An Outline of the Basic Theoretical Construction of Marxist Psychology of Religion

Within the disciplinary system of Marxist religious studies, Marxist psychology of religion is an organic component. However, for a long time, basic theoretical research on the psychology of religion guided by the Marxist view of religion has been very weak, which to a certain extent affects the holistic construction of the disciplinary system of Marxist religious studies. This article intends to offer some modest opinions on several basic theoretical research issues related to this from the perspective of the disciplinary construction of Marxist psychology of religion, and I welcome corrections from academic predecessors and colleagues for any improprieties.

在马克思主义宗教学的学科体系中，马克思主义宗教心理学是其中的一个有机组成部分。然而长期以来，以马克思主义宗教观为指导的宗教心理学基本理论研究非常薄弱，这就在一定程度上影响到马克思主义宗教学学科体系的整体性建设。本文拟从马克思主义宗教心理学学科建设的角度，对与此有关的几个基本理论研究问题略抒己见，不当之处还望学界前辈和同仁指正。

I. Historical Experience and Lessons of Soviet Research on the Psychology of Religion

一、前苏联宗教心理学研究的历史经验及教训

From the 1960s onward, the Soviet Union began to explore issues in the psychology of religion using Marxist positions, viewpoints, and methods. However, before the 1980s, these explorations remained at the level of individual aspects of the psychology of religion. It was not until the mid-1980s that academic monographs systematically exploring issues in the psychology of religion began to appear. Below, taking D. M. Ugrinovich’s *Psychology of Religion* (1986 Russian edition, 1989 Chinese edition) [1]1 D. M. Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion* (Moscow: Politizdat, 1986; Chinese translation by Shen Xiangyang, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1989). Ugrinovich (1923–1990) was a Soviet philosopher and sociologist specializing in the scientific study of religion. as an example, we will briefly analyze the historical experience and lessons of Soviet basic theoretical research on Marxist psychology of religion.

从20世纪60年代起，前苏联便开始运用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法探讨宗教心理学问题，但在20世纪80年代前，这些探讨仅仅停留在宗教心理学的个别侧面。直到20世纪80年代中期，才开始出现系统探讨宗教心理学问题的学术专著。下面便以德•莫•乌格里诺维奇著的《宗教心理学》（1986年俄文版，1989年中文版）① 为例，对前苏联马克思主义宗教心理学基本理论研究的历史经验及教训进行简要剖析。

(A) Main Experience of Soviet Basic Theoretical Research on Marxist Psychology of Religion

（一）前苏联马克思主义宗教心理学基本理论研究的主要经验

In the author’s view, the experience of Soviet basic theoretical research on Marxist psychology of religion can be broadly summarized in three aspects.

在笔者看来，前苏联马克思主义宗教心理学基本理论研究的经验大体可概括为三个方面。

First, it initially constructed a disciplinary framework for Marxist psychology of religion. The disciplinary framework for Marxist psychology of religion constructed by Ugrinovich mainly includes four parts. (1) The research object of Marxist psychology of religion. In Ugrinovich’s view, the psychology of believers and the psychology of atheism are the research objects of Marxist psychology of religion, among which the psychology of believers is a common research object of both Marxist and non-Marxist psychology of religion, while research on the psychology of atheism and the psychological conditions for helping believers break free from the shackles of theism constitutes the distinctive feature of Marxist psychology of religion. (2) The research tasks of Marxist psychology of religion. According to Ugrinovich’s viewpoint, studying the psychology of believers is not the goal of Marxist doctrine, but merely a means to improve atheistic work aimed at overcoming religious fallacies. Therefore, the fundamental task of Marxist psychology of religion “is undoubtedly linked to the practice of atheistic education.” [2]2 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 3. (3) The research methods of Marxist psychology of religion. Ugrinovich believes that the methodological foundation of Marxist psychology of religion is the works of the classic Marxist-Leninist writers on religion and atheism, Party documents, and the research results of Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky and others. Its specific research methods include two levels. First, theoretically analyzing the religious psychology of individuals or groups. Second, using various empirical methods to conduct experiential research on the psychology of believers. Only on the basis of an organic synthesis of theory and practice can a scientific psychology of religion be effectively developed. (4) The disciplinary nature of Marxist psychology of religion. Ugrinovich points out that Marxist psychology of religion is an interdisciplinary field between psychology and religious studies. Within the system of psychology, the psychology of religion is most directly and profoundly influenced by social psychology; within the system of religious studies, the psychology of religion focuses on studying the socio-psychological dimension of religious consciousness.

第一，初步构建了马克思主义宗教心理学的学科框架。乌格里诺维奇构建的马克思主义宗教心理学学科框架主要包括四大部分。（1） 马克思主义宗教心理学的研究对象。在乌格里诺维奇看来，教徒心理和无神论心理是马克思主义宗教心理学的研究对象，其中教徒心理是马克思主义宗教心理学和非马克思主义宗教心理学的共同研究对象，而对于无神论心理以及帮助教徒摆脱有神论束缚的心理条件的研究，则构成马克思主义宗教心理学的鲜明特色。（2） 马克思主义宗教心理学的研究任务。按照乌格里诺维奇的观点，研究教徒的心理不是马克思主义学说的目的，而只是改进旨在克服宗教谬误的无神论工作的手段，所以马克思主义宗教心理学的根本任务“无疑地是同无神论教育的实践联系在一起的。”②（3） 马克思主义宗教心理学的研究方法。乌格里诺维奇认为，马克思主义宗教心理学的方法论基础是马克思列宁主义经典作家关于宗教和无神论问题的著作、党的文献、苏联心理学家Л.С. 维戈茨基等人的研究成果。其具体研究方法包括两个层次。首先，是从理论上分析个人或群体的宗教心理。其次，利用各种实证方法对教徒心理进行经验研究。只有在理论与实践有机综合的基础上，才可能有效地发展科学的宗教心理学。（4） 马克思主义宗教心理学的学科性质。乌格里诺维奇指出，马克思主义宗教心理学是介于心理学和宗教学之间的一门交叉学科。心理学体系中的宗教心理学以社会心理学的影响最为直接和深刻；宗教学体系中的宗教心理学则注重研究宗教意识的社会心理层面。

Second, it placed great emphasis on criticizing various Western theistic psychological theories. A thorough reading of Ugrinovich’s *Psychology of Religion* reveals that each chapter pays attention to using Marxist positions, viewpoints, and methods to criticize the illusory and absurd aspects of various Western theistic psychological theories. For example, in Chapter Four, when discussing the main concept of Western theistic psychological theories, “religious experience,” Ugrinovich points out that both theologians and idealist religious scholars close to their views “regard religious experience as something coming from God, from the supernatural. The view of C. G. Jung is also similar to this; in his opinion, certain archetypes in the ‘collective unconscious’ are the basis of religious experience. As for the most popular tradition in the West for explaining religious experience, this tradition originates from W. James, who explained this experience from a subjective idealist perspective. Most foreign psychologists regard religious experience as a subjective and individual thing formed in the depths of human psychology. For example, American psychologist W. Clark writes: ‘…religious experience is an inner, subjective thing, and it is the most personal thing.’” [3]3 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 93. Based on the fundamental Marxist principle that social being determines social consciousness, Ugrinovich forcefully refutes the above various explanations of “religious experience.” He particularly emphasizes that “neither individual nor group religious consciousness can exist apart from certain myths, images, and ideas that people acquire in the process of socialization. Therefore, any attempt to portray religious experience as a purely personal phenomenon independent of the social environment is fundamentally untenable.” [4]4 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 94.

第二，非常重视对西方各种有神论心理学思想的批判。通观乌格里诺维奇的《宗教心理学》一书，可以发现，全书各章均注意运用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法，对西方各种有神论心理学思想的虚幻、荒谬之处进行批判。例如，在第四章论述西方有神论心理学思想的主要概念“宗教经验”时，乌格里诺维奇指出，无论是神学家还是观点与之接近的唯心主义宗教学家，“都把宗教经验看成是一种来自神、来自超自然物的东西。C.G.荣格的观点也与这种观点近似，按他的看法，‘集体无意识’中的某些原型是宗教经验的基础。至于说到西方最流行的解释宗教经验的传统，那么这种传统则来源于W.詹姆斯，他是从主观唯心主义的观点来解释这种经验的。外国大多数心理学家视宗教经验为在人的心理深处形成的一种主观的和个体的东西，如美国心理学家W.克拉克写道：‘……宗教经验是内心的主观的东西，而且是最具有个人特点的东西。’”③ 依据社会存在决定社会意识的马克思主义基本原理，乌格里诺维奇对有关“宗教经验” 的上述种种解释进行了有力驳斥。他特别强调，“无论是个体的或是群体的宗教意识，都不可能脱离人们在社会化过程中所掌握的某些神话、形象和思想而存在。所以试图把宗教经验说成是独立于社会环境而产生的一种纯个人的现象，是根本站不住脚的。”④

Third, it regarded atheistic education as the core of Marxist psychology of religion. Ugrinovich’s *Psychology of Religion* consists of seven chapters, with “Psychological Issues in Atheistic Education” placed in the final chapter, which might suggest that atheistic education does not hold a prominent position in Marxist psychology of religion. However, after carefully reading the entire book, one can find that within the disciplinary framework and content system of Marxist psychology of religion outlined by Ugrinovich, atheistic education is both the starting point and ultimate destination of scientific research in Marxist psychology of religion, as well as its main research content, thus occupying an important position in Marxist psychology of religion. In the introduction to Chapter One, “Methodological Principles and Object of Marxist Psychology of Religion,” Ugrinovich states unequivocally, “The psychology of religion seems to be a discipline between psychology and religious studies, so below we will strive to clarify its position within the system of psychology and within the field of Marxist religious studies, and Marxist religious studies itself is an inseparable part of atheistic education.” [5]5 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 1. In the specific arguments of Chapters Two through Six (Psychological Roots of Religion, Religious Belief, Socio-Psychological Nature of Religious Consolation, Psychological Aspects of Religious Worship, Formation and Characteristics of Individual Religious Belief), the basic theoretical tool Ugrinovich consistently employs is the Marxist atheistic viewpoint. For instance, when explaining the psychological roots of religion, Ugrinovich argues, “Those who defend religion… assert that in people’s consciousness, belief in God and the immortality of the soul seems to be the only way out of the ‘tragedy of existence.’ In contrast, propagandists of atheism should make people aware of the scientific answer to this question, pointing out that a wise person should not indulge in the myth of individual immortality; a person’s true immortality lies in what kind of footprint they leave behind on earth after death.” [6]6 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 57. In the “Conclusion” section of the book, Ugrinovich even more explicitly states, “Marxist psychology of religion cannot limit itself to studying the psychology of believers. Its important task is to study the psychological issues of atheistic education. In particular, issues of socio-psychological relations in individual, i.e., socialist collectives… Forming a healthy, moral psychological environment in every collective is of great significance for atheistic education.” [7]7 Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion*, Chinese edition, p. 302.

第三，视无神论教育为马克思主义宗教心理学的核心。乌格里诺维奇的《宗教心理学》一书共七章，其中“无神论教育的心理学问题”被安排在最后一章，似乎无神论教育在马克思主义宗教心理学中的地位并不突出。但仔细通读全书后可以发现，在乌格里诺维奇勾勒的马克思主义宗教心理学的学科框架和内容体系中，无神论教育既是马克思主义宗教心理学科学研究的出发点和最终归宿，又是马克思主义宗教心理学的主要研究内容，因而在马克思主义宗教心理学中占有重要地位。在《宗教心理学》第一章“马克思主义宗教心理学的方法论原理和对象” 的引言部分，乌格里诺维奇便开宗明义地指出，“宗教心理学似乎是介于心理学和宗教学之间的一门学科，所以我们在下面将力求弄清它在心理学体系和在马克思主义宗教学领域中的地位，而马克思主义宗教学本身也是无神论教育不可分割的一部分。”⑤ 在《宗教心理学》第二章至第六章（宗教的心理根源，宗教信仰，宗教慰藉的社会心理本质，宗教崇拜的心理方面，个人宗教信仰的形成与特征）的具体论证中，乌格里诺维奇运用的基本理论工具始终是马克思主义的无神论观点。如在阐述宗教的心理根源时，乌格里诺维奇认为，“为宗教辩护的人……断言在人们的意识中，信神和信灵魂不死仿佛是摆脱人的‘存在的悲剧’的唯一出路。与此相反，无神论的宣传者应当让人们知道这个问题的科学的答案，指出明智的人不该迷恋于个体不死的神话，人的真正的不朽在于他死后将在人间留下什么样的足迹。”⑥ 在该书最后的“结束语”部分，乌格里诺维奇更是旗帜鲜明地指出，“马克思主义宗教心理学不能只限于研究教徒的心理。其重要的任务是研究无神论教育的心理问题。特别是个人的即社会主义集体中社会-心理关系问题……在每一个集体中形成健康的、道德的心理环境，对无神论教育具有重大意义。”⑦

(B) Historical Lessons of Soviet Basic Theoretical Research on Marxist Psychology of Religion

（二）前苏联马克思主义宗教心理学基本理论研究的历史教训

Although the former Soviet Union actively explored the basic theoretical research and disciplinary construction of Marxist psychology of religion and accumulated some experience, due to certain deviations in this exploration, and especially because the top leadership of the former Soviet Union completely deviated from the correct direction of Marxism in its ideological and political line, the scientific exploration of Marxist psychology of religion in the former Soviet Union was ultimately abandoned, leaving profound historical lessons for the world. These lessons are mainly manifested in the following:

虽然前苏联在马克思主义宗教心理学的基本理论研究和学科建设方面进行了积极探索，积累了一定的经验，但是由于这种探索存在某些偏差，特别是由于前苏联最高领导层在思想政治路线上彻底背离了马克思主义的正确方向，结果使得前苏联马克思主义宗教心理学的科学探索前功尽弃，给世人留下了深刻的历史教训。这些教训主要表现在：

First, there was insufficient understanding of the long-term and complex nature of the religious question in the socialist stage. As can be discovered from Ugrinovich’s *Psychology of Religion*, the author’s study of believers’ psychology focused on understanding their psychological characteristics, in order to provide a psychological basis for atheist education, especially for helping believers break away from religion and establish a scientific worldview. As Ugrinovich himself pointed out, “Atheist education of believers should be based on studying the pathways of their departure from religion and clarifying the socio-psychological conflicts accompanying this process.” [8]8 D. M. Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion* (Moscow: Politizdat, 1986), p. 283. [Translator’s note: The original Russian title and page number are given in the source text; this is a translation of the Chinese citation.] The above proposition of Ugrinovich—conducting “atheist education” of believers and helping them “break away from religion”—clearly indicates that Soviet scholars had an overly superficial understanding of the religious question in the socialist stage, or rather, a clear “leftist” radical bias in their understanding of this issue. Judging from the socialist practice of more than 60 years since the founding of New China, especially the more than 30 years of reform and opening up, the religious question is a complex issue that must be properly handled in building socialism, involving the united front, the mass line, and the correct distinction and handling of two types of contradictions of different natures. [9]9 “Two types of contradictions of different natures” refers to the distinction between contradictions among the people (non-antagonistic) and contradictions between the people and the enemy (antagonistic), a key concept in Maoist political theory. If this issue is handled properly, negative factors can be transformed into positive ones, maximizing the mobilization of the people’s enthusiasm and creativity in building socialism; if handled improperly, it is likely to increase social instability, intensify contradictions among the people, affect the overall situation of socialist construction, and even ruin the prospects of socialism.

第一，对社会主义阶段宗教问题的长期性、复杂性认识不足。从乌格里诺维奇的《宗教心理学》一书可以发现，作者对教徒心理的研究侧重于了解教徒的心理特征，以便为无神论教育特别是帮助教徒脱离宗教、树立科学世界观提供心理学依据。正如乌格里诺维奇所指出的，“对教徒的无神论教育应当以研究其脱离宗教的途径，以弄清伴随这一过程的那些社会-心理冲突为基础。”⑧ 对教徒进行“无神论教育”，帮助教徒“脱离宗教”，乌格里诺维奇的上述命题显然说明前苏联学者在对社会主义阶段宗教问题的认识上过于肤浅，或者说对这一问题的认识存在明显的“左倾”激进主义偏向。从新中国成立60多年特别是改革开放30多年的社会主义实践来看，宗教问题是建设社会主义必须恰当处理的一个涉及统一战线、群众路线以及正确区分和处理两类不同性质矛盾的复杂问题。这个问题处理妥当，便可化消极因素为积极因素，最大限度地调动人民群众建设社会主义的积极性和创造性；这个问题处理不妥，便很有可能增加社会的不稳定因素，激化人民内部的矛盾，影响社会主义建设的全局甚至断送社会主义的前程。

Second, the distinctive contemporary features of the Marxist scientific methodology were not truly embodied. Fundamentally, the “leftist” radical bias of Soviet scholars in understanding the religious question in the socialist stage resulted from their failure to truly grasp the essence of the Marxist scientific methodology. Dialectical materialism and historical materialism are the fundamental methods for understanding the religious question, including the question of the psychology of religion, in the socialist stage. The distinctive contemporary features of dialectical materialism and historical materialism lie in dialectically and concretely analyzing and elucidating the dual character of religion and religious psychology in the socialist stage, and properly handling the relationship between atheist education and the implementation of the Party’s religious policy in accordance with the basic law of the unity of opposites. In the field of the psychology of religion, this relationship is embodied not only in the theme of studying the atheist psychology of advanced elements such as Party members and serving the construction of the ruling Party, but also in the theme of studying the theistic psychology of clergy and religious believers in order to provide them with corresponding services. Only in this way can the positive role of the psychology of religion in the process of building socialism be fully realized. Soviet scholars rigidly understood the basic Marxist views on the religious question in the socialist period. They saw only the importance and difficulty of psychological issues related to atheist education in the socialist period, while neglecting the practical significance and long-term value of providing psychological services for clergy and religious believers. This lesson is well worth remembering and reflecting upon by Chinese Marxist researchers of the psychology of religion.

第二，没有真正体现马克思主义科学方法论的鲜明时代特征。前苏联学者在对社会主义宗教问题认识上的“左倾”激进主义偏向，从根本上说，是没有真正掌握马克思主义科学方法论精髓的结果。唯物辩证法、历史唯物论是认识社会主义时期宗教问题包括宗教心理学问题的根本方法。唯物辩证法、历史唯物论的鲜明时代特征是辩证地、具体地分析和阐明宗教及宗教心理在社会主义阶段的两重性，按照对立统一的基本规律妥善处理无神论教育和落实党的宗教政策之间的关系。在宗教心理学领域，这一关系既体现为对共产党员等先进分子无神论心理问题研究并为执政党建设服务的主题，也体现为对教职人员、信教群众有神论心理问题研究以便为他们提供相应服务的主题，这样才能完整地发挥宗教心理学在建设社会主义进程中的积极作用。前苏联学者僵化地理解了马克思主义关于社会主义时期宗教问题的基本观点，他们仅仅看到了社会主义时期与无神论教育有关的心理学问题的重要性和艰巨性，而忽略了为教职人员、信教群众提供心理学服务的现实意义和长远价值，这一教训非常值得中国的马克思主义宗教心理学研究者牢记并反思。

Third, the understanding of the disciplinary system of Marxist psychology of religion was insufficiently comprehensive. Due to the aforementioned shortcomings in worldview and methodology, Soviet scholars inevitably had certain limitations when constructing the disciplinary system of Marxist psychology of religion. These limitations are mainly manifested in the following: they did not regard providing various services such as mental health and psychological counseling for clergy and religious believers as an important task of Marxist psychology of religion, which affected the completeness and effectiveness of the disciplinary system of Marxist psychology of religion; they confined the foundation of Marxist psychology of religion to social psychology, emphasizing that the psychology of religion is “a branch (or sub-discipline) of social psychology,” [10]10 D. M. Ugrinovich, *Psychology of Religion* (Moscow: Politizdat, 1986), p. 19. which consequently hindered the space for exploration of Marxist psychology of religion in other related fields (such as the physiological basis of religious psychology, the mechanisms of individual development of religious psychology, the relationship between religious psychology and physical and mental health, etc.); they believed that Marxist psychology of religion could only conduct “natural” experiments [11]11 “Natural” experiment here refers to a research method in psychology where the experimenter observes the effects of naturally occurring events or conditions rather than manipulating variables in a controlled laboratory setting. and not higher-level experiments (such as experiments using instruments and equipment), a conclusion that has been refuted by the developmental history of the psychology of religion itself; and they dismissed all non-Marxist psychology of religion as “bourgeois psychology of religion,” adopting a mostly negative attitude toward the research achievements of “bourgeois psychology of religion,” which also limited the breadth and depth of research in Marxist psychology of religion to a certain extent.

第三，对于马克思主义宗教心理学学科体系的理解不够全面。由于前苏联学者在世界观、方法论上的前述不足，使得他们在构建马克思主义宗教心理学的学科体系时也不可避免地存在某些局限。这些局限主要表现在：没有把为教职人员、信教群众提供心理健康、心理咨询等多方面的服务作为马克思主义宗教心理学的重要任务，这就影响到马克思主义宗教心理学学科体系的完整性和有效性；把马克思主义宗教心理学的基础限定在社会心理学，强调宗教心理学是“社会心理学的一个分科（或一个分支）”，⑨ 结果妨碍了马克思主义宗教心理学在其他相关领域（如宗教心理的生理基础、宗教心理的个体发生发展机制、宗教心理与身心健康的关系，等等）的探索空间；认为马克思主义宗教心理学只能进行“自然的”实验⑩ 而不能进行更高水平的实验（如使用仪器设备的实验），该结论已经被宗教心理学自身的发展历史所否定；将非马克思主义宗教心理学一概斥之为“资产阶级宗教心理学”，对“资产阶级宗教心理学”的研究成果大多持否定态度，也在一定程度上限制了马克思主义宗教心理学的研究广度和深度。

II. Basic Characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religious Psychology

二、马克思主义宗教心理观中国化的基本特点

The spiritual essence of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology is to combine the basic principles of the Marxist view of religious psychology with China’s specific realities, creatively solving the problems of religious psychology in China’s revolution and construction. The content of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology is very rich. Due to space limitations, this section selects only several discussions involving religious psychology by successive generations of leaders of the Communist Party of China in different historical periods, explaining the basic characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology from two perspectives: strengthening Party building and implementing religious policy.

马克思主义宗教心理观中国化的精神实质，是把马克思主义宗教心理观的基本原理与中国的具体实际相结合，创造性地解决中国革命和建设中的宗教心理问题。马克思主义宗教心理观中国化的内容非常丰富。限于篇幅，这里仅选取中国共产党几代领导人在不同历史时期涉及宗教心理的若干论述，从加强政党建设和落实宗教政策两个角度，说明马克思主义宗教心理观中国化的基本特点。

(I) Emphasizing the Examination of Atheist Psychology and Education from the Strategic Height of Party Building

（一）注重从政党建设的战略高度审视无神论心理与教育

From the very founding of the Communist Party of China, whether during the period of the New Democratic Revolution or during the period of socialist revolution and construction, the Party’s main leaders have regarded the issue of atheism (including atheist psychology and education) as an important component of the Party’s ideological and theoretical construction, with a firm stance, clear attitude, consistent views, and never wavering. This firm stance, attitude, and view are mainly manifested in two aspects: using scientific atheist thought to elucidate the essence, roots, and harm of religion, and the specific strategies for conducting atheist education among the masses.

从中国共产党创立伊始，无论在新民主主义革命时期还是在社会主义革命和建设时期，党的主要领导人都把无神论问题（包括无神论心理与教育）作为政党思想和理论建设的一项重要内容，立场坚定，态度鲜明，观点一致，从未动摇。这种坚定的立场、态度和观点，主要体现在运用科学无神论的思想阐明宗教的本质、根源与危害以及对群众进行无神论教育的具体策略两个方面。

In employing scientific atheist thought to elucidate the essence, roots, and harms of religion, the understanding of the Party’s main leaders has deepened progressively with the advance of revolution and construction. During the period of the New Democratic Revolution, Mao Zedong, in his annotations on Li Da’s *Outline of Sociology*, summarized the essence and roots of religion as follows: “The essence of religion is the worship of supernatural forces, the belief that supernatural forces dominate the individual, society, and the world. This arises entirely from the fact that people do not recognize natural and social forces.” [12]12 “Draw the bow but do not release the arrow; it should be as if poised to spring” (引而不发，跃如也): A classical allusion from *Mencius*, meaning to demonstrate the posture or principle without forcing immediate action, allowing others to act on their own initiative. “Natural domination, social domination, and animism are the three sources of primitive religion.” [13]13 Panchen Erdeni Chos-kyi rGyal-mtshan (班禅额尔德尼•确吉坚赞, 1938–1989): The 10th Panchen Lama, a high-ranking figure in Tibetan Buddhism who held prominent political positions in the PRC, including Vice Chairman of the National People’s Congress. Li Dazhao, one of the founders of the Communist Party of China, profoundly pointed out the bondage and harm of religion to the human mind: “Our movement against religion does not seek to use the power of a strong force to oppress or persecute those who believe in a religion, but rather to elucidate, on the basis of free truth, the harmful effects of religion in binding the mind, hoping that people can, through free judgment, escape its bondage and obscuration.” [14]14 “Let a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought contend” is a slogan from Mao Zedong’s 1956 Hundred Flowers Campaign, which encouraged open debate and artistic diversity within the bounds of socialist ideology. During the period of socialist revolution and construction, leading comrades such as Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, and Hu Jintao inherited and developed Mao Zedong’s scientific atheist thought. On October 15, 1979, Deng Xiaoping, while meeting a delegation of British notables led by Green and accepting a television interview, pointed out: “Since the founding of the People’s Republic, we have always practiced freedom of religious belief. Of course, we also carry out propaganda for atheism.” [15] In the 1990s, in response to religious extremism, separatism, and terrorist activities in Tibet and Xinjiang, as well as the “Falun

在运用科学无神论思想阐明宗教的本质、根源和危害方面，党的主要领导人的认识是随着革命和建设的推进不断深化的。在新民主主义革命时期，毛泽东在批注李达著《社会学大纲》时，曾对宗教的本质及根源做过如下概括：“宗教的本质是崇拜超自然力，认为超自然力支配个人、社会及世界。这完全是由于不认识自然力及社会力这个事实而发生的。”{11} “自然支配，社会支配，万物有灵论，是原始宗教的三个来源。”{12} 中国共产党的创始人之一李大钊则深刻指出了宗教对人心灵的束缚与危害：“我们反对宗教的运动，不是想靠一种强有力者的势力压迫或摧残信仰一种宗教的人们，乃是想立在自由的真理上阐明宗教束缚心灵的弊害，欲人们都能依自由的判断，脱出他的束缚与蒙蔽。”{13}在社会主义革命和建设时期，邓小平、江泽民、胡锦涛等领导同志继承并发展了毛泽东的科学无神论思想。1979年10月15日，邓小平在会见格林率领的英国知名人士代表团并接受电视采访时指出，“我们建国以来历来实行宗教信仰自由。当然，我们也进行无神论的宣传。”{14} 20世纪90年代，针对西藏、新疆出现的宗教极端主义、分裂主义、恐怖主义活动以及“法轮功”事件，江泽民一再强调，“我们的党员是共产主义者、无神论者，要树立马克思主义宗教观，要坚定社会主义、共产主义的信念。”{15} “共产党员不但不能信仰宗教，而且必须向人民群众宣传无神论、宣传科学的世界观。”{16}“难道我们共产党人所具有的马克思主义理论，所信奉的唯物论、无神论，还战胜不了‘法轮功’所宣扬的那一套东西吗? 果真是那样，岂不成了天大的笑话！我们的各级领导干部特别是高级干部该清醒了！”{17} 胡锦涛也多次论证，“我们中国共产党人是无神论者，不信仰任何宗教，但我们又是历史唯物主义者，必须以科学的历史的观点看待宗教，全面认识宗教产生和存在的深刻历史根源、社会根源、心理根源”。{18}

Regarding the specific strategy of conducting atheist education among the masses, Mao Zedong, as early as in his “Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan,” offered a penetrating exposition of the psychological laws of atheist propaganda: “The idols were set up by the peasants, and when the time comes they will cast the idols aside with their own hands; there is no need for others to do it for them prematurely. The Communist Party’s propaganda policy on these matters should be: ‘Draw the bow but do not release the arrow; it should be as if poised to spring.’”{19} Zhou Enlai held a similar view on atheist education: “On questions of materialism versus idealism, atheism versus theism, and teaching methods, one cannot impatiently force others to agree with your opinion. Otherwise, although they may appear to agree on the surface, the problem will not actually be resolved.”{20} Jiang Zemin further pointed out, “Propaganda and education on atheism among the masses must be distinguished from the requirements for Party members and must be integrated with the concrete practice of building socialist material and cultural-ethical progress. One must be adept at using a materialist viewpoint to explain the roots of religious belief, make solid efforts to raise people’s scientific and cultural quality, avoid simplistic approaches that hurt the religious feelings of believers, and avoid using administrative orders to force people not to believe in religion.”{21}

在对群众进行无神论教育的具体策略方面，毛泽东早在《湖南农民运动考察报告》中便对无神论宣传的心理规律作过精辟阐述：“菩萨是农民立起来的，到了一定时期农民会用他们自己的双手丢开这些菩萨，无须旁人过早地代庖丢菩萨。共产党对于这些东西的宣传政策应当是：‘引而不发，跃如也。’”{19} 周恩来对无神论教育也持有类似的观点：“在唯物论与唯心论、无神论与有神论以及教学方法等问题上，不能急性地强迫人家同意你的意见。不然的话，表面上好像同意了，实际上并没有解决问题。”{20} 江泽民进一步指出，“对群众进行无神论宣传教育，要同对党员的要求区别开来，并同社会主义两个文明建设的具体实践结合起来。要善于用唯物主义观点说明宗教信仰根源，下功夫提高人们的科学文化素质，防止简单从事而伤害信教群众宗教感情，防止用行政命令方法强迫人们不信教。”{21}

(II) Strive to Use Policy Levers to Accurately Reflect the Dual Functions of Religious Psychology

（二）力求运用政策杠杆准确地体现宗教心理的双重功能

Under the guidance of the Marxist view of religion, successive generations of leaders of the Communist Party of China, focusing on the overall situation of the united front, the mass line, cultural-ethical progress, and the long-term stability and security of the country, have explored the dual nature of religion, including religious psychology, from multiple angles and put forward many famous theses. These theses constitute an important part of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology.

中国共产党的几代领导人在马克思主义宗教观的指导下，着眼于统一战线、群众路线、精神文明建设和国家长治久安的大局，对宗教包括宗教心理的两重性进行了多角度的探讨，提出了许多著名论断。这些论断构成了马克思主义宗教心理观中国化的重要组成部分。

For example, Mao Zedong pointed out in “On New Democracy,” “Communists may form an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal united front on political action with certain idealists and even religious believers, but they can never approve of their idealism or religious doctrines.”{22} Deng Xiaoping said in a conversation with Panchen Erdeni Chos-kyi rGyal-mtshan, “Religion cannot be dealt with by administrative orders; but the religious side must not indulge in fanaticism either, otherwise it will run counter to socialism and the interests of the people.”{23} In his speech at the 2001 National Conference on Religious Work, Jiang Zemin comprehensively analyzed the Party’s religious theory and policy during the socialist stage, emphasizing the need for scientific management of religious affairs, which should both help to restrain the negative factors in religion and help to bring into play the positive factors in religion.

例如，毛泽东在《新民主主义论》中指出，“共产党员可以和某些唯心论者甚至宗教徒建立在政治行动上的反帝反封建的统一战线，但是绝不能赞同他们的唯心论或宗教教义。”{22} 邓小平在同班禅额尔德尼•确吉坚赞谈话时说，“对于宗教，不能用行政命令的办法；但宗教方面也不能搞狂热，否则同社会主义，同人民的利益相违背。”{23} 江泽民2001年在全国宗教工作会议的讲话中，对党在社会主义阶段的宗教理论和政策作了全面分析，强调要对宗教事务进行科学管理，既要有利于抑制宗教中的消极因素，又要有利于发挥宗教中的积极因素。

Regarding the negative role of religious psychology, Jiang Zemin pointed out, “In class society, the oppression of humanity by religion is the product and reflection of economic oppression within society. When the working masses suffer this oppression and cannot escape it, they often seek spiritual solace in religion; the exploiting classes also use religion as an important spiritual means to control the masses, weakening the will of the working masses to resist and dispersing their strength to resist. Marx’s statement that ‘religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature’ and ‘religion is the opium of the people’ was made in this sense. … The establishment of the socialist system is conducive to eliminating the class roots of the existence of religion, but the disappearance of other social roots, natural roots, and cognitive roots of the existence of religion will require an extremely long historical period. … It can be said that the final extinction of religion may take even longer than the extinction of classes and the state.”{24}

关于宗教心理的消极作用，江泽民指出，“在阶级社会中，宗教对人类的压迫是社会内部经济压迫的产物和反映，劳动群众受到这种压迫又无法解脱，就往往到宗教中去寻找精神寄托；剥削阶级也利用宗教作为控制群众的重要精神手段，削弱劳动群众的反抗意志，分散劳动群众的反抗力量。马克思说‘宗教是被压迫生灵的叹息’、‘宗教是人民的鸦片’，就是从这个意思上来讲的。……社会主义制度的建立，有利于消除宗教存在的阶级根源，但宗教存在的其他社会根源和自然根源、认识根源的消失，则需要经历一个极为漫长的历史时期。……可以说，宗教走向最终消亡可能比阶级、国家的消亡还要久远。”{24}

Regarding the positive role of religious psychology, Jiang Zemin pointed out, “Through providing psychological comfort to believers, religion also plays a positive role in stabilizing the emotions of believers and regulating their psychology. Of course, affirming the positive factors in religion is not for the purpose of developing religion, but to strive to make existing religions serve more for national unity, economic development, social stability, and the reunification of the motherland. When handling this issue, the measure must be grasped well. The positive factors in religion can be affirmed, but they cannot be exaggerated.”{25} “There are over one hundred million people in our country who believe in various religions; they are also a positive force in building socialism with Chinese characteristics. We must unite, educate, and guide these people, fully mobilizing their enthusiasm and creativity in production and work, in order to rely on and unite the entire people to jointly advance socialist material civilization and cultural-ethical progress.”{26}

关于宗教心理的积极作用，江泽民指出，“宗教通过对信教群众的心理慰藉，对稳定信教群众的情绪、调节信教群众的心理也有积极作用。当然，肯定宗教中的积极因素，目的不是为了发展宗教，而是要努力使已经存在的宗教多为民族团结、经济发展、社会稳定、祖国统一服务。在处理这个问题时，分寸一定要把握好。宗教中的积极因素可以肯定，但不能夸大。”{25}“我国信仰各种宗教的群众有一亿多，他们也是建设有中国特色社会主义的积极力量。我们必须团结、教育、引导这部分群众，把他们在生产和工作中的积极性和创造性充分调动起来，以利于依靠和团结全体人民共同推进社会主义物质文明和精神文明建设。”{26}

III. On the Methodological Issues of Marxist Psychology of Religion

三、关于马克思主义宗教心理学的方法论问题

In summarizing the historical lessons of Soviet research on the psychology of religion, the author has already mentioned that dialectical materialism and historical materialism constitute the methodological foundation of Marxist psychology of religion. Under the guidance of this fundamental method, the specific research methods of Marxist psychology of religion should, in accordance with the contemporary requirements of problem-orientation and methodological innovation, fully reflect the distinct interdisciplinary characteristics of the psychology of religion.

在总结前苏联宗教心理学研究的历史教训时，笔者已提及，唯物辩证法、历史唯物论是马克思主义宗教心理学的方法论基础。在这一根本方法的指导下，马克思主义宗教心理学的具体研究方法则应按照问题导向、方法创新的时代要求，充分体现宗教心理学学科交叉的鲜明特性。

(I) Conscientiously Implement Problem-Orientation Throughout the Specific Research of Marxist Psychology of Religion

（一）切实把问题导向贯穿于马克思主义宗教心理学的具体研究中

The author believes that the essence of problem-orientation is actually to embody the basic principle of Marxist epistemology, namely the unity of theory and practice. In the view of Marxist researchers, any scientific research that is divorced from practice, from the discovery and resolution of problems, can only become empty talk. The study of Marxist psychology of religion is no exception.

笔者认为，问题导向的本质实际上就是体现理论与实际相统一这一马克思主义认识论的基本原则。在马克思主义研究者看来，任何科学研究如果脱离实践、脱离问题的发现与解决，那就只能成为一种空谈。马克思主义宗教心理学的研究也不例外。

Under the current historical background of reform and opening up, there are many issues in the psychology of religion with Chinese characteristics that need to be studied and resolved. In terms of propagating and educating atheism, the psychological issues of religion that need to be studied and resolved include: within the CPC, the vanguard of the working class, why do some Party members, including leading Party cadres, hold unsteady beliefs in atheism, and even set scientific atheist education in opposition to the implementation of the Party’s religious policy; among contemporary youth, including university and graduate students, why has the number of those keen on modern superstitions such as astrology and fortune-telling, or even turning to religion, increased significantly, and what are the psychological roots of this; what is the intrinsic connection between scientific atheist psychology and the core socialist value system; how to prevent the challenge and infiltration of Western theistic psychological trends, especially religious extremism and terrorism, into China’s mainstream ideology, and so on. In terms of providing psychological services for clergy and religious believers, the psychological issues of religion that need to be studied and resolved include: how to accurately distinguish mental illness or psychological disorders from the special emotional arousal states and behavioral patterns of clergy and religious believers; what are the similarities and differences between the religious propagation methods of clergy and modern psychological counseling and psychotherapy techniques; what are the effective ways to enhance the mental health of clergy and religious believers; how to leverage the positive role of clergy and religious believers in moral and psychological construction, and so on.

在当前改革开放的时代背景下，需要研究和解决的具有中国特色的宗教心理学问题很多。在进行无神论的宣传与教育方面，需要研究和解决的宗教心理学问题包括：在中国共产党这一工人阶级先锋队中，为什么有一部分党员包括党的领导干部无神论的信念并不牢固，甚至把科学无神论教育与落实党的宗教政策对立起来；在当代青年包括大学生、研究生中，为什么热衷于星相、命运等现代迷信乃至投向宗教怀抱的人数明显增加，其心理根源何在；科学无神论心理与社会主义核心价值体系究竟存在怎样的内在联系；如何防止西方的有神论心理学思潮特别是宗教极端主义、恐怖主义对我国主流意识形态的挑战和渗透等等。在为教职人员、信教群众提供心理学服务方面，需要研究和解决的宗教心理学问题包括：如何把精神疾病或心理障碍与教职人员、信教群众的特殊情绪激发状态及行为方式准确区分开来；教职人员的宗教传播手段与现代心理咨询、心理治疗技术有何异同；增强教职人员、信教群众心理健康的有效途径有哪些；怎样发挥教职人员、信教群众在道德心理建设方面的积极作用等等。

In short, only by facing reality, delving into life, and accurately grasping the practical and long-term needs of contemporary China in the psychology of religion can we fully embody the essential requirements and epochal characteristics of the Marxist methodology of the psychology of religion. This is a prerequisite that must be clarified first when discussing the methodological issues of Marxist psychology of religion.

总之，只有面向实际、深入生活，准确把握当代中国在宗教心理学方面的现实需求与长远需要，才能充分体现马克思主义宗教心理学方法论的本质要求和时代特征。这是在讨论马克思主义宗教心理学方法论问题时必须首先明确的前提条件。

(II) Gradually Forming the Characteristics of the Marxist Methodology of the Psychology of Religion through Methodological Innovation

（二）通过方法创新逐步形成马克思主义宗教心理学方法论的特色

On methodological issues, the advantage of Marxist psychology of religion lies in its ability, through the unique perspective and theoretical tools of dialectical materialism and respect for history, to maximally absorb all effective methods in the field of the psychology of religion and continuously carry out methodological innovation, thereby maintaining the inherent vitality of research in Marxist psychology of religion.

在方法论问题上，马克思主义宗教心理学的优势在于，它能借助于唯物辩证、尊重历史的独特视角和理论工具，最大限度地吸收宗教心理学领域的一切有效方法，并不断地进行方法论创新，从而使马克思主义宗教心理学的研究始终保持内在活力。

In the field of the psychology of religion in the West, especially in the United States, there are two different research orientations: “psychology of religion” and “religious psychology.”{27} The former emphasizes empirical evidence and downplays theoretical speculation; the latter focuses on doctrine and opposes empirical evidence. This serious divergence or opposition in research orientation has, to a large extent, hindered the healthy development of Western psychology of religion. During the exploration of Marxist psychology of religion in the former Soviet Union, there was a certain “ultra-left” tendency towards the research achievements of Western psychology of religion, and the fundamental principle of dialectical materialism was not truly implemented in methodology, resulting in a bias towards hastily helping believers transform their theistic psychology. The fact that Eastern Orthodoxy and other religions rapidly recovered and flourished after the dissolution of the Soviet Union proves from the negative side that theistic psychology, closely linked to worldview, cannot be simply reversed through administrative orders; it must, along with the development of productive forces, especially science and technology, and the continuous improvement of the level of human civilization, gradually withdraw from the historical stage over a considerable historical period. In short, the divergences, oppositions, or biases in the research methods of the psychology of religion in the West and the former Soviet Union are, fundamentally, the inevitable result of a lack of the scientific methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism.

在西方特别是美国的宗教心理学领域，存在着“宗教心理学”（psychology of religion）和“宗教的心理学”（religious psychology）两种不同的研究取向。{27} 前者强调实证，轻视思辨；后者注重教义，反对实证。这种在研究取向方面的严重分歧或对立，在很大程度上影响了西方宗教心理学的健康发展。前苏联在马克思主义宗教心理学的探索过程中，对西方宗教心理学的研究成果存在一定的“极左”倾向，在方法论上也没有真正贯彻唯物辩证的根本法则，结果出现了急于帮助教徒转变有神论心理的偏颇。苏联解体后东正教及其他宗教迅速恢复和兴盛的事实从反面说明，与世界观密切联系的有神论心理是不能简单地依靠行政命令加以扭转的，它必须随着生产力特别是科学技术的发展以及人类文明水平的不断提高，经过相当长的历史时期，逐步退出历史舞台。总之，西方和前苏联在宗教心理学研究方法上存在的分歧、对立或偏颇，从根本上说，是缺乏辩证唯物主义、历史唯物主义科学方法论所导致的必然结果。

Marxist psychology of religion with Chinese characteristics, or sinicized Marxist psychology of religion, emphasizes holism, dialectics, diversity, keeping pace with the times, seeking truth from facts, and concrete analysis of concrete problems in methodology. Therefore, whether it is exploring historical roots or contemplating practical issues, whether it is quantitative investigation (such as measurement, experiments, or quasi-experiments) or qualitative analysis (such as participatory observation, interviews, logical reasoning, and empirical summarization), whether it is describing phenomena or predicting the future, all are equally respected. If different research methods can be organically combined, and in the process of combination, attention is paid to original innovation or integrated innovation, striving to achieve the ideal state of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend, which is conducive to academic development, then greater encouragement and support will be received. In the author’s view, this is precisely the vivid charm of sinicized Marxist psychology of religion in methodology. There is no doubt that in the historical process of building Marxist psychology of religion with Chinese characteristics, we should continuously carry forward this vivid charm of the Marxist methodology of the psychology of religion.

具有中国特色或中国化的马克思主义宗教心理学在方法论上强调整体性、辩证性、多样性、与时俱进、实事求是和具体问题具体分析。因此，无论是历史根源探究还是现实问题思考，无论是定量考察（如测量、实验或准实验）还是定性分析（如参与性观察、访谈、逻辑推理与经验总结），无论是现象描述还是未来预测，都同样受到尊重。如果能把不同的研究方法有机结合起来，在结合的过程中注意原始性创新或集成性创新，努力达到百花齐放、百家争鸣这样一种有利于学术发展的理想境界，那么就会受到更大的鼓励和支持。在笔者看来，这正是中国化马克思主义宗教心理学在方法论上的鲜活魅力之所在。毫无疑问，我们在建设具有中国特色的马克思主义宗教心理学的历史进程中，应该将马克思主义宗教心理学方法论的这一鲜活魅力不断发扬光大。

Notes:

注释：

① D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989.

① 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年。

② D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, “Preface,” p. 3.

② 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，“前言”，第3页。

③ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, pp. 111-112.

③ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第111-112页。

④ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 113.

④ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第113页。

⑤ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 1.

⑤ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第1页。

⑥ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 65.

⑥ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第65页。

⑦ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 260.

⑦ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第260页。

⑧ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 252.

⑧ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第252页。

⑨ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 9.

⑨ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第9页。

⑩ D. M. Ugrinovich: *Psychology of Religion*, translated by Shen Yipeng, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989, p. 13.

⑩ 德•莫•乌格里诺维奇：《宗教心理学》，沈翼鹏译，北京：社会科学文献出版社，1989年，第13页。

{11} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee: *Mao Zedong’s Philosophical Annotations*, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1988, p. 214.

{11} 中共中央文献研究室：《毛泽东哲学批注集》，北京：中央文献出版社，1988年，第214页。

{12} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee: *Mao Zedong’s Philosophical Annotations*, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1988, p. 213.

{12} 中共中央文献研究室：《毛泽东哲学批注集》，北京：中央文献出版社，1988年，第213页。

{13} Li Dazhao: “Manifesto of the Non-Religious,” *Complete Works of Li Dazhao* (Vol. 4), Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 1999, p. 71.

{13} 李大钊：《非宗教者宣言》，《李大钊全集》（第4卷），石家庄：河北教育出版社，1999年，第71页。

{14} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed.: *Chronicle of Deng Xiaoping’s Thought (1975–1997)*, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1998, p. 134.

{14} 中共中央文献研究室编：《邓小平思想年谱（1975——1997》，北京：中央文献出版社，1998年，第134页。

{15} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed.: *Chronicle of Jiang Zemin’s Thought (1989–2008)*, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2010, p. 40.

{15} 中共中央文献研究室编：《江泽民思想年编（一九八九——二○○八》，北京：中央文献出版社，2010年，第40页。

{16} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed.: *Chronicle of Jiang Zemin’s Thought (1989–2008)*, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2010, p. 48.

{16} 中共中央文献研究室编：《江泽民思想年编（一九八九——二○○八》，北京：中央文献出版社，2010年，第48页。

{17} Jiang Zemin: “A New Signal,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin* (Vol. 2), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006, p. 320.

{17} 江泽民：《一个新的信号》，《江泽民文选》（第二卷），北京：人民出版社，2006年，第320页。

{18} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed.: *Selected Important Documents since the 16th National Congress* (Vol. 2), Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2008, p. 554.

{18} 中共中央文献研究室编：《十六大以来重要文献选编》（下），北京：中央文献出版社，2008年，第554页。

{19} Mao Zedong: “Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong* (Vol. 1), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1991, 2nd ed., p. 33.

{19} 毛泽东：《湖南农民运动考察报告》，《毛泽东选集》（第一卷），北京：人民出版社，1991年第2版，第33页。

{20} Zhou Enlai, “Speech at the National Conference on Higher Education,” *Selected Works of Zhou Enlai on Education* (Beijing: Educational Science Press, 1984), p. 11.

{20} 周恩来：《在全国高等教育会议上的讲话》，《周恩来教育文选》，北京：教育科学出版社，1984年，第11页。

{21} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed., *Chronological Thought of Jiang Zemin (1989–2008)* (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2010), p. 43.

{21} 中共中央文献研究室编：《江泽民思想年编（一九八九——二○○八》，北京：中央文献出版社，2010年，第43页。

{22} Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1991, 2nd ed.), p. 707.

{22} 毛泽东：《新民主主义论》，《毛泽东选集》（第二卷），北京：人民出版社，1991年第2版，第707页。

{23} Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed., *Chronological Thought of Deng Xiaoping (1975–1997)* (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1998), p. 167.

{23} 中共中央文献研究室编：《邓小平思想年谱（1975——1997》，北京：中央文献出版社，1998年，第167页。

{24} Jiang Zemin, “On the Question of Religion,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, Vol. 3 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), p. 380.

{24} 江泽民：《论宗教问题》，《江泽民文选》（第三卷），北京：人民出版社，2006年，第380页。

{25} Jiang Zemin, “On the Question of Religion,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, Vol. 3 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), p. 389.

{25} 江泽民：《论宗教问题》，《江泽民文选》（第三卷），北京：人民出版社，2006年，第389页。

{26} Jiang Zemin, “On the Question of Religion,” *Selected Works of Jiang Zemin*, Vol. 3 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), p. 381.

{26} 江泽民：《论宗教问题》，《江泽民文选》（第三卷），北京：人民出版社，2006年，第381页。

{27} See Chen Yongsheng, Liang Henghao, and Lu Liqing, “An Analysis of the Development Process and Trends of the Psychology of Religion in the United States,” *Studies in World Religions*, No. 1 (2006).

{27} 参见陈永胜、梁恒豪、陆丽青：《宗教心理学在美国的发展历程及态势探析》，《世界宗教研究》2006年第1期。

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