The Witchcraft Calamity during the Han Wu Emperor’s Reign

Sorcery is a human activity in which people, in early times, fantasized about using some “supernatural force” (such as invoking spirits, chanting spells, drawing talismans, placing cursed objects, etc.) to exert influence or control over objective things. Those who engage in pretending to communicate with gods and spirits to pray on behalf of others are called sorcerers. After the emergence of various religions, this kind of activity was more or less preserved and strengthened. From ancient times to the present, among the common people, sorcery activities have been heard of from time to time. The so-called “witchcraft” [wugu] means that sorcery plays a role in deluding people’s minds, triggering social unrest. Therefore, successive dynasties punished it severely, and the Han law stipulated that those who practiced witchcraft should be put to death. However, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, witchcraft activities occurred frequently, reflected in the imperial court, and can be said to have accompanied the entire period of Emperor Wu’s reign.

巫术是人类早期幻想利用某种“超自然力”（如下神、念咒、画符、放镇物等）对客观事物施加影响或控制的活动。以装神弄鬼替人祈祷的人即为巫师。各种宗教产生后，或多或少地保留和强化了这种活动。从古至今，在庶民百姓中，巫术活动时有所闻。所谓“巫蛊”，是说巫术起一种蛊惑人心的作用，引发社会动荡。因此，历代均以严刑惩治，汉律规定巫蛊者死。但在汉武帝时期，巫蛊活动频繁发生，反映在宫廷中，可谓与汉武时期相始终。

Empress Chen, the filial and martial [posthumous name of Emperor Wu], was the daughter of Emperor Wu’s aunt, Princess Guantao [the elder sister of Emperor Wu’s father, Emperor Jing]. Initially, Emperor Wu’s establishment as crown prince was greatly aided by the princess, so he married her daughter as his consort; after Emperor Wu ascended the throne, she was made empress. She was favored and arrogant, but after more than ten years she bore no son. Hearing that Wei Zifu (a consort) had gained favor, she several times made a scene, which made Emperor Wu even more displeased. Empress Chen also resorted to women’s seductive arts [a form of love magic], which were discovered several times. In the fifth year of the Yuanguang reign [130 BCE], Emperor Wu could no longer tolerate it and thoroughly investigated the matter. Many women were implicated for the crime of Empress Chen’s witchcraft sacrifices and curses, which constituted great treason; more than three hundred people were implicated and executed. Empress Chen was deposed and died several years later. In the first year of the Taishi reign [96 BCE], in the spring of the first month, General Yuhan [a title meaning “Because of the Halberd”] Gongsun Ao, who had risen and fallen four times, was finally sentenced to death for losing many soldiers in an attack on the Xiongnu. He escaped death by feigning death and lived among the people for five or six years before being discovered. Because his wife performed witchcraft for her husband, his entire clan was executed. This was the prelude to the witchcraft calamity during Emperor Wu’s reign.

孝武陈皇后，是武帝姑母馆陶长公主的女儿。起初，武帝之得立为太子，长公主出了大力，因此娶其女为妃；武帝即位，立为皇后。擅宠娇贵，但十余年无子。闻卫子夫（妃）得幸，几次寻死觅活，武帝更加不高兴。陈皇后又挟妇人媚道，几次被发觉。元光五年，武帝忍无可忍，遂穷治之，许多女子坐为皇后巫蛊祠祭祝诅之罪，大逆无道，相连及被诛者三百余人。陈后被废，数年后死亡。太始元年春正月，四起四落的“因杅将军”公孙敖最后一次因出击匈奴亡士多而下吏当斩，诈死逃过活命，亡居民间五六年后被发觉。因妻为夫作巫蛊而族诛。这是武帝时期巫蛊之祸的前奏。

At that time, several large-scale searches to ban witchcraft occurred. In the winter of the first year of the Zhenghe reign [92 BCE], cavalry from the three auxiliary commanderies [around the capital] were dispatched to search the Shanglin Park in Chang’an, and the gates of Chang’an were closed for fifteen days. Many of the awaiting imperial edict officers in the Northern Army starved to death; it can be imagined that even more common people starved.

其时，发生数起禁止巫蛊的大搜。征和元年冬，发三辅骑士大搜长安上林中，闭长安城门十五日，待诏北军征官多饿死，可想而知百姓饿死更多。

“The witchcraft calamity originated from Zhu Anshi and was completed by Jiang Chong.” In the spring of the first month of the following year, immediately after the “great search,” the calamity of Zhu Anshi occurred. Zhu Anshi was a famous knight-errant in the capital. The so-called knight-errant is one who helps the needy and the distressed and upholds justice. “But knights-errant use martial force to violate prohibitions,” because they hinder social stability. Therefore, the imperial court issued an edict to arrest Zhu Anshi but could not capture him, and was very anxious. At that time, Gongsun He (Emperor Wu’s brother-in-law) was the chancellor, and his son Gongsun Jingsheng was the Grand Coachman; father and son both held high positions among the ministers. Jingsheng, relying on his special status, was arrogant and did not follow the law. Because he embezzled 19 million strings of cash from the Northern Army’s military funds, he was discovered and imprisoned. Gongsun He himself requested to pursue and capture Zhu Anshi to redeem Gongsun Jingsheng’s crime. Such an absurd request was actually approved by the court. Later, Zhu Anshi was indeed captured. Hearing that Chancellor Gongsun He personally pursued and captured a great knight-errant to redeem his son’s crime, Zhu Anshi laughed loudly and said: “The chancellor has brought disaster to his clan. The bamboos of the southern mountains are not enough to write my indictment, and the wood of Xiegui Valley is not enough to make my shackles.” He then submitted a petition from prison, accusing Jingsheng of having illicit relations with Princess Yangshi [Emperor Wu’s daughter], and of sending people to perform witchcraft sacrifices and curse the emperor, and of burying wooden dolls on the Ganquan Palace approach road, cursing with malicious words. The matter was referred to the relevant officials for investigation, and the crimes were thoroughly prosecuted. Gongsun He and his son died in prison, and their clans were exterminated; Princess Yangshi and her sister, as well as Empress Wei’s nephew, were all implicated and executed. It seems that Zhu Anshi was not making false accusations.

“巫蛊之祸，起自朱安世，成于江充”。紧接“大搜”的次年春正月，便发生朱安世之祸。朱安世是京师著名大侠。所谓侠，扶危济困，打抱不平者也。“而侠以武犯禁”，因为他有碍于社会安定。因此，朝廷诏捕朱安世不能得而甚为着急。当时，公孙贺（武帝连襟）为宰相，子公孙敬声为太仆，父子并居公卿高位。敬声以自己特殊身份骄奢不奉法，因擅用北军军费1900万贯，被发觉而下狱。公孙贺自请逐捕朱安世以赎公孙敬声之罪。这样荒唐的请求，朝廷竟然应允。后，果然捕得朱安世。闻说公孙贺作为宰相亲自逐捕一个大侠是欲以赎子之罪，朱安世便大笑曰：“丞相祸及宗矣。南山之竹不足受我辞，斜谷之木不足为我械”。他遂从狱中上书，状告敬声与阳石公主（武帝女）私通，及使人巫祭祠诅上，并且上甘泉当驰道埋偶人，祝诅有恶言。下有司案验，穷治所犯，公孙贺父子死狱中，家族；阳石公主姊妹及卫皇后侄子皆坐诛。看来，朱安世非诬告。

Immediately following (in the same year) was Jiang Chong’s witchcraft calamity. Jiang Chong was originally a guest of King Pengzu of Zhao [Emperor Wu’s half-brother]. Because he offended the crown prince of Zhao, he fled and entered the passes. Emperor Wu appointed him as the Directorial Emissary with Embroidered Robe [a title for an imperial censor], supervising the suppression of bandits in the three auxiliary commanderies. He did not avoid the powerful and influential, and was quite active in his duties. Because he had a conflict with Crown Prince Ju, he feared that after Emperor Wu’s death, the crown prince would kill him. Just as Emperor Wu fell ill, Jiang Chong falsely accused the crown prince of using witchcraft to curse the emperor. The crown prince arrested and beheaded Jiang Chong, raised troops in rebellion, and failed. The crown prince and others also committed suicide. Several tens of thousands of people were implicated and died. At that time, the crown prince’s grandson—the future Emperor Xuan, then the imperial great-grandson—was less than a year old and was also implicated. Tingwei [Commandant of Justice] Bing Ji was ordered to handle the witchcraft prison. Seeing the infant, he took pity on him, selected a gentle and honest female prisoner to care for the imperial great-grandson, and placed him in a clean and dry place. When someone came to inspect the prison, Bing Ji blocked the door and refused entry. Later, Emperor Wu also came to realize the truth, and because of a general amnesty, the imperial great-grandson escaped disaster. If it had not been for Bing Ji’s merit, which extended grace to the whole realm, the latter half of Western Han history would have been rewritten. “How can one not be fearful! How can one not be fearful!”

紧接着（同一年）便是江充巫蛊之祸。江充本是赵国国王彭祖（武帝异母弟）的座上客，因得罪于赵太子而逃亡入关。武帝拜为直指绣衣使者，督三辅盗贼，不避权贵，颇用事。因与皇太子据有隙，恐武帝晏驾后为太子所诛。正遇武帝有疾，充遂诬太子以巫蛊术厌帝。太子收斩充，举兵反，事败，太子等亦自杀。相连及死者数万人。当时，太子孙——皇曾孙宣帝生不满周岁，亦连坐。廷尉丙吉奉诏治巫蛊狱。见而怜之，择谨厚女徒令保养皇曾孙，置闲燥处。有人查狱，丙吉拒门不纳。后武帝亦悟，因大赦天下，皇曾孙得免祸。若无丙吉恩及四海之功，西汉后半部历史将得改写。“可不惧哉!可不惧哉!”

During the reign of Emperor Zhao, Emperor Wu’s fifth son, Liu Xu, seeing that Emperor Zhao had no sons, developed ambitions. Xu summoned a female sorcerer to invoke spirits and curse. The female sorcerer then pretended to be possessed and wept, saying: “Emperor Wu has descended into my body!” Hearing this, everyone present was shocked and awed. The female sorcerer said: “I will surely make Xu become the Son of Heaven.” Xu was delighted, gave the female sorcerer much gold and money, and sent her to pray at Witch Mountain. Just then, Emperor Zhao died, and Xu was even more pleased, saying: “This is indeed a good sorcerer!” He further killed cattle as a thank-offering, believing that the emperor had died because of the curses. When Prince He of Changyi was summoned [to be emperor], Xu again sent the sorcerer to curse him; the prince was deposed, and Xu trusted the female sorcerer’s divine power even more. After Emperor Xuan ascended the throne, Xu again ordered the female sorcerer to curse as before. Hearing that Emperor Xuan had established a crown prince, Xu stopped the cursing. Later, Xu’s son was convicted and executed in the marketplace, and Xu again had the female sorcerer curse as before. Afterwards, the cursing was discovered. Xu poisoned the female sorcerer and more than twenty palace women to silence them. Having no other choice, Xu hanged himself with his official sash. This occurred during the Wufeng reign [57–54 BCE] and can be regarded as a remnant of the witchcraft calamity of Emperor Wu’s court.

昭帝时，武帝第五子刘胥见昭帝无子，遂有觊觎心。胥迎来一个女巫使其下神祝诅。女巫便装神泣曰：“武帝下我身了!”一听此言，左右皆惊服。女巫曰：“吾必令胥成为天子。”胥喜，多赐女巫金钱，使她去祷巫山。会遇昭帝驾崩，胥更加高兴，曰：“某乃良巫也!”更杀牛酬祷，以为因祝诅而帝崩也。及至昌邑王贺征，胥复使巫祝诅之；王废，胥更信女巫之神灵。宣帝即位，胥复令女巫祝诅如前。闻宣帝立太子，胥乃停止祝诅。胥子获罪弃市，胥复使女巫祝诅如故。后，祝诅事发觉，胥药杀女巫及宫人二十余人以灭口。胥无耐，即以绶自绞死。此乃五凤年间事，可视为武帝朝巫蛊之祸的余孽。

In summary, the witchcraft calamity “was not solely the fault of Jiang Chong; there was also the timing of heaven, not something that human effort could cause.” Emperor Wu of Han is called a heroic ruler in history, and his reign is called a golden age. “Han’s acquisition of talented people was at its peak at this time.” “Yet because he believed in immortals and spirits, built palaces and roads, levied taxes urgently, and imposed heavy punishments and executions, bandits and thieves became more numerous, and the witchcraft affair arose.” These were the subjective and objective factors for the frequent witchcraft calamities during Emperor Wu’s reign, the negative reality hidden beneath the golden age. In this regard, Emperor Wu in his later years did make some self-criticism, even issuing the “Luntai Edict of Self-Blame.” [1]1 The “Luntai Edict of Self-Blame” (Luntai zuiji zhao) was an edict issued by Emperor Wu of Han in 89 BCE, in which he expressed regret for his costly military campaigns and harsh policies, and ordered a halt to further expansionist wars. It is often cited as an example of imperial self-criticism. But it was neither comprehensive nor profound. With Emperor Wu’s great talent and bold vision, if he had “not changed the respectful frugality of Emperors Wen and Jing to benefit the people, even what is praised in the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents would not surpass this!”

总之，巫蛊之祸，“此不唯一江充之辜，亦有天时，非人力所致焉。”汉武帝在历史上称为雄主，武帝朝称为盛世。“汉之得人，于兹为甚。”“然以信神仙，营土木，急征敛，重刑诛，致盗贼益多，巫蛊事起。”这是武帝朝巫蛊之祸频仍的主客观因素，是盛世掩盖下的负面现实。对此，武帝晚年也曾作过一点自我批评，甚至有“轮台罪已诏”。但既不全面，也不深刻。以武帝之雄才大略，如若“不改文景之恭俭以济斯民，虽诗书所称何有加焉!”

Online Editor: Jia Fei

网络编辑：嘉扉