On Freedom of Religious Belief and the Choice of Belief among University Students

I. The Basic Categories of Religious Belief

一、宗教信仰的基本范畴

(1) The Definition of Religion and Religious Belief

（一）宗教和宗教信仰的界定

Religion is a social phenomenon that emerges when human society has developed to a certain historical stage and human thinking ability has reached a certain level. As an ideology, religion first manifests as a specific form of ideological belief; at the same time, religion is also a cultural phenomenon that has historically made significant contributions to society’s culture, civilization, and social progress. Religion is an important component of world civilization. Religion advances in step with human civilization. All countries and all nations in the world have different religions in existence, and different religions also reflect different social cultures, national customs, legal consciousness, and political systems; religion is a universal cultural phenomenon in human society. In present-day China, religion refers to Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism (including Eastern Orthodoxy) that are prevalent in China, believed by some of the populace, and protected by the national constitution and laws.

宗教是人类社会发展到一定历史阶段，人类思维能力发展到一定水平以后产生的社会现象。宗教作为意识形态，首先表现为一种特定形式的思想信仰；同时宗教也是一种文化现象，在历史上曾对社会的文化、文明和社会进步做出过很大贡献。宗教是世界文明的一个重要组成部分。宗教与人类文明同步。世界上一切国家，一切民族，都有不同的宗教存在，不同的宗教也反映了不同的社会文化、民族习惯、法律意识和政治制度，宗教是人类社会普遍的文化现象。当今我国的宗教，是指流传于我国并被部分群众所信奉，并且受到国家宪法和法律保护的佛教、道教、伊斯兰教、天主教和基督教（东正教）等。

Religious belief refers to the unwavering conviction and total devotion that people who believe in a specific religion hold toward the sacred objects of their faith (including specific doctrines and teachings), arising from worship and identification. This ideological conviction and total devotion are expressed in and run through specific religious rituals and activities, and are used to guide and regulate one’s behavior in secular society. It belongs to a special form of social ideology and cultural phenomenon.

宗教信仰，是指信奉某种特定宗教的人们对所信仰的神圣对象（包括特定的教理教义等），由崇拜认同而产生的坚定不移的信念及全身心的皈依。这种思想信念和全身心的皈依表现和贯穿于特定的宗教仪式和宗教活动中，并用来指导和规范自己在世俗社会中的行为。它属于一种特殊的社会意识形态和文化现象。

(2) The Emergence and Essence of Religious Belief

（二）宗教信仰的产生和本质

1. The Dual Role of Natural and Social Forces

1.自然力量和社会力量的双重作用

In primitive society, because the productive forces were extremely backward, humans were integrated with nature. Unable to explain the unpredictability of the natural world, people were both dependent on and fearful of nature, leading to the emergence of totem worship, taking the sun, moon, stars, wind, rain, earth, animals, plants, etc., as objects of worship. Marx regarded this “natural religion” as “a purely animal-like consciousness of nature.”[1]1 The Common Program (共同纲领) was the provisional constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted in 1949 before the formal constitution was enacted in 1954.35 By the clan society, spirit worship also appeared, taking the souls of ancestors as a form of religious belief. Soul worship was an important form of primitive religion; it marked the shift of human worship objects from the material to the spiritual, a leap in the development of religion.

原始社会由于生产力极其落后，人与自然混为一体。对于自然界的变幻莫测无法解释，人们对自然既依赖又恐惧，于是出现了图腾崇拜，把日、月、星辰、风、雨、土、动物、植物等作为崇拜对象。马克思把这种“自然宗教”看成是“对自然界的一种纯粹动物式的意识”[1]35。到了氏族社会还出现了神灵崇拜，把祖先的灵魂为崇拜的一种宗教信仰形式。灵魂崇拜是原始宗教的重要形式，它标志着人类的崇拜对象由实物转向精神，这是宗教发展的一个飞跃。

Entering class society, the oppression people suffered came from both natural forces and social forces. Seeking spiritual comfort, they transformed their demands in reality into hopes for the heavenly kingdom. Thus, the supreme ruler of the secular world evolved into the supreme ruler in heaven, becoming the god who governs the universe. The “spontaneous religion” of primitive society developed into a conscious “artificial religion.”

进入阶级社会，人们受到的压迫来自自然力量和社会力量两个方面。为了寻求精神上的安慰，于是把对于现实的需求转化为对于天国的希望。于是，世俗世界的最高统治者也就演变成天上的最高统治者，成为主宰宇宙的神。原始社会的“自发宗教”发展成为有意识的“人为宗教”。

2. The Basis for the Emergence of Religious Belief

2.宗教信仰的产生基础

(1) Social roots—In class society and its forms, social forces are always elusive and difficult to deal with for people. When reality is perplexing and frightening, it is easy for people to develop a longing for mythical alien forces; this is the fundamental cause of the emergence of religion.

（1）社会根源—在阶级社会和形态中，社会力量对于人们来说，都是难以捉摸和难以对付的。当现实令人困惑和恐惧时，很容易让人产生对神话的异己力量的渴望，这是宗教产生的根本原因。

(2) Epistemological roots—The human cognitive process follows the cyclical law of “practice—cognition—re-practice—re-cognition,” moving from perceptual knowledge to rational knowledge, and it cannot but be limited by subjective and objective conditions. For example, in the understanding of dreams, life and death, “people will replace the real, yet unknown system with a new, unconscious or gradually conscious mysterious providence.”[1]1 The Common Program (共同纲领) was the provisional constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted in 1949 before the formal constitution was enacted in 1954.242 This laid the epistemological foundation for the emergence of religion.

（2）认识根源—人的认识过程是遵循着“实践—认识—再实践—再认识”的循环反复的规律进行的，是从感性认识再上升到理性认识的，它不能不受到主观条件和客观条件的限制。如对梦的认识、生和死的认识“，人们会用一种新的不自觉的或逐渐自觉的神秘的天意来代替现实的、尚未知道的体系。”[1]242这就为宗教的出现奠定了认识基础。

(3) Psychological roots—Religious belief is a psychological activity related to human cognition, emotion, and will; it is mainly composed of emotions such as fear, inferiority, curiosity, combined with imagination, imitation, and other psychological activities, forming worship, supplication, and similar sentiments. These sentiments became the psychological basis for the emergence of religion.

（3）心理根源—宗教信仰是一种和人的认识、情感、意志等有关的心理活动，它主要是由某种恐惧、自卑、好奇加以想象、模仿等心理活动构成的崇拜、乞怜等情绪。这些情绪成了宗教产生的心理基础。

3. The Essence of Religious Belief

3.宗教信仰的本质

Marx regarded religion as “the feeling of a heartless world,” which conforms to the essence of religion. Marx also pointed out: “Religion is the opium of the people.” Lenin said: “Religion is a kind of spiritual劣质酒 [poor-quality liquor],” “the spiritual oppression that weighs down the masses everywhere, who are condemned to eternal toil for others, to poverty and solitude.”[2]2 Document No. 19 (1982) of the Central Committee of the CPC is a key policy document that established the Party’s basic stance on religious affairs during the socialist period, emphasizing freedom of belief while maintaining state regulation.62 Therefore, religious belief is a distorted and illusory reflection of the alienated social relations in class society, a manifestation of the negation of human essence and of humanity itself.

马克思把宗教看成是“无情世界的感情”，是符合宗教的本质的。马克思还指出“：宗教是人民的鸦片。”列宁说“：宗教是一种精神上的劣质酒”，“是终身给他人劳作、为穷困和孤独紧压着人民群众到处蒙受的精神压迫的一种”[2]62。因此宗教信仰是对阶级社会异化的社会关系的歪曲的虚幻的反应，是人的本质和对人的否定的表现。

(3) Interpretation of Freedom of Religious Belief

（三）宗教信仰自由的诠释

1. Freedom of Religious Belief Has a Legal Basis

1.宗教信仰自由于法有据

(1) Article 5 of the Common Program adopted at the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference on September 29, 1949, stipulated: The people of the People’s Republic of China have the freedom of religious belief. (2) The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1954 stipulated: “Citizens of the People’s Republic of China have the freedom of religious belief.” (3) In the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted at the Fifth Session of the Fifth National People’s Congress on December 4, 1982, freedom of religious belief is a fundamental right of citizens. Article 36 of the Constitution stipulates: “Citizens of the People’s Republic of China have freedom of religious belief.” “No state organ, social organization, or individual may compel citizens to believe in or not believe in religion, nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in religion or those who do not.” “The state protects normal religious activities.” It also stipulates: “No one may use religion to engage in activities that disrupt social order, harm the health of citizens, or obstruct the state’s educational system.” “Religious groups and religious affairs are not subject to the domination of foreign forces.” (4) The Basic Views and Basic Policies on the Religious Question during the Socialist Period in Our Country formulated by the Party Central Committee (i.e., Document No. 19 [1982] of the Central Committee of the CPC) pointed out: “Every citizen has the freedom to believe in religion and also the freedom not to believe in religion; the freedom to believe in this religion and also the freedom to believe in that religion; within the same religion, the freedom to believe in this sect and also the freedom to believe in that sect; the freedom to have not believed in the past but to believe now, and also the freedom to have believed in the past but not to believe now.” (5) In January 1994, the Chinese government promulgated the Regulations on the Administration of Religious Activity Venues to protect the legitimate rights and interests of religious activity venues. (6) In February 1994, the Chinese government also promulgated the Provisions on the Administration of Religious Activities of Foreigners within the Territory of the People’s Republic of China, respecting the freedom of religious belief of foreigners in China and protecting friendly exchanges and cultural and academic exchanges between foreigners and Chinese religious circles in religious matters. (7) Article 251 of China’s Criminal Law stipulates: State functionaries who illegally deprive citizens of their legitimate freedom of religious belief or infringe upon the customs and habits of ethnic minorities, if the circumstances are serious, shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than two years or criminal detention. Therefore, legitimate religious belief is protected by national law. For university students, it is necessary to clearly understand what true religion is and not blindly believe in so-called “religions.” (8) China’s General Principles of the Civil Law, Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy, Education Law, Compulsory Education Law, Organic Law of Village Committees, and other laws also stipulate: Citizens, regardless of religious belief, enjoy the right to vote and stand for election; the lawful property of religious groups is protected by law; education is separated from religion; citizens, regardless of religious belief, enjoy equal educational opportunities according to law; people of all ethnic groups must respect each other’s languages, customs, and religious beliefs; citizens shall not be discriminated against in employment due to differences in religious belief; advertisements and trademarks shall not contain content that discriminates against ethnic groups or religions.

（1）1949年9月29日全国政协第一届全体会议通过的《共同纲领》第5条规定：中华人民共和国人民有宗教信仰的自由权。（2）1954年公布的中华人民共和国宪法规定：“中华人民共和国公民有宗教信仰的自由”。（3）1982年12月4日全国人大五届五次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》中，宗教信仰自由是公民的一项基本权利。宪法第36条规定“:中华人民共和国公民有宗教信仰自由。“”任何国家机关、社会团体和个人不得强制公民信仰宗教或者不信仰宗教，不得歧视信仰宗教的公民和不信仰宗教的公民。”“国家保护正常的宗教活动。”同时也规定：“任何人不得利用宗教进行破坏社会秩序、损害公民身体健康、妨碍国家教育制度的活动。“”宗教团体和宗教事务不受外国势力的支配。”（4）中共中央制定的《关于我国社会主义时期宗教问题的基本观点和基本政策》（即中发[1982]19号文件）指出“：每个公民既有信仰宗教的自由，也有不信仰宗教的自由；有信仰这种宗教的自由，也有信仰那种宗教的自由；在同一宗教里面，有信仰这个教派的自由，也有信仰那个教派的自由；有过去不信教而现在信教的自由，也有过去信教现在不信教的自由。”（5）1994年1月，中国政府颁布了《宗教活动场所管理条例》，以维护宗教活动场所的合法权益。（6）1994年2月，中国政府还颁布了《中华人民共和国境内外国人宗教活动管理规定》，尊重在中国境内的外国人的宗教信仰自由，保护外国人在宗教方面同中国宗教界进行的友好往来和文化学术交流活动。（7）我国《刑法》251条规定：国家工作人员非法剥夺公民正当的宗教信仰自由和侵犯少数民族风俗习惯，情节严重的，处2年以下有期徒刑或者拘役。因此正当的宗教信仰是受到国家法律保护的，对与大学生来说，要清醒地认识什么是真正的宗教，不能盲目的信仰所谓的“宗教”。（8）我国《民法通则》、《民族区域自治法》、《教育法》、《义务教育法》、《村民委员会组织法》等法律还规定：公民不分宗教信仰都享有选举权和被选举权；宗教团体的合法财产受法律保护；教育与宗教相分离，公民不分宗教信仰依法享有平等的受教育机会；各民族人民都要互相尊重语言文字、风俗习惯和宗教信仰；公民在就业上不因宗教信仰不同而受歧视；广告、商标不得含有对民族、宗教歧视性内容。

2. Freedom of Religious Belief Is a Private Matter of the Individual

2.宗教信仰自由是个人的私事

A person’s conversion to a particular religion is brought about by various factors, and what religious belief he chooses should be regarded as his personal affair. What needs to be emphasized here is whether a member of the Communist Party can believe in religion, burning incense, worshipping Buddha, and praying just like ordinary believers. The nature and program of the Party fundamentally determine that its members can only be atheists, not religious adherents. A Communist Party member should firmly believe in Marxism, using the Marxist worldview and historical outlook to understand nature and society, and to guide his work and life. If he believes in a religion, he deviates from the Party’s ideological foundation—Marxist dialectical materialism and historical materialism—and loses the advanced nature of a Party member. The Constitution stipulates the protection of citizens’ freedom of religious belief, but this cannot become a reason for Party members to believe in religion. Advocating that religious belief is a personal private matter has ample justification, but it is premised on not infringing upon the freedom and rights of the state, society, and others. Activities that use freedom of religious belief to split the motherland, undermine national unity, sabotage socialist construction, and obstruct the national education system must be stopped. If one believes in religion and engages in the above activities, severe sanctions will also be imposed. While enjoying the right to freedom of religious belief, citizens must also assume the obligations stipulated by law. In our country, any person or any group, including any religion, must uphold the interests of the people, uphold the dignity of the law, uphold national unity, and uphold the unity of the country. This is consistent with the relevant content of United Nations human rights instruments and conventions.

一个人皈依某一种宗教，是由各种因素促成的，他选择什么样的宗教信仰，应当看做是他个人的事。这里需要强调的是，共产党员能否信仰宗教，和普通教徒一样烧香、拜佛、做祷告，党的性质和纲领从根本上决定了它的成员只能是无神论者，而不能是宗教徒。一个共产党员应当坚定的信仰马克思主义，用马克思主义世界观和历史观去认识自然和社会，指导自己的工作和生活。如果信奉宗教，就背离了党的思想基础—马克思主义的辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义，失去了党员的先进性。宪法规定保护公民的宗教信仰自由，但这并不能成为党员信奉宗教的理由。提倡宗教信仰是个人的私事，有充分的理由，但他是以不能妨碍国家、社会和别人的自由权利为前提的。对于那些利用宗教信仰自由，进行分裂祖国、破坏民族团结、破坏社会主义建设和妨碍国家教育制度的活动，必须予以制止。如果信仰宗教进行上述活动也是要受到严厉的制裁的。公民在享有宗教信仰自由权利的同时，必须承担法律所规定的义务。在我国，任何人、任何团体，包括任何宗教，都应当维护人民利益，维护法律尊严，维护民族团结，维护国家统一。这与联合国人权文书和公约的有关内容是一致的。

3. Religious belief is a matter of people’s spiritual world

3.宗教信仰是人的精神世界的问题

Mao Zedong pointed out: “Within the ranks of the people, we allow diversity of opinion, that is, the freedom to criticize, the freedom to express different opinions, and the freedom to propagate theism and propagate atheism (i.e., materialism).” [3]157 Religious belief is a matter of people’s spiritual world, and the right to choose religious belief must be protected. The emergence and extinction of religion is a long historical process. Before the historical conditions for its extinction mature, its existence has its objective inevitability, and there will be people who believe in religion.

毛泽东指出：“我们在人民内部，是允许舆论不一律的，这就是批评的自由，发表各种不同意见的自由，宣传有神论和宣传无神论(即唯物论)的自由。”[3]157宗教信仰是人的精神世界的问题，必须予以保护选择宗教信仰的自由权利。宗教的产生和消亡是一个漫长的历史过程，在其消亡的历史条件成熟以前，它的存在有其客观必然性，也就会有人信仰宗教。

II. The Choice of Belief among Young Students

二、青年学生的信仰选择

(1) Strengthening the cultivation of Marxist theory, studying the basic theories of scientific socialism and communism

（一）加强马克思主义理论修养，学习科学社会主义、共产主义的基本理论

In real life, the fundamental reason why some young students doubt and waver in their communist belief is that they have never seriously and systematically studied the basic theories of Marxism, having only a smattering of knowledge about Marxism, or even hearsay. Once socialism and communism encounter difficulties and setbacks in their development process, they consider Marxism an unrealistic “fantasy,” and then lose confidence in socialism and communism, feel confused, and waver. Practice has proven that only through systematic study and in-depth research on the basic principles of Marxism can one be attracted and convinced by the great thought of Marxism, thereby firmly believing in its scientific nature and the inevitability of its realization, and truly establishing a firm Marxist belief.

在现实生活中，一些青年学生之所以对共产主义信仰产生怀疑和动摇，其根本原因就在于他们从来没有认真地、系统地学习马克思主义的基本理论，对马克思主义仅仅是一知半解，甚至是道听途说。一旦社会主义共产主义在其发展的进程中遇到了困难和挫折，他们就认为马克思主义是不切实际的“幻想”，进而对社会主义和共产主义丧失信心，感到迷惘，发生动摇。实践证明，只有对马克思主义基本原理进行系统学习和深入研究，才能被马克思主义的伟大思想所吸引、所折服，从而坚信它的科学性及其实现的必然性，真正确立起坚定的马克思主义信仰。

(2) Establishing a scientific worldview and outlook on life

（二）树立科学的世界观、人生观

If a person does not have a correct worldview and outlook on life, and does not have the spirit of dedication to the development of social history, no matter what belief he chooses, even if driven by a momentary impulse, producing very strong and intense enthusiasm, it will eventually become fragile. Arm one’s mind with Marxist thought, establish and practice the socialist core value system. Only by being guided by the Marxist scientific worldview and outlook on life can one correctly understand the purpose and meaning of life. As long as one firmly establishes the Marxist life belief, one will be vigorous and unswerving in the face of any difficulty. University students should set lofty goals and life ideals, cherish the precious time on campus, cherish the fleeting years of youth, focus on study, prioritize the future, stimulate strength, study diligently, and strive upward.

一个人如果没有正确的世界观和人生观，没有为社会历史的发展而献身的精神，无论选择任何信仰，即使为一时的冲动所驱使，产生非常强烈、激昂的热情，到头来会变得脆弱。以马克思主义思想武装自己的头脑，树立和践行社会主义核心价值体系，只有以马克思主的科学世界观和人生观为指导，才能正确的了解人生的目的和意义，只要坚定确立马克思主义的人生信仰，在任何困难面前都会朝气蓬勃，矢志不移。大学生要树立远大的目标和人生理想，珍惜校园宝贵的时光，珍惜稍纵即逝的青春年华，以学习为主，以前途为重，激发力量，刻苦读书、奋发向上。

(3) Understanding the policies and regulations related to religious work in our country’s universities

（三）了解我国高校有关宗教工作的政策法规

University students correctly understanding and dealing with religious issues is necessary for governing the school according to law and maintaining campus and social stability. Article 8 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates: “The state implements the separation of education from religion. No organization or individual may use religion to carry out activities that obstruct the national education system.” Article 43 of the “Regulations on the Administration of Students in Ordinary Institutions of Higher Education” promulgated by the Ministry of Education clearly stipulates: “No organization or individual may engage in religious activities within the school.” Strengthening religious work in universities is a fundamental requirement for upholding national laws and the education system, a basic need for maintaining normal school order and a good educational environment, and an important part of governing the school according to law.

大学生正确认识和对待宗教问题，是依法治校、维护校园和社会稳定的需要。中华人民共和国教育法第八条规定“国家实行教育与宗教相分离。任何组织和个人不得利用宗教进行妨碍国家教育制度的活动。”教育部颁布的《普通高等学校学生管理规定》中第43条明确规定“：任何组织和个人不得在学校进行宗教活动”。加强高校宗教工作，是维护国家法律和教育制度的根本要求，是维护正常的学校秩序和良好育人环境的基本需要，是依法治校的重要内容。

(4) Actively engaging in social practice, making correct choices of belief in practice

（四）积极投身社会实践，在实践中作出正确的信仰选择

Chairman Mao said that a person should always have some belief. University students are the main force in the future construction of the motherland. Without a strong spiritual pillar, the motherland’s modernization construction will inevitably suffer setbacks and difficulties. The younger generation should actively participate in socialist modernization construction. They should not limit themselves to learning Marxism from books, nor to understanding the slogans and formulas of Marxism. The most important thing is to understand communism from ordinary work by participating in social activities, public services, and voluntary labor. Only by practicing can one gain a deeper understanding of our country’s socialist core value system, understand the essence of Marxism more deeply, and believe in Marxism-Leninism and communism from the heart—true belief, not a perfunctory belief. Only by actively engaging in social practice can one make the correct choice of belief in practice.

毛主席说过一个人总该有点信仰,大学生是祖国未来建设事业的主力军,如果没有一个坚强的精神支柱,祖国的现代化建设必将遭受挫折和困难。青年一代要积极参加社会主义现代化建设。不能仅仅限于书本上学习马克思主义，也不能仅限于了解马克思主义的口号和公式，最重要的是还通过参加社会活动、公共服务和义务劳动，从平常的工作中理解共产主义。只有去实践才能对我国的社会主义核心价值体系能理解更深入，才能更加理解马克思主义的精髓，才能打心理信仰马列主义、信仰共产主义，是真信而不是冠冕堂皇的信。只有积极投身社会实践，在实践中才能作出正确的信仰选择。

References:

参考文献：

[1]1 The Common Program (共同纲领) was the provisional constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted in 1949 before the formal constitution was enacted in 1954. Complete Works of Marx and Engels: Volume 3 [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995.

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[2]2 Document No. 19 (1982) of the Central Committee of the CPC is a key policy document that established the Party’s basic stance on religious affairs during the socialist period, emphasizing freedom of belief while maintaining state regulation. Complete Works of Lenin: Volume 10 [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1959.

[2]列宁全集:第1 0卷[M].北京:人民出版社,1 959.

[3] Selected Works of Mao Zedong: Volume 5 [M]. Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1977.

[3]毛泽东选集:第5卷[M].北京:人民出版社,1 977.1