Marx and Evolution: A Reconsideration of the Relationship between Marx’s Doctrine and Darwin’s Theory

For a long time, there have been many misunderstandings about the relationship between Marxism and Darwin’s theory of evolution. For example, some scholars believe that Marx was deeply influenced by Darwin’s doctrine and was a socialist Darwinist [1]1 A reference to the view that Marx’s thought was a form of social Darwinism, applying Darwinian concepts of natural selection and struggle to society.; others hold that Marxism and Darwin’s theory of evolution differ in form but are similar in substance [2]2 An allusion to the idea that Marxism and Darwinism are analogous in structure, both being theories of progressive development through conflict.; and even many Marxists often overlook the differences between Marx’s doctrine and Darwin’s theory of evolution, placing the two on a par. This article attempts, on the basis of available materials, to clarify Marx’s true attitude toward Darwin’s theory of evolution, so as to help people understand Marxism more accurately.

长期以来，人们对马克思主义与达尔文进化论之间的关系存在着很多误解，如有的学者认为马克思深受达尔文学说的影响，是社会主义的达尔文主义者①，也有人认为马克思主义与达尔文进化论形式不同，实质相似②，甚至不少马克思主义者也往往忽视了马克思学说与达尔文进化论之间的差别，将二人相提并论。本文试图根据现有资料，说明马克思对达尔文进化论的真实态度，以利于人们更准确地理解马克思主义。

I. Marx’s Affirmation of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

一、马克思对达尔文进化论的肯定

In November 1859, Engels recommended Darwin’s work to Marx. This was the first time Marx learned of Darwin’s theory of evolution. In December 1860, Marx made his first evaluation of Darwin’s *On the Origin of Species*. He said: “Although this book is written in a rough English style, it provides a natural-historical foundation for our views.” [1]1 A reference to the view that Marx’s thought was a form of social Darwinism, applying Darwinian concepts of natural selection and struggle to society. (p. 131) This is the primary evidence people use to regard Darwin’s theory of evolution as the basis for the emergence of Marxism. In fact, the “foundation” Marx refers to here means that Darwin’s doctrine provided new proof for historical materialism, not that historical materialism was established only after the theory of evolution emerged. Marx’s basic ideas had already taken shape long before Darwin’s theory of evolution was published. In January 1861, Marx wrote to Ferdinand Lassalle: “Darwin’s work is very significant, and I can use it as a natural-scientific basis for class struggle in history. One must, of course, tolerate the crude English mode of exposition. Despite many shortcomings, it is here that not only is the death blow dealt for the first time to ‘teleology’ in the natural sciences, but its rational meaning is also empirically explained.” [2]2 An allusion to the idea that Marxism and Darwinism are analogous in structure, both being theories of progressive development through conflict. (pp. 574-575) Here, Marx affirmed that Darwin’s theory of evolution dealt a powerful blow to teleology, which was of great significance.

1859年11月，恩格斯将达尔文的著作推荐给马克思。这是马克思第一次知道达尔文的进化论。1860年12月，马克思首次对达尔文的《物种起源》做出评价。他说“：虽然这本书用英文写得很粗略，但是它为我们的观点提供了自然史的基础。”[1](P131)这是人们将达尔文进化论视为马克思主义产生基础的最主要证明。事实上，马克思这里所说的基础，是指达尔文的学说为历史唯物主义提供了新的证明，而不是说历史唯物主义在进化论产生后才确立起来的。早在达尔文进化论发表之前，马克思的基本思想都已经形成了。1861年1月，马克思在给费迪南•拉萨尔的信中说：“达尔文的著作非常有意义，这本书我可以用来当作历史上的阶级斗争的自然科学根据。粗率的英国式的阐述方式当然必须容忍。虽然存在许多缺点，但是在这里不仅第一次给了自然科学中的‘目的论’以致命的打击，而且也根据经验阐明了它的合理的意义。”[2](P574-575)在这里，马克思肯定了达尔文进化论有力地打击了目的论，这具有重大意义。

In fact, Marx’s affirmation of Darwin’s theory of evolution was mainly confined to the two aspects above. In Marx’s view, Darwin’s doctrine not only struck at religious theology and teleology but also provided a natural-scientific proof for historical materialism.

事实上，马克思对达尔文进化论的肯定，也主要是在以上两个方面。在马克思看来，达尔文的学说不仅打击了宗教神学，打击了目的论，而且为历史唯物主义提供了自然科学方面的证明。

It should be said that Marx fully understood the significance of Darwin’s doctrine. In a letter to Engels in 1867, he pointed out that in “demonstrating that modern society, considered economically, is pregnant with a new, higher form,” he was “merely revealing, in the sphere of social relations, the same gradual process of change that Darwin had established in natural history.” [3] (p. 410) This provides the most direct evidence for people to place Marx and Darwin, and their theories, on a par.

应该说，马克思是十分了解达尔文学说意义的。他在1867年给恩格斯的一封信中指出，自己在“证明现代社会，从经济上来考察孕育着一个新的更高的形态时，只是在社会关系方面揭示出达尔文在自然史方面所确立的同一个逐渐变革的过程”[3](P410)。这为人们将马克思与达尔文以及他们的理论相提并论，提供了最直接的证明。

Marx died in 1883. At his funeral, Engels linked Marx with Darwin in his eulogy, which greatly influenced later assessments of their relationship. Engels said: “Just as Darwin discovered the law of development of organic nature, so Marx discovered the law of development of human history…” [4] (p. 776) Since then, most Marxists have generally believed that Marx and Darwin accomplished similar work in their respective fields, and that their theories are parallel and complementary. However, this is not the case. Marx’s doctrine and Darwin’s theory of evolution differ greatly. Beyond affirming the positive aspects of Darwin’s doctrine, Marx criticized Darwin’s theory of evolution to a greater extent.

1883年马克思逝世。在他的葬礼上，恩格斯在悼词中将马克思与达尔文联系起来，这对后人定位两人的关系起了很大推动作用。恩格斯说：“正像达尔文发现有机界的发展规律一样，马克思发现了人类历史的发展规律……”[4](P776)自此后，多数马克思主义者普遍认为马克思与达尔文在各自的领域完成了相似的工作，他们的理论是互为平行、互为补充的。然而，事实并非如此。马克思的学说与达尔文进化论存在着很大不同。马克思在肯定达尔文学说的积极方面外，更多地对达尔文进化论提出了批评。

II. Marx’s Questioning of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

二、马克思对与达尔文进化论的质疑

In 1862, Marx reread Darwin’s *On the Origin of Species*. But this time, he said: “It is remarkable how Darwin recognizes among beasts and plants his English society with its division of labor, competition, opening up of new markets, ‘inventions,’ and the Malthusian ‘struggle for existence.’ It is Hobbes’ *bellum omnium contra omnes* [war of all against all], and one is reminded of Hegel’s *Phenomenology*, where civil society is described as a ‘spiritual animal kingdom,’ while Darwin depicts the animal kingdom as civil society.” [5] (pp. 251-252) Here, Marx pointed out that Darwin’s errors lay in: 1. his mistaken application of Malthusian theory; 2. his failure to recognize the distinction between the natural world and human society.

1862年，马克思重新读了达尔文的《物种起源》。但是这次，他说：“我重新阅读了达尔文的著作，使我感到好笑的是，达尔文说他把‘马尔萨斯的’理论也应用于植物和动物，其实在马尔萨斯先生那里，全部奥妙恰好在于这种理论不是应用于植物和动物，而是只应用于人类，说它是按几何级数增加，而跟植物和动物对立起来。值得注意的是，达尔文在动植物界中重新认识了他自己的英国社会及其分工、竞争、开辟新市场、‘发明’以及马尔萨斯的‘生存斗争’这是霍布斯的一切人反对一切人的战争，这使人想起黑格尔的《现象学》，那里面把市民社会描写为‘精神动物的世界’，而达尔文则把动物世界描写为市民社会。”[5](P251-252)在这里，马克思指出，达尔文的失误在于：1.他错误地运用了马尔萨斯理论。2.他没有认识到自然世界与人类社会的区别。

Marx could not accept the view of a struggle for existence among humans contained in Darwin’s theory of evolution. He did not believe that a brutal struggle for existence was the fundamental law of human historical development. In a letter from 1869, Marx said: “The struggle for existence in English society—universal competition, the war of all against all—led Darwin to discover that the brutal struggle for existence is the fundamental law of the ‘animal’ and plant kingdoms. But Darwinism, on the contrary, regards this as the deterministic basis for proving that human society can never escape its own bestiality.” [6] (p. 580) Marx was primarily responding to the views of social Darwinists; he opposed the idea that the struggle for existence among humans and the law of the jungle in society were natural and inevitable.

马克思不能接受达尔文进化论里面所包含的人类之间生存斗争的观点。他并不认为残酷的生存斗争是人类历史发展的基本规律。马克思在1869年的信中说：“英国社会的生存斗争——普遍的竞争，一切人反对一切人的战争——使达尔文发现残酷的生存斗争是‘动物’界和植物界的基本规律。但是达尔文主义与此相反，却认为这是证明人类社会永远不能摆脱自己的兽性的决定论依据。”[6](P580)马克思主要是针对社会达尔文主义者的观点而言的，他反对人类之间的生存斗争、社会上的弱肉强食是天经地义的观点。

In terms of content, Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on natural selection, emphasizing the influence of natural selection on species change and holding that species evolution is accomplished through a long process of the survival of the fittest. Marx was not satisfied with this explanation of evolution; he was more in agreement with the evolutionary views of the French natural science researcher Pierre Trémaux.

从达尔文进化论的内容上来看，它是以自然选择为基础的，更强调自然选择对物种改变的影响，并认为物种进化是在漫长的优胜劣汰中完成的。马克思对这种进化解释并不满意，他更赞同法国自然科学研究者比埃尔•特雷莫的进化观点。

In analyzing the origin and evolution of organisms, Trémaux placed greater emphasis on the influence of environmental factors such as geological formations on biological evolution. He believed that changes in the human living environment, such as migration from one place to another, could cause changes in humans themselves. Marx was relatively in agreement with this and considered it an advance over Darwin’s theory of evolution. In a letter to Engels in 1866, he said: “There is a very good book… it is P. Trémaux’s *Origin and Variation of Man and Other Species*, published in Paris in 1865. Although I have found some shortcomings, it represents a very significant advance over Darwin… In Darwin, progress is purely accidental; here it is necessary, based on the periods of the earth’s development.” [7] (pp. 250-251) Although Engels gave Trémaux’s book a very low evaluation, considering it “worthless, a pure fiction contradicting all facts” [8] (pp. 258-259), Marx still insisted: “This book, although written roughly and full of geological errors and poor criticism of historical literature, is on the whole a step forward from Darwin.” [9] (p. 534) It is evident that Marx could not accept Darwin’s views on human evolution. Based on his own research, Marx had his own theory of the evolution of human society.

特雷莫在分析生物起源和进化时，更注重分析地质构成等环境因素对生物进化的影响。他认为人类生存环境的改变，如人们从一个地方迁移到另外一个地方，都可能会造成人自身的改变。对此，马克思较为赞同，并认为这是比达尔文进化论进步的地方。他在1866年给恩格斯的信中说：“有一本很好的书，……这就是1865年巴黎出版的比•特雷莫的著作《人类和其他物种的起源和变异》。尽管我发现了一些缺点，但这本书比起达尔文来还是一个非常重大的进步。……在达尔文那里，进步是纯粹偶然的，而在这里却是必然的，是以地球发展的各个时期为基础的。”[7](P250-251)尽管恩格斯对特雷莫的书评价很低，认为“这本书没有任何价值，是与一切事实相矛盾的纯粹的虚构”[8](P258-259)，马克思还是坚持认为：“这本书虽然写得很粗燥，充满了地质学上的错误，历史文献方面的批评也很差，但是总的说来，它还是比达尔文前进了一步。”[9](P534)可见，马克思不能认同达尔文关于人类进化的观点。根据马克思的研究，他有自己的人类社会进化的理论。

III. Marx and Darwin on Human Nature and Human Development

三、马克思与达尔文论人性及人的发展

In 1871, Darwin published another of his representative works, *The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex*. In this book, on the basis of affirming that humans possess various animal characteristics, Darwin emphasized that human consciousness, morality, and religion are all the results of the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin pointed out that many animals possess social instincts, which enable them to live in groups and cooperate with one another. In Darwin’s view, social instincts are the result of natural selection, because only those animal groups with social instincts can prevail in competition with other groups, especially those of the same species that are less cooperative. The same applies to human social instincts. For the needs of the struggle for existence, the elements of the human instinct for solidarity have developed and become morality. And morality is the foundation of human society.

达尔文在1871年出版了他的另外一本代表作《人类起源和性的选择》。在该书中，达尔文在肯定人具有这样或那样的动物特征的基础上，强调了人的意识、道德、宗教都是生存斗争与自然选择的结果。达尔文指出，许多动物都具有社会本能，这种本能能够使动物群居，并相互合作。在达尔文看来，社会本能是自然选择的结果，因为只有那些具有社会本能的动物群体才能在与其他群体，尤其是同类中那些不太合作的群体的竞争中胜出。人类的社会本能也是如此。为了生存斗争的需要，人类具有团结本能的因素发展下来，并成为道德。而道德是人类社会存在的基础。

According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, human development follows natural laws, and human nature is the result of natural evolution. Humans are not fundamentally different from other animals; the only distinction lies in their biological structure. Human nature, as a biological inheritance, does not undergo significant changes due to economic or social transformations. In Darwin’s conception, although human nature changes over the course of continuous inheritance, this change occurs only slowly, through successive generations.

根据达尔文的进化论，人类发展遵循着自然法则，人性是自然进化的结果。人类与其他动物并没有什么本质的不同，唯一的差别在于他们的生物结构。人性作为一种生物遗传，并不会因为经济或者社会的改变而发生明显变化。在达尔文观念中，人性在不断地延续中虽然会发生变化，但这种变化只是通过代代相传缓慢发生的。

Marx’s understanding of human nature is quite different from Darwin’s view; he places greater emphasis on human particularity. Marx believed that the greatest difference between humans and animals is that humans can engage in conscious practical activity, can manufacture tools, and use technology to transform nature, whereas animals can only depend on nature. In the *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844*, Marx says: “Conscious life activity directly distinguishes man from animal life activity. It is precisely because of this that man is a species-being.” [10](P46) That is to say, what makes humans human is precisely that they can engage in conscious activity.

马克思对人性的理解与达尔文的观点很不相同，他更强调人的特殊性。马克思认为，人与动物最大的区别在于，人可以进行有意识的实践活动，可以制造工具，并利用技术来改造自然，而动物只能依赖于自然界。在《1844年经济学哲学手稿》中，马克思说“：有意识的生命活动把人同动物的生命活动直接区别开来，正是由于这一点，人才是类存在物。”[10](P46)也就是说，人之所以为人，就是因为他可以进行有意识的活动。

In *The German Ideology*, completed in cooperation with Engels between 1845 and 1846, Marx further elaborated on the distinction between humans and animals. He pointed out: “Nature first confronts men as something completely alien, all-powerful and unassailable, with which men’s relation is purely animal and their relation to it is like that of cattle; they are overwhelmed by it like beasts, and hence this is a purely animal consciousness of nature. But, on the other hand, the fact that men become conscious of the necessity to associate with the individuals around them is the beginning of the consciousness that they are living in society at all. This beginning is as animal-like as the social life itself at this stage; it is mere herd-consciousness, and here man is distinguished from sheep only by the fact that his consciousness takes the place of instinct, or that his instinct is a conscious one.” [11](P81-82) Here, Marx explains that it is human conscious activity that enables humans to stand out from ordinary animals and begin the human evolutionary process. This view was upheld in Marx’s subsequent intellectual development. He believed that what makes humans superior to other animals is that they can engage in conscious, purposeful practical activity.

在1845至1846年间与恩格斯合作完成的《德意志意识形态》一书中，马克思进一步论述了人与动物的区别。他指出“：自然界起初是作为一种完全异己的、有无限威力的和不可制服的力量与人们对立的，人们同自然界的关系完全像动物同自然界的关系一样，人们就像牲畜一样慑服于自然界，因而，这是对自然界的一种纯粹动物式的意识；但是，另一方面，意识到必须和周围的个人来往，也就是开始意识到人总是生活在社会中的。这个开始，同这一阶段的社会生活本身一样，带有动物的性质；这是纯粹的畜群意识，这里，人和绵羊不同的地方只是在于：他的意识代替了他的本能，或者说他的本能是被意识到了的本能。”[11](P81-82)在这里，马克思说明，是人的有意识的活动，使人从一般动物中脱颖而出，开始人类自己的进化历程。在马克思以后的思想发展中，这种观点被坚持下来。他认为人类优越于其他动物的地方在于人可以进行有意识、有目的的实践活动。

In Marx’s view, humans are naturally social animals, possessing both biological and social natures. The social nature of humans that Marx refers to here is similar in concept to Darwin’s notion of human social instincts, but their views are diametrically opposed. In Darwin’s view, the human instinct for social solidarity is the foundation of human society, whereas Marx believed that human social existence determines human social nature—that is, human social nature is the product of specific socio-economic and political conditions. From these two different views, entirely different conclusions are drawn: according to Darwin’s view, human social nature is the result of natural selection and can only change gradually through natural selection within human society; according to Marx’s view, human nature can change in a short period through alterations in socio-economic and political forms. If Darwin’s theory of evolution tends more to support the positions of conservatives, then Marx’s theory, without doubt, supports revolutionary views.

在马克思看来，人是天生的社会性的动物，既有生物性，又有社会性。马克思在这里所指的人的社会性与达尔文所讲的人的社会本能的概念近似，但他们的观点是截然相反的。在达尔文看来，人的社会团结的本能是人类社会存在的基础，而马克思则认为人的社会存在决定了人的社会性，即人的社会性是特定的社会经济政治的产物。从这两种不同的观点，得出的结论也完全不同：按照达尔文的观点，人的社会性是自然选择的结果，只能在人类社会中经过自然选择而逐步发生变化；按照马克思的观点，人性是可以通过社会经济政治形态的改变而在短期内发生变化的。如果说，达尔文的进化论更倾向于支持保守主义者的主张，那么，马克思的理论，毫无疑问是支持革命观点的。

The reason Marx was more inclined to endorse Trémaux’s theory of evolution is also that Trémaux believed human nature could change frequently. In Trémaux’s view, if people moved from one place to another with a different geographical environment, within just a few generations they could adapt to the new environment by changing themselves, and evolution or degeneration could occur quickly. This is close to Marx’s view. Marx believed that if people’s socio-economic base changed, their morality and culture would change.

马克思之所以更赞同特雷莫的进化论，也是因为特雷莫认为人性可以经常地发生变化。在特雷莫看来，如果人们从一个地方转移到另外一个地理环境不同的地方，在短短几代人之后，他们就能够通过改变自身来适应新的环境，可以很快地出现进化或者退化。这与马克思的观点相近。马克思认为，如果人们的社会经济基础改变了，人们的道德、文化就会发生改变。

Thus, it can be seen that Marx’s view on human evolution is clearly different from Darwin’s: Darwin, starting from the study of the natural world, tended to understand humans as part of the natural world; he believed that humans are not fundamentally different from other animals. In his view, human society is a natural continuation and development of the animal world, and human evolution follows natural laws, accomplished through a long process of natural selection. Marx, on the other hand, mainly focused on the study of the political and economic aspects of human society, emphasizing the uniqueness of human existence and human agency. In his view, human society has its own laws of development; through their practical activity, humans can not only change nature but also change themselves by changing their social relations—that is, humans possess subjective agency in their evolutionary process.

可见，马克思关于人的进化的观点与达尔文的明显不同：达尔文从研究自然世界出发，更倾向于将人理解为自然世界的一部分，他认为人与其他动物并没有本质的不同。在他看来，人类社会是动物世界的自然延续和发展，人类的演进遵循着自然法则，其进化是通过漫长的自然选择的过程完成的；而马克思主要专注于对人类社会政治经济方面的8研究，更强调人类存在的独特性，强调人类的能动性。在他看来，人类社会具有它自己的发展规律，人们通过自己的实践活动，不仅能够改变自然界，也能够通过改变他们的社会关系而改变自身，也就是说，人在其进化过程中具有主观能动性。

Conclusion

总结

In summary, although Marx affirmed the positive significance of Darwin’s theory, pointing out that it powerfully struck at religious theology, broke down teleology, and provided a natural scientific foundation for dialectical materialism, he believed that Darwin’s theory still had many defects. In particular, he could not accept the conclusions that Darwin and the Darwinists drew in the realm of human society. Marx opposed the universal validity of natural selection and the struggle for existence in the realm of human society as found in Darwin’s theory of evolution; he believed that human existence has its particularity, and that natural laws cannot be directly applied to human society.

综上所述，马克思虽然肯定了达尔文学说的积极意义，指出达尔文学说有力打击了宗教神学、破除了目的论，并为辩证唯物主义提供了自然科学的基础，但他认为达尔文学说仍然存在着不少缺陷，他尤其不能认同达尔文以及达尔文主义者在人类社会领域得出的结论。马克思反对达尔文进化论中自然选择与生存斗争在人类社会领域的普遍有效性，他认为，人的存在具有特殊性，不能将自然法则直接搬用到人类社会中。

Regarding the discussion of humans, Marx’s theory and Darwin’s theory of evolution have major differences: in Darwin’s theory, humans are rooted in the animal world, merely a natural continuation of animal development, and human evolution can only be completed through a long process of natural selection; Marx emphasizes the distinction between humans and animals, highlights human subjective agency, and believes that humans can change themselves by changing the economic base of social existence. Marx’s analysis of humans in this regard is the philosophical foundation of his theory of social revolution.

在对人的论述方面，马克思学说与达尔文进化论具有重大不同：在达尔文学说中，人植根于动物世界，只是动物发展的自然延续，人类的进化只能在漫长的自然选择中完成；马克思则强调人与动物的区别，突出人的主观能动性，认为人们可以通过改变社会存在的经济基础来改变自身。马克思对于人的这种分析，是他社会革命理论的哲学基础。

Notes:

注释：

① For example, in his article “Marx and Engels as Social Biologists” published in the journal *Survey* (Vol. 23, No. 4, 1979), the British scholar L. S. Feuer argued that Marx, Engels, and their successors were all socialist Darwinists. See *Social Sciences Abroad*, Issue 1, 1980.

①如英国学者L•S•佛埃尔在发表于杂志《纵览》1979年第23卷第4期的文章《作为社会生物学家的马克思和恩格斯》中就认为马克思、恩格斯以及他们的后继者都是社会主义的达尔文主义者。见《国外社会科学》1980年第1期。

② For example, in his paper “The Marx-Darwin Connection: Different in Form, Similar in Substance” published in the American journal *Contemporary Sociology* (Issue 5, 1983), the American scholar P. van den Berghe argued that Marx’s view of history and Darwin’s theory of evolution complement each other, and their substantive content is the same. See *Social Sciences Abroad*, Issue 2, 1984.

②如美国学者P•范登伯吉在发表于美国《当代社会学》杂志1983年第5期的论文《马克思与达尔文的联系：形式不同，实质相似》中就认为，马克思的历史观与达尔文的进化论互为补充，他们的实质内容是一样的。见《国外社会科学》，1984年第2期。

References:

参考文献：

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