The Development of New Theism since Reform and Opening Up and Related Laws and Policies

Theism, in Western discourse, is generally used to refer to monotheism. In the Chinese cultural context, we usually use this term more broadly; anything involving belief in any ghosts or gods is theism. This article primarily discusses the theistic beliefs that have arisen, organized themselves, and conducted activities in mainland China since reform and opening up, mainly including: qigong, special psychic powers, Fal

Some scholars have already sorted out the developmental history of the contemporary rise of qigong and special psychic abilities and analyzed the reasons for their emergence; others have systematically analyzed the development of special psychic abilities from the perspectives of the history of science and the philosophy of science. Still other scholars have investigated and analyzed the phenomenon of the proliferation of qigong and special psychic abilities from the angles of theism and new religious movements. After

I. A Brief Overview of the Development of New Theism

Since the 1980s, activities promoting theism outside religious venues and without the name of religion have increased day by day, reaching a peak in the 1990s and exerting a broad influence on Chinese society. These theistic propaganda activities mainly include:

1. Qigong. Qigong was originally a method of physical exercise used in traditional Chinese medicine to strengthen the body and improve health, primarily employing the regulation of breath, bodily movement, and consciousness (i.e., regulating the breath, regulating the body, and regulating the mind). In religious practices such as Daoism and Buddhism, some qigong elements are also included. However, from the latter half of the 1980s, qigong practice swept across China. By the early 1990s, the number of qigong groups, both registered and unregistered, had reached 2,000, giving rise to a pronounced “qigong fever” phenomenon. Practitioners numbered in the tens of millions, gradually forming some organizations with religious characteristics. These qigong groups shared a common feature: they contained obvious religious or spiritual belief elements, and most resembled cult groups in Western societies. Among them, typical examples included Zhang Xiangyu’s “Natural Center Qigong,” Gao XX’s “Information Qigong,” and Zhang Hongbao’s “Chinese Health and Wisdom Qigong.” These so-called “qigong” forms were not names from traditional qigong; they were all self-created. They often pieced together and fused certain contents from various religions to create a set of miraculous “doctrines.” In the process of teaching and taking disciples for “Natural Center Qigong,” it was filled with theistic overtones, bearing the characteristics of preaching and proselytizing. In 1990, this organization and Zhang Xiangyu were investigated and dealt with by public security organs. These “qigong” forms, by changing their names, not only included content about ghosts and gods in their propaganda but also possessed the organizational features of religious groups, often illegally obtaining considerable sums of money through means such as giving lectures, taking disciples, or running companies. Most of these “qigong” forms failed to survive long-term; they typically flourished for a few years before becoming unsustainable due to their illegal activities. However, the successive emergence of similar organizations was a major reality of Chinese society in the 1990s.

2. Supernatural Abilities. “Supernatural abilities” were sometimes also linked to qigong, meaning that certain “great qigong masters” possessed some supernatural abilities. However, judging by the history of their discovery and performance, those with “supernatural abilities” were not necessarily “qigong masters.” The earliest report of the “supernatural abilities” phenomenon was in the *Sichuan Daily* on March 11, 1979, which reported that “a child in Dazu County has recently been discovered who can recognize characters and distinguish colors using their ears.” Although later tests by hospitals and other organizations found this phenomenon to be false, reports of children with “supernatural abilities” subsequently sprang up like bamboo shoots after a spring rain across the country. Later, academic institutions held academic discussions on this matter, theoretically denying the existence of “supernatural abilities.” However, some people held a positive attitude toward this research. Consequently, although research on “supernatural abilities” was highly controversial, it attracted many participants, and numerous research groups or associations were established nationwide. It is evident that at the time, “supernatural abilities” were being studied as a scientific phenomenon. We know that those extraordinary intelligences are essentially the abilities possessed by ghosts and gods in religious theology. Thus, within these so-called “scientific studies,” some hypothesized the existence of ghosts and gods, believing that the realization of such functions was the result of communication with them. Such research naturally could not achieve any scientific progress.

3. Fal

Article 8 of the Education Law of the People's Republic of China, passed in 1995, stipulates that "the state implements the separation of education from religion," and Article 9 stipulates that citizens, regardless of religious belief, enjoy equal educational opportunities in accordance with the law. At the same time, Article 12 of the Labor Law, which came into effect on January 1, 1995, stipulates that workers shall not be discriminated against in employment on account of religious belief. Similarly, Article 251 of the Criminal Law, revised in 1997, prohibits state functionaries from unlawfully depriving citizens of their freedom of religious belief.

In addition to the provisions of the Constitution and laws, the Central Committee of the CPC has also issued a series of documents concerning religion. Among them, the "Basic Views and Basic Policies on the Religious Question during the Socialist Period in Our Country" (i.e., Document No. 19) issued in 1982 detailed the basic policy of respecting and protecting freedom of religious belief. For example, it made detailed provisions on freedom of religious belief and proposed that the essence of this policy lies in making religious belief a private matter for citizens. At the same time, it emphasized that Communist Party members must not believe in religion and that Communists are atheists who should unremittingly propagate atheism. In addition, it distinguished folk religions, superstitions, and cults from the five major religions, namely Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism, emphasizing the protection of normal religious activities while cracking down on activities harmful to society that cloak themselves in religion.

In 1991, the "Notice of the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council on Several Issues Concerning Further Improving Religious Work" (i.e., Document No. 6) placed strong emphasis on managing religious affairs in accordance with the law and held that "the implementation of the management of religious affairs aims to bring religious activities within the scope permitted by laws, regulations, and policies, rather than interfering with normal religious activities or the internal affairs of religious organizations." It proposed that "self-proclaimed preachers' missionary and preaching activities and other various illegal missionary activities must be resolutely stopped" and that "illegal religious organizations must be resolutely banned."

In 1997, the white paper "Freedom of Religious Belief in China" issued by the State Council Information Office proposed that the Chinese government advocates the adaptation of religion to the construction of a modern socialist country with Chinese characteristics. It also emphasized that since the 1980s, some cult organizations had emerged, engaging in illegal and criminal activities under the banner of religion, and that judicial organs had cracked down on and punished them.

On October 30, 1999, the 12th Session of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National People's Congress passed the "Decision on Banning Cult Organizations, Preventing and Punishing Cult Activities" (i.e., the 99 Decision

On 28 May 2004, the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Propaganda Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Central Civilisation Office, the Party School of the CPC Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences jointly issued the *Notice on Further Strengthening Research, Education and Propaganda Work on Marxist Atheism*. The notice first affirmed the important significance of strengthening research, education and propaganda work on Marxist atheism; second, it proposed that this work should be guided by Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and the important thought of the Three Represents [1], that it should focus on popularising the basic viewpoints of materialism and the basic common knowledge of the natural sciences, and that it should take the eradication of ignorance and superstition as its focal point, centring on the themes of propagating scientific thought, promoting the scientific spirit, popularising scientific knowledge, and disseminating scientific methods; third, it held that schools at all levels and of all types are important positions for carrying out education and propaganda on Marxist atheism, that the principle of separation of education from religion should be upheld, and that education and propaganda on Marxist atheism should be included in the teaching syllabi of political theory courses, ideological and moral character courses, and relevant specialised courses, so as to ensure that the teaching content and requirements are effectively implemented; fourth, it regarded mass activities for cultural-ethical progress [2] as an important vehicle for carrying out education and propaganda on Marxist atheism; fifth, it proposed making education and propaganda on Marxist atheism a regular task for the mass media; sixth, it proposed strengthening the disciplinary construction and personnel training for Marxist atheism, properly running atheism research institutions and relevant university specialisations, and establishing and cultivating a team of atheism research workers armed with Marxism. Finally, it emphasised that Party committees at all levels should make atheism an important component of developing advanced socialist culture. The vast majority of Party members, especially leading Party cadres, must continuously strengthen their Party spirit [3], firmly establish a materialist worldview, and consciously set an example in studying and propagating Marxist atheism.

On 20 November 2007, the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Public Security, and the State Administration for Religious Affairs jointly issued the *Opinions on Educating and Guiding University Students to Correctly Understand and Treat Religious Issues* (Document No. 16 [2007]), which proposed that the principle of separation of education from religion should be upheld, that infiltration activities by hostile foreign forces using religion should be resolutely resisted, and that students should be cultivated to establish a correct worldview, national outlook, and religious outlook. On 15 May 2011, the *Opinions on Doing a Good Job of Resisting the Use of Religion for Infiltration from Abroad and Preventing Proselytising on Campus* (i.e., Document No. 18), forwarded by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council and issued by the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee and the Ministry of Education and other departments, clearly stated that education in Marxist atheism should be taken as the foundational work for resisting infiltration and preventing proselytising on campus. The document proposed numerous specific measures to block channels for foreign forces using religion to infiltrate universities and for proselytising on campus, and emphasised that issues related to infiltration and proselytising should be dealt with according to law.

From the above-mentioned relevant legal provisions and document contents, it can be seen that, apart from the restrictive or negative clauses in the *Constitution* that restrict religion or activities using religion, the provisions of other laws (except for Resolution No. 99 [4]), although they are restrictive clauses, are mostly aimed at ensuring the realisation of freedom of religious belief. The principle of separation of education from religion explicitly stated in the *Education Law* can also be seen as a reflection of the state of religious activities in society at that time. The passage of Resolution No. 99 was primarily aimed at cracking down on and dealing with the

III. Several Reflections

In summary, we can find that the Party Central Committee and the State Council attach great importance to religious issues, also place high value on the research and propaganda work of atheism, and have made corresponding responses to the development of new theism since reform and opening up. However, from the development history of these theisms and the situation of our responses, combined with the current development situation of religion and other theisms, we can also offer the following reflections.

First, there needs to be a clearer definition and legal stipulation regarding the essence of theism, such as religion, and its organizations and activities. Although both laws and central Party documents contain descriptions of religion, they do not provide a clear definition of the essence and connotation of religion. That is, what constitutes religion and what does not; what constitutes religious belief, religious activity, and religious organization, etc., have no clear statement. Furthermore, there are no corresponding policies or legal provisions for organizations and individuals that do not operate under the name of "religion" but actually propagate "theism," thereby engaging in activities that are essentially religious or similar to religion. Additionally, there needs to be clear legal stipulations on how to deal with those who, under the guise of legitimate religion, do not conduct religious activities in accordance with the relevant provisions of current laws. Corresponding revisions to laws and regulations should be made based on the current state of religious development in our country, aiming to resolve new situations and new problems, rather than remaining in a prolonged state of lag. The 1997 white paper "Freedom of Religious Belief in China" stated, "For Christian believers, according to religious custom, to hold religious activities such as prayer and Bible reading mainly attended by relatives and friends in their own homes (which Chinese Christian custom calls family gatherings), registration is not required." However, the current development of Christian house churches has long exceeded the scope of prayer and Bible reading activities mainly attended by relatives and friends, becoming an important channel for spreading Christianity. Moreover, the specific circumstances of different house churches are very complex. How to regulate and manage them is a problem that the relevant departments of our country cannot avoid.

Second, it is necessary to earnestly carry out research and propaganda-education work on scientific atheism. For a considerable period, the propaganda and education of atheism have been absent from the public sphere in our country. The rectification and setting things right after the Cultural Revolution [1] placed relatively more emphasis on implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief, yet few people fully understood the "freedom of religious belief" stipulated in our country's Constitution, instead mostly understanding it literally, assuming that whenever religion is mentioned, complete freedom must be emphasized. In China, which takes Marxism as its guiding ideology, we emphasize freedom of religious belief, advocate and guide religion to adapt to the socialist society, and bring into play the positive factors in religion. This is aimed at the religious sphere, not the public sphere. The propaganda and education of atheism are precisely aimed at the public sphere. Atheism opposes gods and ghosts in terms of concepts; discussing atheism does not necessarily target religious organizations and activities. Scientific atheism advocates atheism from a scientific rather than a political level, serving the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education [2]. Currently, there is considerable research on religious theology in our country, and its influence is quite significant; however, research on scientific atheism is clearly insufficient, and it still lacks corresponding discursive power. Although there are relevant documents, there is still a considerable gap in the implementation of policies. Various departments and localities still have insufficient understanding of this issue.

The rise of the new theism movement in the 1980s is related to the overseas new religious movement and is a reflection of this worldwide movement in China. However, due to the lack of attention and systematic research by scholars in the field of scientific atheism, our country's understanding of the rise of this new theism movement is insufficient. Nowadays, the rise of the religious fever in China is not unrelated to the international, especially the American, religious development strategy. If corresponding research remains lacking, our coping strategies will lack a foundation.

Finally, it is necessary to vigorously strengthen the construction of the core socialist values system. Since reform and opening up, our country's economic construction has achieved great successes, but the construction of socialist cultural-ethical progress has had many problems. The institutional changes brought about by economic reform have greatly altered people's living circumstances. When analyzing the reasons for the rise of