There Are No Ghosts in the World, So How Can There Be a “Ghost Culture”?

Language is a marker of human beings as higher animals, and also a basic tool for communication and the expression of one’s own thoughts among humans. Without language, humans could hardly ponder or accumulate knowledge and experience, still less step by step advance the innovation and development of human society.

语言文字是人类作为高级动物的一个标志，也是人类之间交流与表达自己思想的基本工具。没有语言文字，人类难以思索和积累知识与经验，更不能一步一步地推进人类社会的创新和发展。

Discussing the status of atheism in the human context, and especially in the development of Chinese society, has important significance. This is no longer a purely academic issue, but a practical problem that urgently needs resolution.

研讨无神论在人类语境中、特别是在中国社会发展中的地位，有着重要的意义。这已经不是一个单纯的学术问题，而是亟待解决的现实问题。

At present, Chinese society is experiencing a trend of “fever for Chinese traditional studies.” From television stations running the “Lecture Room” program [1]1 “Lecture Room” (*Bai Jia Jiang Tan*) is a Chinese television program on China Central Television (CCTV) that features lectures on historical and cultural topics by scholars. to the establishment of “Confucius Institutes” both domestically and abroad, as well as private academies, an indescribable “traditional culture” pervades everywhere. In some people’s discourse, it is filled with terms like the Study of Changes [2]2 The Study of Changes (*Yixue*) refers to the scholarly tradition surrounding the *I Ching* (Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese divination text., fengshui [3]3 Fengshui is a traditional Chinese practice of arranging the environment to harmonize with spiritual forces, often associated with geomancy and superstition., ghost culture, and Guiguzi [4]4 Guiguzi is a legendary ancient Chinese figure associated with military strategy, diplomacy, and occult arts, and the name of a text attributed to him.. No wonder someone has written an article calling for “vigilance against the ‘melamine’ of culture.” [5]5 Melamine is a toxic chemical infamously added to milk products in a 2008 Chinese food safety scandal; the metaphor implies harmful additives to culture.

当前，中国社会上有着“国学热”的风潮。从电视台举办“百家讲坛”到各地乃至在国外开设“孔子学院”以及私塾，到处弥漫着说不清道不明的“传统文化”。在一些人的语境中，充满了易学、风水、鬼文化、鬼谷子等言辞。难怪有人著文提出“警惕文化的‘三聚氰胺’”。

This article does not intend to launch a comprehensive attack on the dregs of that traditional culture, but merely to offer a personal view on the issue of “ghost culture,” in order to seek instruction from all readers.

本文不想对那些传统文化中的糟粕全面出击，打算仅就“鬼文化”问题诉述一点个人的看法，以就教于各位。

Perhaps it is an attempt to elevate taste, but nowadays many affairs are wrapped in the banner of “culture”—“wine culture,” “tea culture,” “sex culture,” “foot culture,” “tobacco culture,” and so on, too numerous to count. Some even add the word “festival” to flaunt their high standing. Yet advocating “ghost culture” is still rarely heard. Moreover, the one promoting the revival of “ghost culture” is no ordinary person, but a government official of considerable rank. According to reports, a deputy director-general of a department under the Ministry of Culture publicly argued: “Some say ghosts are bad, but *The Peony Pavilion* [6]6 *The Peony Pavilion* is a Ming dynasty play by Tang Xianzu, featuring a ghostly romance between a young woman who dies and returns to life., *Du Shiniang* [7]7 *Du Shiniang* is a story from the Ming dynasty about a courtesan who drowns herself after being betrayed; her ghost is sometimes depicted in adaptations., and Zhong Kui [8]8 Zhong Kui is a mythical figure in Chinese folklore, a vanquisher of ghosts and demons, often depicted in art and opera. are all ghost culture. If Chongqing concentrates the ghost culture of the whole country, based on Sichuan opera, it can become a brand, and people from all over the country will come to see it.” Not only that, but Chongqing authorities also plan to invest a huge sum of 700 million yuan to restore Fengdu Ghost City [9]9 Fengdu Ghost City is a tourist attraction in Chongqing, China, featuring statues and depictions of the underworld from Chinese folk religion.. This is hard to understand and compels further comment. Is this promoting China’s traditional culture? Where has atheism gone?

也许是想提高品位的理念吧，现在许多事务都会打起“文化”的旗号，什么“酒文化”、“茶文化”、“性文化”、“足文化”、“烟文化”等等无法统计，有的还会加个“节”字，以显其高品位。然而提倡“鬼文化”还是难得听见的。况且提倡弘扬“鬼文化”的不是一位等闲之辈，而是一位具有相当级别的政府官员。据报道，文化部某司副司长公开主张：“有人说鬼不好，但是《牡丹亭》、《杜十娘》，还有钟馗，都是鬼文化，重庆把全国的鬼文化集中，以川剧为基础，就能成为品牌，全国人民都会来看。”不仅如此，重庆方面还准备投入7亿人民币的巨额资金修复丰都鬼城。这就叫人难以理解，不得不再作评议了。这是在弘扬中国的传统文化吗？无神论到哪里去了？

There is no need to look for a definition. Anyone with an atheist outlook will question in unison: There are no ghosts in the world, so how can there be a “ghost culture”? One thing has long been clear: ghosts and gods are linked together. Where there are ghosts, there must be gods; the objects that gods seize are ghosts. The theory of gods and ghosts arose under conditions of extremely low productive forces, when people could not understand the rugged and bumpy paths encountered in progress, could not resist the disasters suffered in social life, and, gripped by fear, believed that ghosts were causing mischief and could only pray to gods for help. This idealist, theist concept was a product of autocratic slave and feudal systems. In slave and feudal societies, lacking democracy and the rule of law, the emperor and administrative officials had the final say. Ancient monarchs always used theist ideas as a tool to rule the people and control the spiritual world. Successive Chinese emperors, and even peasant uprisings, would raise the banner of revering gods and exterminating ghosts. Thus, ghosts became symbols of insidiousness, treachery, terror, and evil. In the struggle between justice and evil, ordinary people could only pray for divine protection and the destruction of demons to comfort their souls. Hence, traditional culture is filled with a vast number of tales of gods and ghosts.

不用从定义上找了。凡是有无神论理念的人们都会异口同声地质疑：世间没有鬼，何来鬼文化？有一点早已清楚：鬼与神是联系在一起的。有鬼必有神，神捉拿的对象便是鬼。神鬼论的产生，是在生产力极度低下的状态下，人们不理解前进中遇到的崎岖、坎坷，无法抵御社会生活中遭遇的灾难，产生恐惧的心态，以为是鬼在作祟，只能救助于神。这种唯心论、有神论的观念，是专制的奴隶和封建制度的产物。在奴隶和封建社会里，缺乏民主与法治，皇帝和行政官员一言九鼎。古代的君皇总是把有神论的观念作为统治人民、控制精神世界的工具。中国的历代君王，甚至农民起义都会祭起敬神灭鬼的大旗。因而，鬼是阴险、奸诈、恐怖、邪恶的象征。在正义与邪恶的较量中，善良的民众只得救助于神灵保佑和魔鬼的灭亡以慰藉心灵。所以，传统文化中才有汗牛充栋的鬼神之说。

But what good fortune have these tales of gods and ghosts brought to the people? Xianglin Sao, a character in Lu Xun’s writing, is a typical example. [10]10 Xianglin Sao is a tragic character from Lu Xun’s short story “New Year’s Sacrifice” (1924), who is driven to madness and death by feudal superstition and social oppression. She believed in gods, hoping for divine help to find her son Amao and to ensure a peaceful life for mother and son. Yet she was driven out by Master Lu the Fourth, who also believed in gods and ghosts, and was not even qualified to work as a maid. Even if ghost plays like *Li Huiniang* [11]11 *Li Huiniang* is a ghost story from the Ming dynasty, later adapted into opera, about a woman who seeks revenge after being murdered. appeared on stage, though lacking the terrifying images of green-faced fangs, they represented a fantasy of resistance against the old system under irresistible circumstances, meaningless for advancing social progress. In my childhood, I often visited the City God Temple in Shanghai and saw the statues of the underworld—red-haired, white-faced ghosts disemboweling and cutting open the chests of good people, digging out hearts and splitting bodies. This left in my young mind an impression of gloom and terror, of submitting when encountering danger, of having no independent thought, and of there being no place for reasoning. These examples show what role the promotion of gods and ghosts can play in social development. Although tales of gods and ghosts once existed objectively, they are ultimately a spiritual heroin that poisons humanity and hinders social development.

但是，这些鬼神之说又能给民众带来什么幸运呢？鲁迅先生笔下的祥林嫂是一个典型。她信神，祈望得到神灵的救助，为她找回儿子阿毛，保佑他们母子得到平安的生活。然而，她却被同样信鬼神的鲁四老爷赶出门外，连做佣人都没有资格。即便有李慧娘等鬼戏登台，虽说没有青面獠牙的恐怖形象，那是一个在无法抗拒的状态下，人们幻想的反抗旧制度的形象，对推动社会进步毫无意义。本人在童年时代常到上海城隍庙去游玩，见到阴曹地府里的塑像，满目是红须发白粉脸的鬼怪在那里对善良的人们开膛破肚、挖心劈身，给幼小的心灵中留下了阴森恐怖，遇凶险即降服，不得有半点独立的思考，没有任何说理之处的印象。从这些事例可以看出宣扬鬼神对社会的发展能起到什么样的作用。尽管神鬼之说曾经是客观的存在，但它毕竟是毒害人类、阻碍社会发展的精神海洛因。

Precisely because of the nature of the theory of gods and ghosts, ancient Chinese atheists also strove to set things right. The *Analects* contains the warning: “The Master did not speak of strange forces, disorder, and spirits.” [12]12 This quote from the *Analects* (7.21) is often cited to show Confucius’s reluctance to discuss supernatural phenomena. Among the four great classical Chinese novels, only *Journey to the West* involves demons, and they are all subject to Sun Wukong’s suppression. [13]13 *Journey to the West* is a classic Chinese novel about the monk Xuanzang’s pilgrimage to India, accompanied by the monkey king Sun Wukong, who battles demons. As for *Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio* [14]14 *Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio* is a Qing dynasty collection of supernatural stories by Pu Songling., many of its stories do not describe ghosts, and a preface from the Kangxi period says: “I say that matters, whether strange or ordinary, should be considered evil only if they harm people. … Now, looking at what Liu Xian [15]15 Liu Xian is the courtesy name of Pu Songling (1640–1715), author of *Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio*. wrote, his judgments and main principles are all rooted in rewarding good and punishing excess, and in the purpose of securing peace and fulfilling duty, sufficient to open up things and accomplish tasks…” Thus, the intent of *Strange Tales* in speaking of ghosts is “rewarding good and punishing excess.” As for ancient writings on the nonexistence of ghosts, they are not rare. For example, Fan Zhen of the Southern and Northern Dynasties said in *On the Extinction of the Spirit*: “When the form exists, the spirit exists; when the form decays, the spirit perishes.” [16]16 Fan Zhen (c. 450–515) was a Chinese philosopher and atheist; his *On the Extinction of the Spirit* argued against the existence of an immortal soul. *In Search of the Supernatural* [17]17 *In Search of the Supernatural* (*Soushen Ji*) is a 4th-century Chinese compilation of legends and supernatural tales by Gan Bao. records an interesting story: “Ruan Zhan, styled Qianli, of the Jin dynasty, consistently held the theory of no ghosts, and nothing could refute him. He often said that this principle was sufficient to distinguish the bright from the dark. Suddenly, a visitor announced himself and called on Zhan. After exchanging pleasantries, they discussed famous principles. The visitor was very eloquent. Zhan talked with him for a long time, and when they came to matters of ghosts and spirits, they argued back and forth bitterly. The visitor was finally defeated. Then he changed color and said: ‘Ghosts and spirits have been transmitted by sages and worthies of ancient and modern times. How can you alone say they do not exist? I myself am a ghost.’ Thereupon he transformed into a strange shape and vanished in an instant.” So even ghosts themselves had to bow before the theory of no ghosts. Why should we need to set up a stage for “ghost culture”?

正因为由鬼神说的本质决定，中国古代的无神论者也是竭力希望拨乱反正的。《论语》中就有“子不语怪力乱神”的警语。中国古典小说中四大名著，只有《西游记》涉及妖魔，但都在孙悟空的打击之列。就说《聊斋志异》，其中也有不少篇并非描述鬼神的，而康熙年间的一篇序中说：“予谓事无论常怪，但以有害于人者为妖。……今观留仙所著，其论断大义，皆本于赏善罚淫与安义命之旨，足以开物而成务……”。可见《聊斋》讲鬼的旨意是“赏善罚淫”。至于古代无鬼论的文字并不少见。例如，南北朝的范缜在《神灭论》中说：“形存则神存，形谢则神灭。”《搜神记》中记述了一个有趣的故事：晋朝的“阮瞻字千里，素执无鬼论，物莫能难。每自谓此理足以辨正幽明。忽有客通名诣瞻，寒温毕，聊谈名理。客甚有才辨。瞻与之言良久，及鬼神之事，反复甚苦。客遂屈。乃作色曰：‘鬼神古今圣贤所共传，君何得独言无。即仆便是鬼。’于是变为异形，须臾消灭。”原来这个客人也是鬼，他辩不过阮瞻的无鬼之说，显了原形，消失了。由此可见，连鬼怪本身都不得不拜倒在无鬼论的脚下，我们有什么必要再去给“鬼文化”搭台呢？

The long river of history has flowed to the present day, and science is flourishing in the human world. Advanced thinkers among humanity have already explained clearly the origins and harms of the theory of gods and ghosts. As human society has developed into modern times, people have made clear that “there has never been any savior, nor any gods or emperors.” [18]18 This line is from “The Internationale,” the socialist anthem, popularized in China through revolutionary movements. The materialist and atheist worldview has spread throughout the world, bringing abundant material goods and joyful spirit to humanity. Especially with the widespread application of high technology, people can now enjoy a rich spiritual life. In such a social environment, what need is there to invest so heavily, in the name of promoting traditional culture, to propagate that spiritual heroin? We do not deny that tales of gods and ghosts once existed objectively, and that some literary and artistic workers used images of gods and ghosts to resist feudal autocracy. But we can only treat this special phenomenon with a historical, materialist outlook. It is not impermissible for a very small number of specialists to conduct materialist historical research. Of course, there is no need to use “ghost culture as the precursor of human spiritual culture” to deceive people. Because, in the current trend of “fever for Chinese traditional studies” sweeping the divine land [19]19 “Divine land” (*Shenzhou*) is a traditional poetic name for China., many officials do not believe in Marxism or advanced culture but believe in ghosts, spirits, and fengshui; witches and shamans roam everywhere; some places build temples to ghosts and gods instead of science museums—this spread of spiritual heroin in all directions compels us to call for the use of various lawful and reasonable means to eliminate the theory of gods and ghosts.

历史的长河流传到今天，人世间科学昌明。人类的思想先进者已经将鬼神说出现的缘由及危害解释得一清二楚。人类社会发展到近现代，世人已经明确“从来就没有什么救世主，也没有神仙和皇帝”。唯物主义和无神论世界观已经遍及世界，为人类带来了丰富的物质和欢乐的精神。特别是高技术的广泛应用，人们已经能够享受丰富的精神生活。在这样的社会环境中，有什么必要以那么大的投资、以弘扬传统文化的名义去宣扬那些精神海洛因呢？我们并不否认鬼神说曾经是客观存在，而且一些文艺工作者用鬼神的形象同封建专制对抗。但我们只能用历史的、唯物的观念来对待这种特殊的现象，由极少数专家作唯物的历史的研究也不是不可以的。当然不必以“鬼文化是人类精神文化的先河”来蛊惑人心。由于目前在神州大地流传“国学热”的潮流中，许多官员不信马克思主义、先进文化，却信鬼神、风水；巫婆神汉在四处游荡；一些地方不建科技馆、却建鬼神庙等等精神海洛因四处蔓延的状况，使我们不得不呼吁，使用多种合理合法的手段，将鬼神之说予以清除。

History, after all, keeps advancing, and no one can stop this trend. In contemporary China, we advocate “rejuvenating the country through science and education,” governing the country with democracy and law, and using the Scientific Outlook on Development to create China’s future. [20]20 The Scientific Outlook on Development is a socio-economic concept introduced by Hu Jintao, emphasizing sustainable and people-centered development; it was a guiding ideology of the CPC before Xi Jinping Thought. If, under such goals, instead of promoting advanced culture, we bring out the “ghost culture,” a spiritual heroin of humanity, what is the intention? What results will it bring to the scientific development of society? Is it truly a fantasy to turn back the wheel of history?

历史毕竟是不断地前进着，谁也无法阻挡这个潮流。在当代中国，我们提倡“科教兴国”、以民主和法律治国，以科学发展观来创造中国的未来。如果在这样的目标前，不是推进先进文化，而要将人类精神海洛因的“鬼文化”搬出来，其用意何在？将会给社会的科学发展带来什么样结果呢？难道真幻想要开历史的倒车吗？

Author’s bio: Chen Zu’jia, senior journalist at *People’s Daily*

作者简介：陈祖甲《人民日报》高级记者