个基督教王国》一书中承认，传教和宗教移民运动不仅引起了全球宗教的大变局，而且还可造成全球政治的大变局。“他指出目前在全世界25个人口最多的国家中，至少有10个出现基督教与伊斯兰教严重冲突对立的状况，因此，这些国家均有可能成为‘严重宗教冲突的舞台’。”{17} 印度号称最大的民主国家，又是“宗教的博物馆”，但带有宗教色彩的社会冲突一直是困扰这个国家发展的最大难题。

Opening the religious market ostensibly provides a level playing field for various “religions” to compete. However, the dominant position of world Christianity in the contemporary era determines that the roles on this stage can never be truly equal, and it may ultimately become a “solo dance.” Therefore, this seemingly neutral proposition contains a clear ideological connotation. *The Laws of the Faith* devotes considerable space to comparing the different outcomes of the American free religious market and the Western European religious monopoly market, highlighting the benefits of “openness” for religious development. The praise and criticism are quite clear. Since the introduction of the religious market theory into China, calls for opening the religious market have arisen one after another.

开放宗教市场表面上是给各种“宗教”搭建平等竞争的舞台，但世界基督教在当今世界的强势地位决定了舞台上的角色绝不能真正平等，最后很可能变成“独舞”。所以，这一看似中立的命题隐含着明确的意识形态内涵。《信仰的法则》用很大篇幅比较了美国宗教自由市场与西欧宗教垄断市场的不同结果，以彰显“开放”对宗教发展的益处。褒贬之意，甚为清晰。宗教市场论引入国内，开放宗教市场的呼声更是此起彼伏。

Whether to open or not, and the degree of openness, are actually relative concepts. The relationship between American market prosperity and religion (Christianity) is not as simple as Yang claims. The United States was the initiator of the 2008 world financial crisis. How does it explain the relationship between this and Christianity? Professor Yang’s interview “Thanking ‘Sister Lin’” was published in 2007. I wonder who he will thank after the financial crisis?

开放与否、程度大小，其实只是个相对的概念，美国市场繁荣与宗教（基督教）之间的到底如何，并非如杨氏所说如此简单。美国是2008年世界金融危机的始作俑者，它如何解释这与基督教之间的关系呢?杨教授“感谢林妹妹”的访谈发表于2007年，不知金融危机后，又要感谢谁?

China’s current religious landscape is both a continuation of historical development and a product of its response to numerous factors in the current international political, economic, and cultural spheres. As a fundamental human right, freedom of religious belief is strictly protected by China’s Constitution and relevant laws, and the five major religions coexist harmoniously. This in itself is a notable contribution to world religions. Strangely, certain individuals both inside and outside China see only the “persecution” of Christianity in mainland China, while remaining silent about the efforts the Chinese government has made to promote religious harmony. Those of an even lower order go to great lengths to distort and slander. Religious regulation has existed in China since ancient times and is not an invention of the contemporary

中国当前的宗教格局既是历史发展的延续，又是因应当前国际政治、经济、文化等诸多因素的产物。作为公民的基本人权，宗教信仰自由受到我国得到宪法与有关法律的严格保护，五大宗教和谐相处，这本身就是对世界宗教的一个突出贡献。奇怪的是，境内外某些人只看到中国大陆基督教“受迫害”现象，却对中国政府为促进宗教和谐所付出的努力闭口不谈，等而下之者，极尽歪曲污蔑之能事。宗教管理在我国自古已然，并非当代中国政府的发明，如斯达克在《信仰的法则》中所言，作为“民主”国家的欧洲各国政府概莫能外。但对欧洲“管控”宗教市场，未见学界、教界同声讨伐，而对中国政府的宗教政策，却是另一副嘴脸。这种“孰”可忍“是”不可忍的心态着实令人怀疑。

At a deeper level, the American religious market is a product of its specific national conditions. As an immigrant nation, its meager intellectual foundation is nothing more than eclecticism and pragmatism. Early immigrants fled the European continent, hoping to construct their own values on this barren land. Throughout its history, religious intolerance, opposition, hostility, and even religious persecution have been evident, and they persist to this day. Anyone with a modicum of common sense knows that America’s “success” is the result of the combined effect of many factors, not because it opened up its religious market, nor because God deliberately “favored” this new continent. Fundamentally, even if the reasons emphasized by proponents of the religious market theory have some validity, they are not grounds for other countries to emulate. The reason is simple: just as France and other countries emphasized “cultural exception” in OECD negotiations, a country with a long history and culture must take corresponding measures to protect its national traditional culture under the assault of powerful cultures. To destroy a nation, first destroy its culture. [19]19 “To destroy a nation, first destroy its culture” (欲灭其国，先灭其文) is a Chinese saying emphasizing the strategic importance of cultural destruction in subjugating a nation. Cultural diversity is not only a prerequisite for the richness and diversity of the world, but also the last line of defense for developing countries to safeguard their own rights and interests. To take a step further, the southern orange becomes the northern bitter orange; [20]20 “The southern orange becomes the northern bitter orange” (南橘北枳) is a Chinese idiom from the *Yanzi Chunqiu* (Spring and Autumn of Master Yan), meaning that a thing changes character when transplanted to a different environment. the American religious market is a product of American soil. If, without distinguishing priorities or discerning right from wrong, one willfully or even forcibly grafts it onto China’s cultural soil, there will be no good outcome.

从深层次说，美国的宗教市场是其特定国情的产物。作为一个移民国家，它仅有的一点思想家底就是混合主义、实用主义。早期移民逃离欧洲大陆，希望在这块荒芜的大陆上构建自己的价值理念。在其发展史上，宗教不宽容、对立、敌视，甚至宗教迫害历历在目，于今犹然。稍有常识的人都知道，美国的“成功”是诸多因素综合作用结果，并非因为它开放宗教市场所致，亦非上帝有意“眷顾”这块新大陆的结果。从根本上说，纵使宗教市场论者强调的理由有一定道理，但也不是成为其他国家竞相仿效的理由。原因很简单，正如法国等国家在经合组织谈判中强调的“文化例外”一样，在强势文化的冲击下，一个有悠久历史文化的国家必须采取相应措施以维护本民族的传统文化。欲灭其国，先灭其文。文化多样性既是世界丰富多样性的前提，更是发展中国家维护自身权益的最后一道防线。再退一步说，南橘北枳，美国的宗教市场是美国土壤的产物，如果不分轻重缓急，青红皂白，一厢情愿、甚至强行嫁接到中国的文化土壤中，绝不会有好下场。

Although Stark and others’ religious economy theory does not agree with many claims of classical religious scholars like Weber, it still inherits the Weberian thesis, treating religion (of course, Christianity) as a lever for promoting capitalist development. This is the most obscure proposition of the religious market theory. Since the Weberian thesis was proposed, there have been both applause and criticism. This article will not comment on it. What is thought-provoking is that if the 19th-century Weberian thesis was still a judgment of “fact,” today’s proponents of the religious market theory picking it up again carries a very strong connotation of value judgment.

斯达克等人的宗教经济论虽然对韦伯等经典宗教学家的诸多说法不予认同，但他还是承袭了韦伯命题，将宗教（当然是基督教）当作促进资本主义发展的一个杠杆。这是宗教市场论的最隐晦命题。韦伯命题问世以来喝彩者有之，抨击者有之，本文不予置评，耐人寻味的是，如果说，19世纪的韦伯命题还是一个“事实”判断的话，今天宗教市场论者重新拾起它，就有很强烈的价值判断意味了。

In fact, the popularity of the religious market theory in China also has a “dark” psychological aspect, which some have already discerned: “The liberal ideology of American neoclassical economics embedded in the religious economy model echoes the mainstream discourse in China’s political-academic circles, giving research on the ‘religious market’ the legitimacy of ‘political correctness.’ At the same time, the implication of this model—reducing state regulation and promoting pluralistic religious competition—also allows Chinese scholars to subtly express their identification with religious freedom and their criticism of religious control.” [21]21 The quotation is from an unidentified Chinese academic source, as indicated by the superscript {18} in the original text.

其实，宗教市场论在中国受热捧还有一个“幽暗”的心理，这点有人早看出端倪：“宗教经济模式所蕴含的美国新古典经济学的自由主义意识形态，呼应了中国政治—学术界的主流话语，这使得有关‘宗教市场’的研究具备了‘政治正确’的正当性。与此同时，这一模式所暗示的减少国家调控、促进宗教多元竞争的诉求，也使中国学者可以委婉地表达出他们对宗教自由的认同和对宗教管制的批评。”{18}

Religion is far removed from the economic base. Both historically and in reality, its role in social progress is twofold. The subjective wishes of some scholars may be good, but understanding China’s current religious environment requires not only theoretical height but also practical concern. Since reform and opening up, the Chinese government has sincerely opened its arms to the world, hoping the world would accept China. However, over the past 30-plus years, certain Western developed countries have internationally contained and blocked China’s development, and domestically spread fallacies through various channels—from aircraft carrier deterrence in the Taiwan Strait to the Nobel Peace Prize specter in Norway—a series of storms and pressures, each link connected. [22]22 The Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Liu Xiaobo in 2010 is referenced here as a “specter” in Norway, implying Western political interference. These “bloodless” facts make us realize that while “shaking off poverty” is important, becoming enslaved (turning the “Chinese dragon” into “God’s lamb”) is even more dangerous.

宗教远离经济基础，无论是历史还是从现实上看，它对社会进步的作用是双方面的，某些学者的主观愿望或许是好的，但认识中国当前的宗教环境，不仅要有理论高度，更应有现实关切。改革开放以来，中国政府真诚地向世界敞开胸怀，希望世界接纳中国。但30多年来，某些西方发达国家在国际上对中国发展遏制堵截，在国内通过各种途径散布歪理邪说，从台海的航母威慑，到挪威的诺贝尔和平奖幽灵，风风雨雨，环环相扣。这些“不见血”事实让我们认识到“脱贫”固然重要，为奴（“中国龙”变成“上帝的羔羊”）更为危险。

On July 15, 2006, at the G8 summit in Moscow, President Putin responded on the spot to President Bush’s criticism of Russian democracy: “If you are talking about the kind of democracy Iraq has, we don’t want it either!” The Chinese government strictly protects citizens’ freedom of religious belief and earnestly safeguards the freedom of belief of foreigners visiting China. But if some people want to impose a certain religion on us, or even demand that we open a market for it, we can only say: we don’t want such a market either!

2006年7月15日，在莫斯科召开的八国峰会上，普京总统就布什总统指责俄罗斯民主时，当场回应道：“如果你说的是伊拉克那样的民主，我们不要也罢！”我国政府严格保护公民的宗教信仰自由，切实维护来华友人的信仰自由，但如果某些人要把某种宗教强加给我们头上，甚至要我们为之开放市场，我们只好说：这样的市场不要也罢！

Notes:

注释：

① “The so-called classical secularization theory mainly refers to various views on the decline of religion in the process of modernization, derived from European Enlightenment concepts and experiences and based on certain discussions by classical sociologists.” See Ji Zhe, “How to Transcend Classical Secularization Theory? — A Review of Three Post-Secularization Discourses in the Sociology of Religion,” *Sociological Studies*, No. 4, 2008.

① “所谓经典世俗化理论，主要是指由欧洲的启蒙理念和经验生发而来的、以经典社会学家们的某些论述为基础的有关宗教在现代化进程中趋于衰落的各种观点”，参见汲喆：《如何超越经典世俗化理论?——评宗教社会学的三种后世俗化论述》，《社会学研究》2008年第4期。

② According to the introduction in Wei Dedong and Liu Yang’s article “The Humanistic Theory of Religious Research — An Interview with Sociologist of Religion Rodney Stark,” Stark himself does not agree with these interpretations: “Indeed, I don’t like these concepts. There are two main reasons: first, the name ‘rational choice’ easily becomes a target for criticism by some sociologists, because they think rational choice is a sinful economic term, a synonym for capitalism; another reason is that the term ‘rational choice’ is relatively narrow. Rational choice emphasizes that irrational choices do not exist, but many sociologists believe that human behavior is sometimes irrational, even crazy. Yet religious behavior is mostly rational. The vast majority of people make sacrifices for religion not out of crazy passion, but as a result of careful deliberation. They all think, and although individual orientations may differ, their actions are purposeful. I have never personally witnessed large-scale conversion miracles; what I see is that people convert after long periods of thought, and the whole process is full of rationality; people truly weigh things. If I had to choose another term, I would call it the ‘Humanistic Theory of Religious Research,’ taking people as the most fundamental. Rational choice has economic connotations, while humanistic theory emphasizes that people clearly know what they are doing. In this sense, you could also call it ‘Intentional Theory.’” See http://www.foyuan.net/plus/view.php?aid=83103&pageno=2

② 根据魏德东、刘洋《宗教研究的人本理论——访宗教社会学家罗德尼·斯达克教授》一文的介绍，斯达克本人对这些诠释并不认同：“的确，我不喜欢这些概念。主要有两个原因：首先，理性选择这个名字很容易成为一些社会学家批评的靶子，因为他们认为理性选择是个充满罪恶的经济学术语，是资本主义的代名词；另一个原因是理性选择这个词比较狭窄。理性选择强调非理性的选择是不存在的，但很多社会学家认为人的行为有时是没有理性的，甚至是疯狂的。可宗教行为多是理性的，绝大多数人为宗教作出奉献，并不是疯狂的激情，而是深思熟虑的结果。他们都会思考，虽然个人的取向可能与众不同，但他们的行为都是有目的性的。我本人从来没看到过大规模的改宗奇迹发生，我看到的是人们改宗是经过长时间的思考才决定的，整个事情都是充满理性的，人们确实是斟酌过的。如果要选一个其他名词，我想就叫‘宗教研究的人本理论’（Humanistic Theory）吧，我们把人当作最根本的。理性选择有经济学的寓意，而人本理论强调的是人们清楚自己在干什么。在这个意义上，你也可以把它叫做‘意向性理论’（Intentional Theory）。”见http：//www.foyuan.net/plus/view.php?aid=83103&pageno=2

③ Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, trans. Yang Fenggang, *Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion*, p. 53, Renmin University of China Press, 2004.

③ 罗德尼·斯达克（Rodney Stark）、罗杰尔·芬克（Roger Finke）著，杨凤岗译：《信仰的法则——解释宗教之人的方面》第53页，中国人民大学出版社，2004年。

④ See Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, trans. Yang Fenggang, *Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion*, Chapter 2, Renmin University of China Press, 2004.

④ 参见罗德尼·斯达克（Rodney Stark）、罗杰尔·芬克（Roger Finke）著，杨凤岗译：《信仰的法则——解释宗教之人的方面》第二章，中国人民大学出版社，2004年。

⑤ In Wei Dedong and Liu Yang’s article “A People-Centered Theory of Religious Research – An Interview with Religious Sociologist Rodney Stark,” the interviewer says to Stark: “I believe there are three reasons why the new paradigm of the economics of religion has spread so rapidly in China. First, with the development of contemporary Chinese religion, we urgently need corresponding research methods, and the economic theory of religion has relatively strong explanatory power on some issues. Second, the economic development of the past 30 years has enabled Chinese people to truly experience and understand what a market economy is, so the concepts in your books are very easily accepted by contemporary Chinese people. Finally, there is the active promotion by some scholars, including the annual conferences and summer schools on the social science of religion that have been held continuously since 2004.” http：//www.foyuan.net/plus/view.php?aid=83103&pageno=2

⑤ 在魏德东、刘洋：《宗教研究的人本理论——访宗教社会学家罗德尼·斯达克教授》一文中，访谈者对斯达克说：“我认为有3个原因使宗教经济学新范式在中国得以迅速普及。首先，随着当代中国宗教的发展，我们亟需相应的研究方法，而宗教经济学理论在一些问题上具有较好的解释力；第二，最近30年的经济发展，使中国人真切地体会并理解了什么是市场经济，因此您书中的那些概念非常容易被当代中国人所接受；最后就是一部分学者的积极推动，包括自2004年开始连续举办的宗教社会科学年会和暑期班。” http：//www.foyuan.net/plus/view.php?aid=83103&pageno=2

⑥ Refers to the third seminar, with the theme “New Paradigms and Progress in the Social Science of Religion.”

⑥ 指第三届研讨班，主题是“宗教社会科学的新范式及进展”。

⑦ http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_3d25d0c90100051x.html

⑦ http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_3d25d0c90100051x.html

⑧ Gao Shining and Yang Fenggang, eds., *From the Study to the Field – Proceedings of the Summit Forum on the Social Science of Religion* (Volume 1), p. 6, China Social Sciences Press, 2010.

⑧ 高师宁，杨凤岗主编：《从书斋到田野——宗教社会科学高峰论坛论文集》（上）第6页，中国社会科学出版社，2010年。

⑨ Rao Zhi, “Thank You, ‘Sister Lin’ – An Interview with Purdue University Scholar Yang Fenggang,” *Southern People Weekly*, see http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_615bdd3c0100fjcu.html

⑨ 饶智：《感谢“林妹妹”——访美国普度大学学者杨凤岗》，《南方人物周刊》，见http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_615bdd3c0100fjcu.html

⑩ Quoted in Wang Zuo’an, *China’s Religious Issues and Religious Policy*, p. 222, Religious Culture Press, 2002.

⑩ 引见王作安：《中国的宗教问题和宗教政策》第222页，宗教文化出版社，2002年。

{11} The 264th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, Polish by nationality, originally named Karol Józef Wojtyła. John Paul II visited Poland three times in 1979, 1983, and 1987; the numbers of believers who listened to his sermons and attended Mass reached 3 million, 6.65 million, and 10 million respectively, playing a role in fueling changes in the Polish situation. According to a public opinion poll published in December 1987, when asked “who is most trustworthy,” Poles’ first choice was the Catholic Church, accounting for 78.8% of the total. After Lech Wałęsa, leader of the Polish Solidarity trade union, was elected president, he stated bluntly: “Without the support of the Church, there would be no Solidarity, and there would be no victory in the elections.”

{11} 罗马天主教第264任教皇，波兰籍，原名卡罗尔·约泽夫·沃伊蒂瓦。约翰-保罗二世于1979年、1983年、1987年三次访问波兰，聆听他布道讲话和参加弥撒活动的信徒分别达到300万、665万和 1000 万人，对波兰局势变化起到推波助澜的作用。根据1987年12月公布的一份民意测验，波兰人对“谁最值得信任”问题的回答首选天主教会，占总数的78.8%。波兰团结工会领袖瓦文萨当选为总统后，也直言不讳地说：“没有教会的支持，就没有团结工会的存在，也不可能有大选的胜利。”

{12} Quoted in Wang Zuo’an, *China’s Religious Issues and Religious Policy*, p. 338, Religious Culture Press, 2002.

{12} 引见王作安：《中国的宗教问题和宗教政策》第338页，宗教文化出版社，2002年。

{13} See Xu Yihua, ed., *Religion and American Society*, Volume 5 (Religious Non-Governmental Organizations), “Religion and Current U.S. Diplomacy,” Current Affairs Press, 2008.

{13} 参见徐以骅主编：《宗教与美国社会》第五辑（宗教非政府组织）“宗教与美国当前外交”，时事出版社，2008年。

{14} Quoted in Xu Yihua, ed., *Religion and American Society*, Volume 1 (U.S. Religious Roadmap), p. 108, Current Affairs Press, 2004.

{14} 引见徐以骅主编：《宗教与美国社会》第一辑（美国宗教路线图）第108页，时事出版社，2004年。

{15} Aikman’s hopes have a certain market domestically; see Yu Jie, “Let the ‘Chinese Dragon’ Become ‘God’s Lamb’ – On the Significance of the Rise of Christian Faith in China” (3), http：//lukepost.blog.hexun.com/2989992_d.html

{15} 艾克曼的希望在国内有一定市场，见余杰：《让“中国龙”变成“上帝的羔羊”——论基督信仰在中国兴起的意义》（3），http：//lukepost.blog.hexun.com/2989992_d.html

{16} Rao Zhi, “Thank You, ‘Sister Lin’ – An Interview with Purdue University Scholar Yang Fenggang,” *Southern People Weekly*, see http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_615bdd3c0100fjcu.html

{16} 饶智：《感谢“林妹妹”——访美国普度大学学者杨凤岗》，《南方人物周刊》，见http：//blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_615bdd3c0100fjcu.html

{17} Quoted in Xu Yihua, ed., *Religion and America*, Volume 6 (Contemporary Missionary Movement), p. 8, Current Affairs Press, 2009.

{17} 引见徐以骅主编：《宗教与美国》第六辑（当代传教运动），第8页，时事出版社，2009年。

{18} Ji Zhe, “How to Transcend the Classic Secularization Theory? – A Review of Three Post-Secularization Discourses in the Sociology of Religion,” *Sociological Studies*, Issue 4, 2008.

{18} 汲喆：《如何超越经典世俗化理论?——评宗教社会学的三种后世俗化论述》，《社会学研究》2008年第4期。