Some Reflections on the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion

A view of religion is people’s basic understanding of religion and the basic attitude toward religion that follows from it. The core of a view of religion is the question of how one views religion and how one treats religion; the former pertains to the question of cognition, the latter to the question of method. For the Marxist view of religion, understood in a narrow sense, it is the basic views constructed by Marx and Engels on the basis of historical materialism concerning major issues such as the essence, origin, social function, and laws of development of religion;[1]1 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [1] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. understood in a broad sense, it refers generally to “a historical materialist view of religion as a continuous process of development,”[2]2 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [2] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. which includes not only the Marxist view of religion in the narrow sense but also the Leninist view of religion, as well as the view of religion of the Communist Party of China.

宗教观，就是人们对宗教的基本认识以及由此表明的对宗教的基本态度。宗教观的核心是怎么看宗教和怎么对待宗教的问题，前者属于认识问题，后者属于方法问题。对于马克思主义宗教观，从狭义上理解，就是马克思、恩格斯以历史唯物主义为理论基础而建构起来的关于宗教的本质根源、社会功能及发展规律等重大问题的基本观点;［1］广义上理解，就是泛指“作为一个不断发展过程的历史唯物主义宗教观”，［2］它既包括狭义的马克思主义宗教观，还包括列宁主义的宗教观，以及中国共产党的宗教观等。

I. The Main Ideas of the Marxist View of Religion

一、马克思主义宗教观的主要思想

(I) The View of Religion Founded by Marx and Engels

(一)马克思、恩格斯创立的宗教观

1. Basic Theory of Religion. (1) Explaining religion through the principle of the relationship between social being and social consciousness. “The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness.”[3]3 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [3] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. (2) The origin and development of religion are both determined by the social material conditions of life on which religion depends; changes in economic relations determine changes in religious relations. “Historical materialism explains all historical events and ideas, all politics, philosophy and religion, by the material economic conditions of life of a given historical period.”[4]4 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [4] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. (3) In class society, it is necessary to use the method of class analysis to explain relations among people, and thereby to reveal the social function and historical role of religion in class society. These ideas fully reflect the basic principles of historical materialism, constitute the theoretical foundation of the Marxist view of religion, and are the fundamental distinction between the Marxist view of religion and previous old views of religion.

1、关于宗教的基本理论。(1)用社会存在与社会意识的关系原理说明宗教。“物质生活的生产方式制约着整个社会生活、政治生活和精神生活的过程。不是人们的意识决定人们的存在，相反，是人们的社会存在决定人们的意识。”［3］(2)宗教的起源、发展都是由宗教所依赖的社会物质生活条件决定的，经济关系的变化决定着宗教关系的变化。“唯物史观是以一定历史时期的物质经济生活条件来说明一切历史事件和观念、一切政治、哲学和宗教的。”［4］(3)阶级社会中需要用阶级分析的方法去说明人与人的关系，进而揭示宗教在阶级社会中的社会功能和历史作用。这些思想，是历史唯物主义基本原理的充分反映，成为马克思主义宗教观的理论基础，也是马克思主义宗教观与以往旧宗教观的根本区别所在。

2. Basic Views on Religion. These mainly concern the essence, origin, social role, and the formation, development, and eventual extinction of religion. First, on the essence of religion. Engels pointed out, “All religion, however, is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men’s minds of those external forces which control their daily life, a reflection in which the terrestrial forces assume the form of supernatural forces.”[5]5 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [5] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. Second, on the main causes of the emergence and development of religion. The cause of the emergence of natural religion is that human beings could not correctly understand nature, were oppressed by alien forces of nature, developed a sense of dependence on, fear of, and mystery toward nature, and thus formed a fantastic reflection of consciousness. The cause of the existence and development of religion in class society is that the laborer is placed in “all relations in which man is a debased, enslaved, forsaken, despicable being”[6]6 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [6] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation.; it lies in the fact that some people in objective real life, “despairing of obtaining salvation on earth, sought it in heaven instead, seeking consolation there from the utter despair of salvation.”[7]7 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [7] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. The cognitive root of the emergence of religion is idealism and metaphysics. Third, the social historical role of religion. In class society, religion on the whole plays a negative role in narcotizing people’s spirit: First, it is a spiritual tool for the ruling class to maintain its rule; religion is the “general basis of consolation and justification”[8]8 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [8] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. for the existing system, and at the same time an important means for the ruling class to exercise spiritual control over the ruled. Second, for believers, especially the ruled, religion is an opium that places hopes in fantasy, weakens fighting spirit, erodes will, and narcotizes the self. Marx provided a classic exposition of this: “Religious suffering is at the same time the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”[9]9 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [9] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. However, under certain historical conditions, religion has served as a banner, weapon, and cloak for some social changes or resistance movements, playing a certain positive role. Fourth, the view on the extinction of religion. Religion will inevitably gradually die out with the development of society, but its extinction is a long and painful historical process. This requires certain social conditions: first, the relations between people are extremely clear and reasonable; second, the relations between people and nature are extremely clear and reasonable; third, people achieve comprehensive development, that is, “when things are planned and accomplished by people themselves, the last alien force that is still reflected in religion will then disappear.”[10]10 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [10] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. As for the manner of religion’s extinction, Engels believed that it can only “die out naturally” as the historical conditions for its extinction gradually mature.

2、关于宗教的基本观点。主要涉及了宗教的本质、根源、社会作用以及宗教形成发展直至最后消亡的观点。第一，关于宗教本质。恩格斯指出，“一切宗教都不过是支配着人们日常生活的外部力量在人们头脑中的幻想的反映，在这种反映中，人间的力量采取了超人间的力量的形式”［5］。第二，关于宗教产生和发展的主要原因。自然宗教的产生原因是人类不能正确认识自然，受自然异己力量的压迫，产生对自然的依赖感、恐惧感、神秘感，进而形成的虚幻的意识反映。宗教在阶级社会存在和发展的原因是劳动者处于“被侮辱、被奴役、被遗弃和被蔑视的东西的一切关系”［6］，在于客观现实生活中的一部分人“对物质上的得救感到绝望，就去追寻灵魂得救来代替，即追寻思想上的安慰，以免陷入彻底绝望的境地。”［7］宗教产生的认识根源就是唯心主义和形而上学。第三，宗教的社会历史作用。在阶级社会，宗教在总体上起着麻醉人们精神的消极作用:第一，它是统治阶级维护统治的精神工具，宗教是现存制度“求得慰藉和辩护的总根据”［8］，同时又是统治阶级对被统治者进行精神控制的重要手段。第二，宗教对信仰者尤其是被统治者而言是寄托幻想、削弱斗志、消磨意志、麻醉自我的鸦片。马克思对此有经典性的论述:“宗教里的苦难既是现实的苦难的表现，又是对这种现实的苦难的抗议。宗教是被压迫生灵的叹息，是无情世界的心境，正像它是无精神活力的制度的精神一样。宗教是人民的鸦片。”［9］但在一定历史条件下，宗教曾作为一些社会变革或反抗运动的旗帜、武器和外衣，起到了一定的积极作用。第四，宗教消亡的观点。宗教必然会随着社会的发展而逐渐消亡，但宗教的消亡是一个长期的痛苦的历史过程。这需要具备一定的社会条件:一是人与人的关系极其明白而合理;二是人与自然的关系极其明白而合理;三是人获得全面的发展，也就是“当谋事在人，成事也在人的时候，现在还在宗教中反映出来的最后的异己力量才会消失”。［10］宗教的消亡方式上，恩格斯认为只能随着其消亡的历史条件的逐渐成熟而慢慢地“自然地死掉”。

3. Policy Principles on Religion. First, scientific socialism and religious theism are opposed in worldview, and it was proposed that “religion should be declared a private matter”[11]11 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [11] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. for the state, advocating the thorough separation of state and religion, and the separation of school and church. Second, the proletarian party should implement freedom of religious belief. Third, oppose the use of administrative orders and police measures to prohibit religion. (II) Lenin’s Main Ideas on the Development of the Marxist View of Religion In the course of leading the Russian revolution, while adhering to the basic principles of the Marxist view of religion, Lenin, in light of the actual conditions of the Russian revolution and Russia’s national conditions, expounded a series of important views on religious issues, achieving the inheritance and development of the Marxist view of religion under new historical conditions. These ideas mainly include: First, adhere to the guiding role of historical materialism, “the roots of faith and religion among the masses should be explained from a materialist standpoint.”[12]12 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [12] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation.

3、对宗教的政策原则。首先，科学社会主义与宗教有神论在世界观上是对立的，提出应当“实行宗教对国家来说仅仅是私人事情的原则”［11］，主张彻底实现政教分离，学校与教会分离。其次，无产阶级政党要实行宗教信仰自由。再次，反对用行政命令和警察手段禁止宗教。(二)列宁对马克思主义宗教观发展的主要思想列宁在领导俄国革命的进程中，在坚持马克思主义宗教观基本原理的基础上，结合俄国革命实际和俄国国情，阐述了一系列有关宗教问题的重要观点，实现了马克思主义宗教观在新的历史条件下的继承和发展。这些思想主要有:第一，坚持历史唯物主义的指导地位，“应当用唯物主义观点来说明群众中的信仰和宗教的根源”［12］。

Second, the roots of the existence of religion in modern capitalist countries. First, the main root of the existence of religion in modern capitalist countries is “social roots,” “the modern roots of religion are the fear of the capricious power of capital.”[13]13 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [13] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. Second, class roots and cognitive roots, “the deepest roots of religious prejudice are poverty and ignorance.”[14]14 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [14] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation.

第二，现代资本主义国家宗教存在的根源。其一，现代资本主义国家宗教存在的主要根源是“社会的根源”，“现代宗教的根源就是对资本的捉摸不定的力量的恐惧”［13］。其二，阶级根源和认识根源，“宗教偏见的最深刻的根源是贫困和愚昧”［14］。

Third, the negative role of religion in class society. First, it further emphasized the role as a spiritual tool for maintaining class rule. Lenin pointed out, “The priest comforts the oppressed, … thus making them endure this rule, giving up revolutionary action, dampening their revolutionary enthusiasm, and destroying their revolutionary determination.”[15]15 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [15] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. Second, in class society, religious leaders are part of the exploiting class, and church organizations are institutions subordinate to the exploiting class state. Third, for the ruled class, “religion is opium for the people. Religion is a kind of spiritual劣质酒, in which the slaves of capital drown their human image and their claim to any life that is at all worthy of man.”[16]16 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [16] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation.

第三，阶级社会里宗教的消极作用。其一，进一步强调了维护阶级统治的精神工具作用，列宁指出，“牧师安慰被压迫者，……从而使他们忍受这种统治，使他们放弃革命行动，打消他们的革命热情，破坏他们的革命决心。”［15］其二，在阶级社会，宗教首领是剥削阶级的一部分，教会组织是隶属于剥削阶级国家的机构。其三，对被统治阶级而言，“宗教是麻醉人民的鸦片。宗教是一种精神上的劣质酒，资本的奴隶饮了这种酒就毁坏了自己做人的形象，不再要求多少过一点人样的生活。”［16］

Fourth, the policy principles of Marxist political parties in handling religious issues. First, clearly demarcate the boundary between scientific socialism and religion, requiring both that one “must be adept at struggling against religion” [17]17 V. I. Lenin, “On the Significance of Militant Materialism,” *Collected Works*, vol. 33, p. 205. and that the “struggle against religious prejudice” must “be conducted with particular caution” [18]18 V. I. Lenin, “To A. M. Gorky,” *Collected Works*, vol. 35, p. 110., with the handling of religious issues subordinated to the general tasks of the socialist cause. Second, religion is a private matter for the state, but for the party of the working class it is not a private matter: first, freedom of religious belief is advocated; second, religious privileges are abolished, and a system of separation between church and state and between church and school is implemented; third, the “Left” error of using administrative means to forcibly prohibit or even eliminate religion is opposed; fourth, atheist propaganda and education among Party members and the masses must be strengthened. Third, attention must be paid to winning over and uniting progressive religious figures. The classical Marxist writers primarily analyzed religion from the socio-economic and political levels, adopting a relatively pronounced attitude of political critique and negation toward religion, which also affected their understanding of religion’s social role. They regarded religion as a political ideology; religion was the “opium” of the people. Although they all analyzed religion’s role in class society, pointing out that religion has a dual character of both negative and positive effects on society, they mostly focused on elaborating its negative effects, holding that religion’s negative social role outweighed its positive one, and they did not systematically analyze religion’s role in socialist society. After Lenin, socialist countries, including China, basically implemented these principles established by Marx and Engels and developed by Lenin, which had an important impact on the theoretical understanding and revolutionary practice of Chinese Communists. In handling religious issues, valuable experience was accumulated, but many mistakes were also made, leaving profound lessons and bequeathing to later Marxists the task of continuing to explore and reflect.

第四，马克思主义政党处理宗教问题的政策原则。其一，明确划清科学社会主义与宗教的界限，既要“必须善于同宗教做斗争”［17］，同时与“宗教偏见作斗争”要“必须特别慎重”［18］，处理宗教问题要服从于社会主义事业的总任务。其二，宗教对国家来说是私人的事，对工人阶级政党来说就不是私事:第一，主张宗教信仰自由;第二，消灭宗教特权，实行教会与国家、与学校相分离的制度;第三，反对用行政手段强行禁止宗教甚至消灭宗教的“左”倾错误;第四，要加强对党员和人民群众的无神论宣传教育。其三，要注意争取团结进步的宗教界人士。马恩经典作家们主要是从社会经济、政治层面对宗教进行分析，对宗教的政治性、批判性和否定性的态度比较明显，也影响到对宗教社会作用的认识。他们把宗教看作是一种政治上的意识形态，宗教是人民的“鸦片”。虽然他们都对宗教在阶级社会的作用进行过分析，指出宗教对社会具有消极和积极的两重性作用，但大多重点阐述了宗教的消极作用，认为宗教对社会的消极作用要大于积极作用，对社会主义社会中的宗教作用没有进行系统分析。在列宁之后的社会主义国家包括我国在内，基本上贯彻了马克思、恩格斯创立并由列宁发展的这些原则，对中国共产党人的理论认识和革命实践也产生了重要影响，在处理宗教问题上积累了宝贵的经验，也出现过不少失误，留下了深刻的教训，留给了后来的马克思主义者们继续进行探索和思考的任务。

II. The Innovations and Characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion

二、马克思主义宗教观中国化的创新及特点

The Sinicized Marxist view of religion correctly inherits the scientific theoretical perspectives of Marx, Engels, and Lenin on religious issues, absorbs and draws on all positive and beneficial achievements, bases itself on China’s specific national conditions and the actual religious situation of the present era, submits to and serves the practical needs of understanding and handling China’s religious issues under socialist conditions, and creatively proposes and forms a system of understanding and policy principles concerning religion that conforms to China’s national conditions, thereby achieving innovation and development of the Marxist view of religion. This is concentratedly reflected in the following:

中国化马克思主义宗教观正确继承了马克思、恩格斯、列宁关于宗教问题科学理论的观点，吸收和借鉴了一切积极有益成果，立足于中国具体国情和当今时代的宗教实际，服从服务于社会主义社会条件下认识和处理我国宗教问题的现实需要，创造性地提出和形成了符合中国国情的关于宗教的认识和政策原则体系，进而实现了对马克思主义宗教观的创新与发展。集中体现在:

(1) Regarding religion as a socio-historical phenomenon and a cultural phenomenon, and the religion of socialist society as an ideological belief among the people, breaking through the view that merely positions religion as an ideology and changing the long-held understanding of religion as the opium that narcotizes the people.

(一)把宗教看作是一种社会历史现象，一种文化现象，社会主义社会的宗教是人民内部的思想信仰，突破了仅仅把宗教定位在一种意识形态的观点，改变了长期以来视宗教为麻醉人民的鸦片的认识。

(2) The “five characteristics” or “three characteristics” of Chinese religion. The “five characteristics” refer to the features of Chinese religion: long-term nature, complexity, mass character, ethnic character, and international character. The “three characteristics” are a further summary of the “five characteristics,” referring to the fact that China’s religious issues in the socialist period are prominently manifested as long-term nature, mass character, and complexity. There are three key points: First, the existence of religion has profound social and historical roots; it will exist for a long time and continue to exert influence. Although China’s society has basically eliminated the class roots of religion’s existence, other social, natural, cognitive, and psychological roots of religion’s existence will persist for a long time, and “the ultimate disappearance of religion may take even longer than the disappearance of classes and the state” [19]19 Jiang Zemin, “On Religious Issues,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, vol. 3, p. 381.. Second, religion is intertwined with the economic, political, and cultural issues of a given society, exerting a significant impact on social development and stability. Third, religion is often interwoven with real international struggles and conflicts and is an important factor in international relations and world politics. [20]20 The “five characteristics” (五性) were formally articulated in the 1982 Central Committee document “The Basic Viewpoint and Policy on the Religious Question during Our Country’s Socialist Period” (Document 19). The “three characteristics” (三性) are a condensed formulation often used in later Party documents.

(二)中国宗教“五性”或“三性”特点。“五性”即中国宗教具有长期性、复杂性、群众性、民族性、国际性的特征，“三性”是“五性”的进一步概括，是指我国社会主义时期的宗教问题突出表现为长期性、群众性和复杂性。有三个要点:第一，宗教的存在有着深刻的社会历史根源，将会长期存在并发生作用。我国社会，虽然基本消除了宗教存在的阶级根源，但是宗教存在的其他社会根源、自然根源、认识根源、心理根源还会长期存在，“宗教走向最终消亡可能比阶级、国家的消亡还要久远”［19］。第二，宗教与一定社会的经济、政治、文化问题交织在一起，对社会的发展和稳定产生重大影响。第三，宗教常常与现实的国际斗争和冲突相交织，是国际关系和世界政治中的一个重要因素。［20］

(3) Religion in socialist society has a dual character of both positive and negative effects, and it will also be influenced by class struggle existing within a certain scope and by some complex international factors. The contradictions in China’s religious sphere are mainly contradictions among the people, but under certain conditions they may also develop into antagonistic contradictions. Therefore, on the one hand, the positive factors in religion must be fully mobilized to serve social development and stability; on the other hand, the negative factors in religion must be restrained. At the same time, “the positive factors in religion can be affirmed, but they cannot be exaggerated.” [21]21 Jiang Zemin, “On Religious Issues,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, vol. 3, p. 384.

(三)宗教在社会主义社会中具有积极和消极的两重性作用，还会受到一定范围内存在的阶级斗争和国际上一些复杂因素的影响。我国宗教方面的矛盾主要是人民内部矛盾，但在一定条件下也可能出现对抗性矛盾。因此，一方面要充分调动宗教中的积极因素为社会发展和稳定服务，另一方面要抑制宗教中的消极因素，同时，“宗教中的积极因素可以肯定，但不能夸大。”［21］

(4) Implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief. First, respecting every citizen’s freedom to believe in religion and freedom not to believe in religion. Second, upholding the unity of rights and obligations; religious activities must follow the principle of legality and law-abidingness. Third, on the premise of not hindering the beliefs of religious believers or hurting their religious feelings, persisting in ideological and political work among all believers and non-believers, and persisting in carrying out work on ideological and moral construction and scientific and cultural education.

(四)实行宗教信仰自由政策。第一，尊重每个公民信仰宗教的自由和不信仰宗教的自由;第二，坚持权利和义务的统一，宗教活动要遵循合法守法的原则。第三，在不妨碍信教群众的信仰，不伤害他们的宗教感情的前提下，坚持对所有信教和不信教群众的思想政治工作，坚持开展思想道德建设和科学文化教育工作。

(5) Managing religious affairs according to law. Legally protecting normal religious activities and the legitimate rights and interests of religious circles, stopping illegal activities carried out using religion, resisting infiltration by foreign forces using religion, and cracking down on illegal and criminal activities using religion.

(五)依法管理宗教事务。依法保护正常的宗教活动和宗教界的合法权益，制止利用宗教进行的非法活动，抵御境外利用宗教进行的渗透，打击利用宗教进行的违法犯罪活动。

(6) Adhering to the principle of independence and self-management, conducting friendly foreign exchanges on the basis of equality, and resisting infiltration by foreign forces using religion.

(六)坚持独立自主自办的原则，在平等的基础上开展宗教对外友好交往，抵御境外势力利用宗教进行的渗透。

(7) Actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society. First, religion adapting to socialist society does not require religious figures and believers to abandon their religious faith, but rather demands political love for the motherland, support for the socialist system, and support for the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Second, religious figures and believers must abide by national laws, regulations, and policies. Third, religious activities must submit to and serve the highest interests of the state and the overall interests of the nation. Fourth, religion itself must carry out self-renewal and self-adjustment based on the needs of socialist society, adapting to society, and fully excavating, utilizing, and bringing into play the positive and progressive factors in religion to serve socialism.

(七)积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应。第一，宗教适应社会主义社会不是要求宗教界人士和信教群众放弃宗教信仰，而是要求在政治上热爱祖国，拥护社会主义制度，拥护中国共产党的领导。第二，宗教界人士和信教群众要遵守国家法律法规和方针政策。第三，宗教活动要服从服务于国家的最高利益和民族的整体利益。第四，宗教自身从社会主义社会的需要出发进行自我革新和自我调整，适应社会，要充分发掘、运用和发挥宗教中积极、进步的因素为社会主义服务。

(8) Incorporating religious work into the scope of the united front, proposing the principle of political unity and cooperation combined with mutual respect in ideological belief as the basis for handling relations with patriotic religious figures, and fully leveraging the positive role of religion in promoting social harmony.

(八)将宗教工作纳入统一战线的范围，提出了政治上团结合作，思想信仰上互相尊重作为处理同宗教界爱国人士相互关系的原则，充分发挥宗教在促进社会和谐方面的积极作用。

(9) It emphasizes that in a multi-ethnic socialist state, one must be adept at discerning the distinction and connection between ethnic issues and religious issues.[22]22 The original text’s note [22] is retained as a citation marker; no additional explanation is required here as it refers to a source. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion centrally expresses the Chinese Communist Party’s basic understanding and attitude toward religion in China. It comprehensively elaborates on the definition of religion, the roots of religion, the role of religion, the national conditions of religion, religion and ethnicity, the fundamental purpose of solving religious problems, basic policies, and basic approaches. It concretizes and systematizes the series of scientific views formed by several generations of Communists in the process of studying religion and solving China’s religious problems in practice. Taking the active guidance of religion to adapt to socialist society as its main line, and aiming at fully implementing the Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief, managing religious affairs according to law, running churches independently and self-reliantly, consolidating and developing the patriotic united front with religious circles, and uniting the masses to work together for socialist modernization, it points out that the best path for handling religious problems and the fundamental direction of religious development lie in actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society. In terms of the fundamental approach to solving religious problems, it takes a long-term perspective, insists on long-termism, and, on the premise of guaranteeing freedom of religious belief, gradually eliminates the social and cognitive roots of religion through the continuous development of the economy, culture, and science and technology. The Chinese Communist Party’s series of understandings and views on religion “set a model for rational reflection on religious theory, created an atmosphere and conditions for academic innovation and prosperity,” help “promote the benign and healthy development of religion itself,” “provide a correct theoretical foundation and ideological guidance for formulating religious policies that accord with national and religious conditions and for standardizing religious administrative management regulations that conform to the characteristics of religion,” and have “special practical significance for building a harmonious society.”[23]23 The original text’s note [23] is retained as a citation marker; no additional explanation is required here as it refers to a source. This is the concentrated embodiment of the innovation and development of the Marxist view of religion in China, an important achievement of the sinicization of Marxism. It has theoretical reference significance for other socialist countries in handling religious issues, and also gives the Sinicized Marxist view of religion global significance.

(九)强调在多民族的社会主义国家，要善于体察民族问题与宗教问题的区别和联系［22］。中国化马克思主义宗教观集中表达了中国共产党对中国宗教的基本认识和态度，从宗教界定、宗教根源、宗教作用、宗教国情、宗教与民族、解决宗教问题的根本宗旨、基本政策、基本途径等方面全面进行了阐述，把几代共产党人对研究宗教、解决中国宗教问题实践过程中形成的一系列科学观点具体化、系统化，它以积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应为主线，以全面贯彻落实党的宗教信仰自由政策、依法管理宗教事务、独立自主自办教会、巩固和发展同宗教界的爱国统一战线、团结群众共同致力于社会主义现代化建设为目标，指出处理宗教问题的最佳途径和宗教发展的根本方向在于积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应，在解决宗教问题的根本途径方面，立足长远，坚持长期性，要在保障宗教信仰自由的前提下，通过不断地发展经济、文化和科学技术事业，逐步消除宗教存在的社会根源和认识根源。中国共产党对宗教的一系列认识和观点“为宗教学说的理性思考树立了典范，为学术创新和繁荣创造了氛围和条件”，有助于“推动宗教自身的良性的、健康的发展”，“为制定合乎国情、教情的宗教政策和合乎宗教特性的、规范的宗教行政管理工作法规提供了正确的理论基础和思想指导”，并对“建构和谐社会有着特殊的实践意义”［23］。这是马克思主义宗教观在中国创新和发展的集中体现，是马克思主义中国化的重要成果，为其他社会主义国家处理宗教问题具有理论上的借鉴意义，也使中国化马克思主义宗教观具有了世界意义。

The Sinicized Marxist view of religion, as the latest achievement of the sinicization of the Marxist view of religion, can be summarized as having the following characteristics:

中国化马克思主义宗教观作为马克思主义宗教观中国化的最新成果，概括起来，它具有如下特点:

First, ideological nature. Marxism is the guiding ideology for our Party’s founding and governance of the country, the banner of socialist ideology, the soul of the core socialist values system, and the common ideological foundation and powerful spiritual weapon for the united struggle of the entire Party and people of all ethnic groups across the country.[24]24 The original text’s note [24] is retained as a citation marker; no additional explanation is required here as it refers to a source. The Marxist view of religion is the theoretical generalization of Marxism in the field of religion and an organic component of Marxism. In contemporary China, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion expresses the Chinese Communist Party’s fundamental views and propositions on China’s religious issues. It not only centrally expresses, embodies, and reflects the interests and demands of the people, but also serves as a scientific guide for scientifically understanding and solving China’s religious problems, and an important spiritual weapon for guiding the broad masses to resist various erroneous understandings, establish a scientific worldview and methodology, and improve people’s comprehensive quality.

第一，意识形态性。马克思主义是我们立党立国的指导思想、社会主义意识形态的旗帜、社会主义核心价值体系的灵魂、全党全国各族人民团结奋斗的共同思想基础和强大精神武器。［24］马克思主义宗教观是马克思主义在宗教领域的理论概括，是马克思主义的有机组成部分。在当代中国，中国化马克思主义宗教观表明了中国共产党在中国宗教问题上的根本观点和主张，不但集中表达、体现、反映了人民的利益要求，也是科学认识和解决中国宗教问题的科学指南，是引导广大人民抵制各种错误认识，树立科学世界观、方法论，提高人的综合素质的重要精神武器。

Second, scientific nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion adheres to the basic principles of Marxism, embodies the scientific stance and method of Marxism, and, under new historical conditions, absorbs and draws on all positive and beneficial achievements. It is the theoretical guide for directing Chinese religion onto the development path of adapting to socialist society, and is our worldview and methodology for scientifically and correctly understanding religion and handling religious issues.

第二，科学性。中国化马克思主义宗教观坚持了马克思主义基本原理，体现了马克思主义的科学立场和方法，又在新的历史条件下吸收和借鉴了一切积极有益成果，是指引中国宗教走向与社会主义社会相适应发展道路的理论指南，是我们科学、正确认识宗教和处理宗教问题的世界观和方法论。

Third, holistic nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion runs through the dialectical unity of the scientific nature and class nature of the Marxist view of religion, theory and practice, and universality and particularity, internally linking the stance, viewpoint, and method of Marxism and their application to form a unified whole. It not only comprehensively raises the issue of the relationship between religion and socialist society, but also integrates the religious issue with the historical mission of the Marxist political party, the cause of socialism, and the comprehensive liberation of humanity. It originates from the Marxist view of religion and also runs through and is derived from the various components of Marxist philosophy, political economy, and scientific socialism, covering multiple disciplinary categories and permeating all fields and aspects of social life.

第三，整体性。中国化马克思主义宗教观把马克思主义宗教观的科学性与阶级性、理论与实践、普遍性与特殊性辩证统一的关系贯穿于内部，将马克思主义的立场、观点、方法及其运用内在地联系起来，形成了一个统一的整体。它不但全面提出了宗教与社会主义社会的关系问题，而且把宗教问题与马克思主义政党的历史使命，社会主义的事业，人的全面解放结合起来，它既来自于马克思主义宗教观，又来自并贯通于马克思主义哲学、政治经济学、科学社会主义的各组成部分中，涵盖多学科范畴，并渗透在社会生活各个领域和方面。

Fourth, practical nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion was formed in the great practice of the Chinese Communist Party leading the revolution, construction, and reform cause, and it has been continuously improved with the development of practice. In the process of integrating the Marxist view of religion with China’s specific realities, on the one hand, starting from China’s specific religious realities, it continuously tests, enriches, and develops the content of the Marxist view of religion, advancing the historical process of the sinicization of the Marxist view of religion; on the other hand, on the basis of new practice, it uses the enriched and developed Marxist view of religion, i.e., the Sinicized Marxist view of religion, to guide China’s religious practice, achieving a new combination of theory and practice, and thus possessing a strong practical nature.

第四，实践性。中国化马克思主义宗教观是在中国共产党领导革命、建设和改革事业的伟大实践中形成的，并且随着实践的发展而不断完善。在马克思主义宗教观与中国具体实际相结合的过程中，一方面，从中国具体宗教实际出发，不断检验、丰富和发展马克思主义宗教观的内容，推进马克思主义宗教观中国化的历史进程;另一方面，在新的实践基础上，用丰富和发展了的马克思主义宗教观，即中国化马克思主义宗教观来指导中国的宗教实践，实现理论与实践新的结合，具有很强的实践性。

Fifth, open nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion is a system of theoretical and policy principles that is continuously developing and open. Several generations of Chinese Communists, leading the Chinese people on the path of revolution, construction, and reform, and in the historical process of continuously advancing the sinicization of Marxism, have promoted the continuous development and improvement of the Sinicized Marxist view of religion. In the future, based on the development of the times, the evolution of religion, and the new characteristics of religious work, and on the basis of continuously exploring and summarizing the latest achievements in religious theory, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion will continue to exhibit the characteristics of continuous enrichment and development.

第五，开放性。中国化马克思主义宗教观是不断发展和开放的理论和政策原则体系。几代中国共产党人率领中国人民在革命、建设和改革事业的道路上，在不断推进马克思主义中国化的历史进程中，推动着中国化马克思主义宗教观的不断发展和完善。今后，根据时代的发展、宗教的发展演化、宗教工作的新特点，在不断探索、总结宗教理论最新成果的基础上，中国化马克思主义宗教观还将继续表现出不断丰富、不断发展的特点。

Sixth, national character. Since Marxism began to spread in China, Chinese Communists represented by Comrade Mao Zedong have focused on integrating Marxist theory with China’s specific practice, highlighting the national character of the sinicization of Marxism. The Chinese Communist Party observes and understands religion from the overall domestic and international situation, views religion from the overall needs of the development of China’s revolution, construction, and reform cause, combines the basic principles of the Marxist view of religion with China’s specific religious realities and the rich experience of China’s religious work, and applies it according to China’s characteristics, giving it distinct Chinese characteristics and Chinese style, ultimately achieving a great theoretical leap.

第六，民族性。自从马克思主义在中国传播开始，以毛泽东同志等为代表的中国共产党人，就注重把马克思主义理论与中国具体实践相结合，突出马克思主义中国化的民族性。中国共产党从国际国内的大局出发去观察、认识宗教，从中国革命、建设和改革事业发展的整体需要看待宗教，把马克思主义宗教观的基本原理与中国宗教的具体实际、中国宗教工作的丰富经验相结合，按照中国的特点去应用它，使之具有明显的中国特色、中国气派，最终实现了理论上的巨大飞跃。

III. Basic Concepts of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion

三、马克思主义宗教观中国化的基本概念

Since Marxism was introduced into China, took root, sprouted, and flourished, especially after it became the guiding ideology of the Chinese Communist Party, in the process of nearly a century of studying and disseminating Marxism and realizing the sinicization of Marxism, Chinese Communists have achieved fruitful results and profound experiences in inheriting, applying, and developing the Marxist view of religion in China, forming relatively mature attitudes and practices, and leaving us with very valuable experience.

马克思主义传入中国，在中国生根发芽并蓬勃生长，特别是成为中国共产党的指导思想以后，在近一个世纪研究传播马克思主义、实现马克思主义中国化的过程中，中国共产党人对马克思主义宗教观在中国的继承、运用、发展取得了丰硕成果和深刻体验，形成了比较成熟的态度和做法，留给我们十分宝贵的经验。

(1) It is necessary to adhere to the basic principles of the Marxist view of religion

(一)必须要坚持马克思主义宗教观的基本原理

Adhering to the basic principles of historical materialism is the fundamental prerequisite for the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. The basic principles of the Marxist view of religion include two levels. The first level is the Marxist worldview and methodology, that is, what is commonly referred to as standpoints, viewpoints, and methods. [25]25 The Chinese term “立场、观点和方法” (standpoints, viewpoints, and methods) is a standard formulation in CPC discourse, referring to the fundamental orientation, theoretical perspectives, and methodological approaches of Marxism. As for its basic standpoints, they are the materialist standpoint, the standpoint of the proletariat, and the standpoint of the masses of the people. As for its basic viewpoints, they are the materialist viewpoint, the dialectical viewpoint, the practical viewpoint, the class viewpoint, the mass viewpoint, and the viewpoint of human emancipation. These are the most fundamental viewpoints from which we observe, analyze, and handle religious issues. As for its methods, they are the method of seeking truth from facts, the historical-dialectical method, the method of contradiction analysis, the method of class analysis, the mass-line method, the practical method, and so on. These are direct forms of applying the basic principles and viewpoints of Marxism, and they are scientifically effective cognitive tools and ideological weapons. The second level is the core theories of historical materialism, such as the dialectical theories of social being and social consciousness, productive forces and relations of production, and economic base and superstructure. These are theories within the Marxist view of religion that are fundamental, foundational, and possess universal guiding significance; they are the most basic ideological viewpoints consistently emphasized and upheld by Marxists across generations. Of course, some specific judgments Marx and Engels made about religious issues under the particular conditions of their time may no longer be fully applicable to today’s reality. However, the basic principles expounded by the Marxist view of religion still play a scientifically and rationally guiding role as a worldview and methodology in explaining religious phenomena, analyzing religious issues, and solving religious problems. Their scientific validity endures, and they still possess a powerful vitality to this day. [26]26 The Chinese term “生命力” (vitality) is frequently used in CPC theoretical texts to denote the enduring relevance and dynamic applicability of a theory. If these basic principles are abandoned, one will deviate from Marxism, move toward the opposite of the Marxist view of religion, and the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion will be out of the question.

坚持历史唯物主义的基本原理，这是马克思主义宗教观中国化的基本前提。马克思主义宗教观的基本原理包括两个层次:第一层次是马克思主义的世界观和方法论，即通常所说的立场、观点和方法。［25］就其基本立场而言，是唯物主义的立场，是无产阶级的立场，人民大众的立场;就其基本观点而言，是唯物的观点、辩证的观点、实践的观点、阶级的观点、群众的观点、人类解放的观点。这些是我们观察、分析和处理宗教问题的最基本的观点;就其方法而言，是实事求是的方法、历史的辩证方法、矛盾分析方法、阶级分析方法、群众路线方法、实践方法等等，是马克思主义基本原理和观点的直接运用形式，是科学有效的认识工具和思想武器。第二个层次，就是历史唯物主义的核心理论，比如关于社会存在和社会意识、生产力和生产关系、经济基础和上层建筑的辩证关系的理论，这是马克思主义宗教观中带有根本性、基础性的，并且具有普遍指导意义的理论，是历代马克思主义者一致强调和坚持的最基本的思想观点。当然，马克思、恩格斯针对当时特定条件下宗教问题的一些具体论断可能已不完全适用于今天的现实，但是马克思主义宗教观所阐述的基本原理，到今天为止在解释宗教现象、分析、解决宗教问题等方面仍然具有科学、合理的世界观、方法论指导作用，其科学性是长存的，至今仍然有着强大的生命力。［26］如果放弃这些基本原理，就会背离马克思主义，就会走向马克思主义宗教观的反面，更谈不上马克思主义宗教观的中国化。

(2) The Marxist view of religion must be grounded in China’s specific national conditions

(二)马克思主义宗教观必须立足中国具体国情

China’s religious reality is the basic starting point and source of vitality for the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. The Marxist view of religion reflects the basic views of Marxists on religion. It consists of basic principles and general conclusions abstracted from the study of religious phenomena. Only by integrating with China’s specific religious national conditions can the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion be realized, forming a theoretical system that conforms to China’s reality and thereby exerting its guiding role. The formation, development, inheritance, and innovation of the Marxist view of religion also reflect a process of continuous integration with specific historical conditions. When Marx and Engels studied religion and founded the Marxist view of religion, they based themselves on Western Europe in the mid-19th century, aiming to serve and support the working class in creating a new worldview, thereby establishing the theory of scientific socialism and providing theoretical guidance for the proletarian revolution. Lenin, in inheriting and developing the Marxist view of religion, aimed to fulfill the historical mission of using imperialist wars to launch a proletarian revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. [27]27 The phrase “利用帝国主义战争，发动无产阶级革命” (using imperialist wars to launch a proletarian revolution) refers to Lenin’s strategy during World War I of turning the imperialist war into a civil war to advance socialist revolution. The formation and development of the Sinicized Marxist view of religion is the result of several generations of Chinese Communists correctly inheriting the scientific theoretical viewpoints of the classical Marxist writers on religion, grounding themselves in China’s specific national conditions, scientifically summarizing both positive and negative experiences on religious issues, and absorbing and drawing on all previous positive and beneficial achievements, thereby forming a system of scientific understanding and policy principles that conform to China’s religious national conditions. Without China’s specific national conditions, and divorced from China’s specific social and historical conditions, the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion would be impossible.

中国的宗教实际是马克思主义宗教观中国化的基本起点和活力源泉。马克思主义宗教观反映的是马克思主义者对宗教的基本观点，它是对宗教现象进行研究后概括抽象出来的基本原理和一般结论，只有与中国具体的宗教国情相结合，才有可能实现马克思主义宗教观的中国化，形成符合中国实际的理论体系，从而发挥其指导作用。马克思主义宗教观的形成、发展和继承、创新也反映了与具体历史条件不断结合的过程。马克思、恩格斯研究宗教、创立马克思主义宗教观，是立足于19世纪中期的西欧，是为了服从、服务于工人阶级创立新的世界观，进而确立科学社会主义理论，为无产阶级革命给予理论上的指导。而列宁继承和发展马克思主义宗教观其目的是为了完成利用帝国主义战争，发动无产阶级革命，建立无产阶级专政的历史使命。［27］中国化马克思主义宗教观的形成与发展，就是几代中国共产党人通过正确继承马克思主义经典作家关于宗教的科学理论观点，立足中国具体国情，科学总结在宗教问题上正反两方面经验，吸收和借鉴了以往一切积极有益成果的基础上，才形成的符合中国宗教国情的科学认识和政策原则体系。离开了中国具体国情，脱离开中国的具体社会历史条件，马克思主义宗教观中国化便无从谈起。

(3) The Marxist view of religion must undergo new enrichment and development

(三)马克思主义宗教观必须要有新的丰富和发展

From Marx and Engels to Lenin, the Marxist view of religion they founded, inherited, and developed contains extremely important universal scientific principles, but inevitably also includes many specific judgments and viewpoints that are products of theoretical innovation under the particular characteristics of specific eras and specific national conditions. Although they left behind many classic expositions on religious issues that still shine with the brilliance of truth, it is undeniable that many of their specific discussions on religion are no longer applicable to the reality of China’s socialist society today. For example, statements such as “religion is the opium of the people,” the theory of the “religious cloak,” the claim that “religion is a kind of spiritual劣质酒” [poor-quality liquor], and the theory of “struggle against religion” all need to be re-evaluated and must not be mechanically copied. The practice of China’s revolution, construction, and reform shows that mechanically copying the Marxist view of religion leads to errors and setbacks in the cause, a lesson that has left us with many profound experiences. Therefore, Marxism must be viewed with a developmental perspective, and the Marxist view of religion must be continuously developed in practice, so that the Party’s religious theory and work better reflect the character of the times, grasp the laws of development, and be rich in creativity. Only by keeping the Marxist view of religion vibrant and dynamic can it fully unleash its immense power to guide practice. This requires us to proceed from reality in everything, seek truth from facts, emancipate the mind, and, on the basis of adhering to the Marxist view of religion, draw on and absorb all outstanding achievements of human civilization, base ourselves on the actual religious conditions of our country, grasp global religious development trends, boldly engage in theoretical innovation, and continuously advance the process of Sinicizing the Marxist view of religion.

从马克思、恩格斯到列宁，他们创立、继承和发展的马克思主义宗教观，包含了极其重要的普遍性的科学原理，又必然地存在许多特殊的具体论断和观点，都是特定时代特点、特定国情下的理论创新成果。虽然他们就宗教问题留下了许多经典性的论述，至今闪耀着真理的光辉，但也不可否认他们的宗教理论中有不少关于宗教的具体论述已经不适用于今天的中国社会主义社会的现实。比如，关于“宗教是人民的鸦片”，“宗教外衣”论，“宗教是一种精神上的劣质酒”，“与宗教斗争”论，等等，都需要重新进行认识，决不能简单照搬。中国革命、建设和改革的实践表明，机械地照搬马克思主义宗教观，就会导致事业的失误和挫折，这已经留给了我们许多深刻的教训。因此，要以发展的眼光看待马克思主义，在实践中不断发展马克思主义宗教观，使党的宗教理论和工作更好地体现时代性，把握规律性，富于创造性，使马克思主义宗教观保持生机与活力，才能充分发挥其指导实践的巨大威力。这就要求我们，一切从实际出发，实事求是，解放思想，在坚持马克思主义宗教观的基础上，借鉴吸收人类文明的一切优秀成果，根据本国宗教实际，把握世界宗教发展趋势，大胆进行理论创新，不断推进马克思主义宗教观中国化的进程。

In summary, the Marxist view of religion inherited and developed by the Communist Party of China is not only an important source of the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, but its main part has also become one of its important components. It is the fundamental guide for the CPC to resolve China’s religious issues under socialist conditions. It has historically, comprehensively, correctly, and profoundly answered the basic theoretical questions concerning religion. It is an important guiding ideology for us to do a good job in religious work, build harmonious religious relations, maintain ethnic unity and social stability, promote national reunification, develop the political, economic, and cultural aspects of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and build a harmonious society. Under the new historical conditions, under the leadership of the CPC, there is reason to firmly believe that on the path of Sinicizing Marxism that has been opened up, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion will continue to be enriched, perfected, and developed, further exerting its powerful theoretical guiding role in handling religious issues within the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics.

总之，中国共产党继承并发展了的马克思主义宗教观，既是中国特色社会主义理论体系的重要来源，其主体部分又成为它的重要组成部分之一，是中国共产党在社会主义条件下，解决中国宗教问题的根本指南。它历史、全面、正确、深刻地回答了关于宗教的基本理论问题，是我们做好宗教工作，建设和谐宗教关系，维护民族团结和社会稳定，促进祖国统一和发展中国特色社会主义的政治经济文化和建设和谐社会的重要指导思想。在新的历史条件下，在中国共产党的领导下，有理由坚信，在开辟的马克思主义中国化道路上，中国化马克思主义宗教观会不断地继续得以丰富、完善和发展，进一步发挥它在中国特色社会主义事业中处理宗教问题强大的理论指导作用。

References:

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[1]1 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [1] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. Chen Rongfu. *A Study of the Marxist View of Religion* [M]. Chengdu: Sichuan Publishing Group, Sichuan People’s Publishing House, 2008: 25.

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[2]2 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [2] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. Zhang Zhigang. *A Guide to Religious Studies* [M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2005: 438.

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[3]3 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [3] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. *Selected Works of Marx and Engels* (Vol. 2) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995: 32.

［3］马克思恩格斯选集(第2卷)［M］.北京:人民出版社，1995:32.

[4]4 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [4] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [5]5 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [5] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [6]6 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [6] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [10]10 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [10] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. *Selected Works of Marx and Engels* (Vol. 3) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995: 209, 666–667, 208, 668.

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[6]6 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [6] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [8]8 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [8] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [9]9 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [9] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. *Selected Works of Marx and Engels* (Vol. 1) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995: 1, 1, 2.

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[7]7 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [7] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. *Complete Works of Marx and Engels* (Vol. 25) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2001: 556.

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[11]11 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [11] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. *Complete Works of Marx and Engels* (Vol. 22) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1965: 223.

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[12]12 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [12] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [13]13 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [13] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [15]15 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [15] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [17]17 V. I. Lenin, “On the Significance of Militant Materialism,” *Collected Works*, vol. 33, p. 205. *Selected Works of Lenin* (Vol. 2) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995: 250, 251, 478, 250.

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[14]14 The original Chinese text includes a superscript reference marker [14] here, which corresponds to a footnote in the source material. This note is retained as a citation marker in the translation. [18]18 V. I. Lenin, “To A. M. Gorky,” *Collected Works*, vol. 35, p. 110. *Complete Works of Lenin* (Vol. 28) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1990: 163, 163.

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[19]19 Jiang Zemin, “On Religious Issues,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, vol. 3, p. 381. [20]20 The “five characteristics” (五性) were formally articulated in the 1982 Central Committee document “The Basic Viewpoint and Policy on the Religious Question during Our Country’s Socialist Period” (Document 19). The “three characteristics” (三性) are a condensed formulation often used in later Party documents. [21]21 Jiang Zemin, “On Religious Issues,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, vol. 3, p. 384. *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin* (Vol. 3) [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006: 380, 375–377, 389.

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[23]23 The original text’s note [23] is retained as a citation marker; no additional explanation is required here as it refers to a source. Fang Litian. "On the Sinicized Marxist View of Religion" [A]. Edited by the Theoretical Bureau of the Propaganda Department of the CPC Central Committee. *Selected Reference Materials for the 2005 Marxist Theoretical Research and Construction Project* [C]. Beijing: Xuexi Press, 2006: 437.

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[24]24 The original text’s note [24] is retained as a citation marker; no additional explanation is required here as it refers to a source. Fang Shinan. *Research on the Reform and Innovation of Marxist Ideological and Political Theory Courses in Higher Education* [M]. Beijing: People's Press, 2007: 1.

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[25]25 The Chinese term “立场、观点和方法” (standpoints, viewpoints, and methods) is a standard formulation in CPC discourse, referring to the fundamental orientation, theoretical perspectives, and methodological approaches of Marxism. Gu Hailiang, Mei Rongzheng. *Report on the Development of Philosophy and Social Sciences in Chinese Higher Education: 1978–2008, Marxist Theory* [R]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2008: 126.

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[26]26 The Chinese term “生命力” (vitality) is frequently used in CPC theoretical texts to denote the enduring relevance and dynamic applicability of a theory. Gong Xuezeng. "On the Sinicization of the Marxist-Leninist View of Religion" [J]. *Journal of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee*, 2005, (4).

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[27]27 The phrase “利用帝国主义战争，发动无产阶级革命” (using imperialist wars to launch a proletarian revolution) refers to Lenin’s strategy during World War I of turning the imperialist war into a civil war to advance socialist revolution. Cheng Guangyun. "A Complete and Accurate Understanding of the Marxist View of Religion" [J]. *Marxist Studies*, 2004, (3).

［27］程广云.完整准确地理解马克思主义宗教观［J］.马克思主义研究，2004，(3).