The Development Process and Characteristics of the Sinicization of Marxist Atheism since Reform and Opening Up

Scientific atheism is the starting point and cornerstone of the Marxist worldview, gradually entering the practice of the scientific socialist movement from the realm of ideology and culture. Since accepting Marxism, Chinese Communists have continuously enriched and developed Marxist atheist thought in the process of advancing the integration of Marxism with China’s actual conditions. Especially since reform and opening up, the sinicization of Marxist atheist thought has added many new elements. These intellectual understandings and achievements are mainly reflected in the following areas of work, including research, propaganda, and education on materialism (including atheism), as well as scientific and cultural education; religious work, especially the formulation of religious policy and the management of religious affairs; united front work; and the handling of issues related to ethnic minorities and religion, among others.

科学无神论是马克思主义世界观的出发点和基石，从思想文化领域逐渐进入到科学社会主义运动的实践中。中国共产党人自从接受马克思主义后，在推进马克思主义与中国实际相结合的过程中，也不断丰富和发展了马克思主义无神论思想。尤其是改革开放以来，马克思主义无神论思想的中国化增加了许多新的内容，这些思想认识和成果主要体现在以下几个方面的工作中，包括唯物论（包括无神论）研究、宣传和教育以及科学文化教育等工作，宗教工作尤其是宗教政策的制定和宗教事务管理，统战工作以及有关民族问题和宗教问题的处理，等等。

Overall, since reform and opening up, the sinicization of Marxist atheism has gone through three stages.

总的来说，自改革开放以来，马克思主义无神论的中国化经历了三个阶段。

I. From the late 1970s to the late 1980s

一、20世纪70年代末到20世纪80年代末

During this stage, the main task facing China’s socialist construction was to bring order out of chaos and to begin reform and opening up. Correspondingly, the Marxist atheist thought of this stage was mainly embodied in implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief and persisting in research, propaganda, and education on materialism and atheism. This mainly included the following three propositions:

这一阶段，我国社会主义建设面临的主要任务是拨乱反正，并开始进行改革开放。与此相应的这一阶段马克思主义无神论思想主要体现在落实宗教信仰自由政策，坚持唯物论无神论研究和宣传教育等方面，主要包括以下三个方面的主张：

1. Fully implement the policy of freedom of religious belief and unite religious believers. How a party of atheists treats the issue of religion reflects that party’s grasp and application of Marxist atheist thought. The views expressed in the 1982 “Basic Views and Basic Policies on the Religious Question during the Socialist Period in Our Country” (also known as Document No. 19) embody the understanding of Chinese Communists on this issue at the time: “We Communists are atheists and should unremittingly propagate atheism, but we should at the same time understand that using simple and coercive methods to deal with people’s ideological problems, problems of the spiritual world, including the issue of religious belief, will not only be ineffective but also very harmful.” [1]1 The “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” was adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC in 1981, providing a formal assessment of Mao Zedong’s role and the Cultural Revolution.

1. 全面落实宗教信仰自由政策，团结信教群众。作为无神论者的政党，如何对待宗教问题，体现出该政党的对马克思主义无神论思想的掌握和运用。1982年《关于我国社会主义时期宗教问题的基本观点和基本政策》（也称19号文件）所表达的观点体现了中国共产党人这一时期对该问题的认识：“我们共产党人是无神论者，应当坚持不懈地宣传无神论，但是我们同时应当懂得，对待人们的思想问题，对待精神世界的问题，包括对待宗教信仰的问题，用简单的强制的方法去处理，不但不会收效，而且非常有害。”[1]

In fact, this idea had already begun to be reflected in our work on religion. As early as 1979, with the bringing of order out of chaos in united front work, the full implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief began to be restored. At the 1980 Tibet Work Conference, it was specifically stated that “it is necessary to both respect the normal religious life of religious believers and actively conduct ideological and political work and scientific and cultural education among them.” [2]2 “Socialist spiritual civilization” is a CPC term referring to the ideological, moral, and cultural dimensions of socialist development, as distinct from material civilization. Starting from 1980, policies concerning the property and real estate of religious groups were gradually implemented. The “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” [n1], while emphasizing the policy of freedom of religious belief, also pointed out, “Adhering to the Four Cardinal Principles does not require religious believers to abandon their religious beliefs; it only requires that they not engage in propaganda opposing Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, and that religion not interfere with politics or education.” [3]3 The “strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education” (科教兴国) was formally proposed in 1995, prioritizing science, technology, and education as drivers of national development.

其实，这一思想早就开始体现在我们有关宗教的工作当中。早在1979年，随着对统战工作的拨乱反正，开始恢复全面落实宗教信仰自由政策。在1980年的西藏工作会议上，专门提到，“既要尊重信教群众的正常宗教生活，又要积极对他们进行思想政治工作和科学文化教育。”[2]从1980年开始，逐步落实宗教团体的财产和房产等相关政策。《中共中央关于建国以来当的若干历史问题的决议》中在强调宗教信仰自由政策时还指出，“坚持四项基本原则并不要求宗教信徒放弃他们的宗教信仰，只是要求他们不得进行反对马列主义、毛泽东思想的宣传，要求宗教不得干预政治和干预教育。”[3]

The 1982 Document No. 19 comprehensively elaborated on the basic views and basic policies regarding the religious question. It was the practice and application of Marxist atheist thought in handling China’s religious issues and also marked the initial formation of a sinicized Marxist atheist thought system. While discussing the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, it emphasized guaranteeing people’s freedom not to believe in religion. It also specifically pointed out, “Guaranteeing freedom of religious belief should not only not hinder but should strengthen efforts to popularize science education and strengthen propaganda against superstition.” It further emphasized that the essence of the policy of freedom of religious belief is to make the issue of religious belief a private matter for individual citizens. This embodies the basic spirit of Marxist atheist thought in handling religious issues.

1982年的19号文件全面阐述了关于宗教问题的基本观点和基本政策，是马克思主义无神论思想在处理中国宗教问题时的实践和运用，也是中国化马克思主义无神论思想体系初步形成的标志。在谈到贯彻宗教信仰自由政策的同时，强调保障人们有不信仰宗教的自由。还特别指出，“保障信教自由，不但不应妨碍而且应当加强普及科学教育的努力，加强反迷信的宣传。”并强调指出，宗教信仰自由政策的实质就是要使宗教信仰问题成为公民个人的私事。这就体现了马克思主义无神论思想在处理宗教问题上的基本精神。

The “Resolution on the Guidelines for the Construction of Socialist Spiritual Civilization” [n2], adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Twelfth Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in 1986, pointed out, “On the issue of uniting all forces that can be united to build socialism, we must truly overcome the narrow views that have caused serious harm for a long time, so that Communists and non-Communists, Marxists and non-Marxists, atheists and religious believers, domestic compatriots and overseas Chinese, in short, all working people and patriots, are closely united and actively take action to strive for the realization of the common ideal.” [4]4 “Four Haves” (四有) refers to the goal of cultivating a new generation of people who have ideals, morality, culture, and discipline, a slogan from the Deng Xiaoping era.

1986年中国共产党第十二届中央委员会第六次全体会议上通过的《中共中央关于社会主义精神文明建设指导方针的决议》中指出，“在团结一切可能团结的力量来建设社会主义的问题上，真正克服长期造成严重危害的狭隘观点，使共产党员和非共产党员，马克思主义者和非马克思主义者，无神论者和宗教信仰者，国内同胞和国外侨胞，总之，使全体劳动者和爱国者，都紧密地团结起来，积极地行动起来，为实现共同理想而奋斗。”[4]

2. Use Marxism to study religion, criticize theism, and propagate materialism and atheism. As early as 1979, the notice of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China approving and transmitting the document of the National United Front Work Conference, “The Guidelines and Tasks of the United Front in the New Historical Period,” while discussing the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, pointed out, “Atheist propaganda and education should be conducted among the masses.” [5]5 The "Three Emphases" (三讲) refers to a Party-wide education campaign launched in the late 1990s emphasizing "emphasizing study, emphasizing politics, and emphasizing healthy tendencies." The 1982 Document No. 19 pointed out, “Using the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method to conduct scientific research on religion is an important component of the Party’s theoretical work.” It also very clearly stated, “Using Marxist philosophy to criticize idealism (including theism), conducting education on the scientific worldview (including atheism) of dialectical materialism and historical materialism among the masses, especially young people and adolescents, and strengthening the propaganda of scientific and cultural knowledge concerning natural phenomena, social evolution, and human birth, aging, illness, death, good fortune, and misfortune, is one of the important tasks of the Party on the propaganda front.” [6]6 The "four haves" (四有) new people refers to the goal of cultivating citizens with "ideals, moral integrity, education, and a sense of discipline," a concept promoted by Deng Xiaoping. The document also described the future prospects for resolving the religious question under socialist conditions, namely, “the vast majority of citizens will be able to consciously adopt a scientific attitude towards the world and life, and will no longer need to seek spiritual sustenance from an illusory divine world.”

2. 用马克思主义研究宗教，批判有神论，宣传唯物论和无神论。早在1979年，中共中央批转全国统战工作会议文件《新的历史时期统一战线的方针任务》的通知在谈到落实宗教信仰自由政策时，就指出，“在人民群众中，要进行无神论的宣传教育。”[5] 1982年的19号文件指出，“用马克思主义立场、观点、方法对宗教问题进行科学研究，是党的理论工作的一个重要组成部分。”还十分明确地指出，“用马克思主义哲学批判唯心论（包括有神论），向人民群众特别是广大青少年进行辩证唯物论和历史唯物论的科学世界观（包括无神论）的教育，加强有关自然现象、社会进化和人的生老病死、吉凶祸福的科学文化知识的宣传，是党在宣传战线上的重要任务之一。”[6] 该文件还描述了在社会主义条件下，解决宗教问题的未来前景，即“绝大多数公民都将能 自觉地以科学的态度对待世界，对待人生，而再也不需要想虚幻的神的世界去寻求精神的寄托。”

Subsequent policy documents also mentioned the need to conduct atheist education. For example, the 1983 “Notice of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Strengthening Ideological and Political Work in Rural Areas” pointed out, “Education in materialism and atheism should be conducted, science should be promoted, and feudal superstition should be opposed.” [7]

此后也有政策文件提到要进行无神论的教育。如，1983年《中共中央关于加强农村思想政治工作的通知》中就指出，“要进行唯物论，无神论的教育，提倡科学，反对封建迷信。”[7]

3. Communist Party members must be atheists and must not believe in religion. The 1982 Document No. 19 clearly stated, “The Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief applies to our country’s citizens and is not applicable to Communist Party members. A Communist Party member, unlike an ordinary citizen, is a member of a Marxist political party and should undoubtedly be an atheist, not a theist. Our Party has repeatedly made clear stipulations: Communist Party members must not believe in religion and must not participate in religious activities. For the entire Party, this should still be resolutely implemented in the future.” The document also pointed out that in ethnic minority areas where the entire population basically believes in a religion, the implementation of this regulation needs to take appropriate steps according to the actual situation and should not be handled simplistically. For example, for ethnic minority Party members who actively work for the Party but cannot completely shake off religious influence, help should be given to gradually establish a materialist worldview and gradually free themselves from the shackles of religious thought.

3. 共产党员应当是无神论者，不得信仰宗教。1982年的19号文件明确指出，“党的宗教信仰自由的政策，是对我国公民来说的，并不适用于共产党员。一个共产党员，不同于一般公民，而是马克思主义政党的成员，毫无疑问地应当是无神论者，而不应当是有神论者。我们党曾多次作出明确规定：共产党员不得信仰宗教，不得参加宗教活动，就全党来说，今后仍然应当坚决贯彻执行。”文件还同时指出，在那些基本上全民信教的少数民族中，这项规定的执行，需要按照实际情况，采取适当步骤，不宜简单从事。如，对于那些积极为党工作但还不能完全摆脱宗教影响的少数民族党员，应当帮助他们逐步树立唯物主义的世界观，逐步摆脱宗教思想的束缚。

It can be seen that during this period, while grasping the ideological essence of Marxist atheism, Chinese Communists, against the backdrop of bringing order out of chaos and reform and opening up, and in light of national conditions such as the insufficient scientific and cultural knowledge of the broad masses, embodied the cognitive achievements of the sinicization of Marxist atheism in various tasks including religious work, ethnic work, united front work, rural work, and the construction of socialist spiritual civilization.

可见，这一时期，中国共产党人在掌握马克思主义无神论的思想精髓的同时，在拨乱反正、改革开放的时代背景下，结合广大人群众科学文化知识不足等国情，在宗教工作、民族工作、统战工作、农村工作和精神文明建设等各项工作中，都体现出了马克思无神论中国化的认识成果。

II. From the late 1980s to the late 1990s

二、20世纪80年代末到20世纪90年代末

During this stage, the “strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education” [n3] became the theme of the era. To ensure the implementation of this strategy, while emphasizing the stability and continuity of religious policy, Marxist atheist thought in China also achieved deeper understanding and further development. The intellectual achievements of the sinicization of Marxist atheism during this period mainly included: comprehensively understanding and implementing freedom of religious belief, Communist Party members adhering to and propagating atheism, managing religious affairs according to law, and resisting the infiltration of foreign religious forces.

这一阶段，“科教兴国”战略成为时代的主题，为保障这一战略的实施，在强调宗教政策的稳定性和连续性的同时，马克思主义无神论思想在中国也得到更深入的理解和进一步的发展。这一时期，马克思主义无神论中国化的思想成果主要包括：全面理解和贯彻宗教信仰自由，共产党员应坚持和宣传无神论，依法管理宗教事务，抵御境外宗教势力的渗透。

1. Comprehensively understand and implement freedom of religious belief, and unite religious believers in socialist construction. In 1990, the “Notice of the Central Committee of the CPC on Strengthening United Front Work” reaffirmed the basic views and basic policies of Document No. 19 of 1982, and held that they should be earnestly implemented. Moreover, the notice further pointed out, “No one should engage in atheist propaganda in religious venues, and no religious organization or believer should preach, proselytize, or distribute books, periodicals, audio-visual products, or other items outside religious activity venues without approval from the competent government department.” [8] In 1990, when Jiang Zemin inspected work in Xinjiang, he pointed out that the policy of freedom of religious belief should be fully and correctly implemented, and especially proposed that believers and non-believers should respect each other, and that sincere unity between the masses of believers and non-believers, as well as those of different religious faiths, should be vigorously promoted, so that they could fight side by side for the prosperity and strength of the socialist motherland. [9]

1. 全面理解和贯彻宗教信仰自由，团结信教群众进行社会主义建设。1990年，《中共中央关于加强统一战线工作的通知》中重申了1982年19号文件中的基本观点和基本政策，认为应当认真贯彻落实。并且，该通知进一步指出，“任何人都不应当到宗教场所进行无神论的宣传，任何宗教组织或教徒也不应当在宗教活动场所以外布道、传教、散发未经政府主管部门批准的书刊、音像制品和其他物品。”[8] 1990年江泽民在新疆考察工作时指出，要全面正确地贯彻执行宗教信仰自由政策，尤其提出信教的和不信教的要互相尊重，要大力促进信教和不信教以及不同宗教信仰的群众之间真诚团结，为社会主义祖国的繁荣昌盛并肩战斗。[9]

In 1993, when Li Ruihuan spoke at the National United Front Work Conference, he pointed out that with this unprecedentedly broad alliance, we could unite all Communist Party members and non-Communist Party members, Marxists and non-Marxists, atheists and religious believers, Han masses and ethnic minority masses, domestic compatriots and overseas compatriots—in short, unite all forces that can be united, and condense the will and wisdom of the entire nation toward the general goal of realizing the Four Modernizations, unifying the motherland, and rejuvenating China. [10]

1993年，李瑞环在全国统战工作会议上的讲话时指出，有了这种空前广泛的联盟，我们就能够把一切共产党员和非共产党员，马克思主义者和非马克思主义者，无神论者和宗教信仰者，汉族群众和少数民族群众，国内同胞和海外侨胞，总之，把一切可以团结的力量都团结起来，把全民族的意志和智慧凝聚到实现四化、统一祖国、振兴中华的总目标上来。”[10]

2. Communist Party members should uphold and propagate atheism. In 1990, when Jiang Zemin inspected work in Xinjiang, he discussed the need to provide education on the Marxist view of religion to Party members and cadres based on the current situation. The first point that needed special reiteration and emphasis was, “Communists are atheists, and at all times must uphold atheism and propagate atheism. For non-atheist ideas that exist among some Party members, patient and meticulous education and in-depth ideological work should be carried out to help them resolve their worldview issues.” [11] In 1994, when Jiang Zemin spoke at the Third Forum on Work in Tibet convened by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council, he again proposed, “It must be emphasized that Communist Party members are atheists. Regardless of which ethnic group they come from, they must uphold materialism and atheism and should not believe in religion.” [12] In 1998, when he again inspected work in Xinjiang, he pointed out, “We Communists should study and uphold the viewpoint of historical materialism, have the courage to propagate Marxist atheism, and at the same time resolutely implement the Party’s religious policy and lawfully do a good job in all aspects of religious work.” [13]

2. 共产党员应坚持和宣传无神论。1990年江泽民在新疆考察工作时，谈到根据当前情况对党员和干部进行马克思主义宗教观教育，需要特别注意重申和强调的第一条即为，“共产党人是无神论者，任何时候都要坚持无神论、宣传无神论。对一些党员中存在的非无神论思想，要进行耐心细致的教育和深入的思想工作，帮助他们解决好世界观问题。”[11]1994年，江泽民在中共中央、国务院召开的第三次西藏工作座谈会上的讲话时再次提出，“必须强调指出，共产党员是无神论者，不论出身于哪个民族，都要坚持唯物论和无神论，不应该信教。”[12]1998年，他再次到新疆考察工作时指出，“我们共产党人，应该学习并坚持历史唯物主义观点，要有宣传马克思主义无神论的勇气，同时坚决执行党的宗教政策，依法做好宗教方面的各项工作。”[13]

In 1991, in response to the situation where a small number of Party members believed in religion and participated in religious activities, the CPC Central Committee issued a notice on properly resolving the issue of Communist Party members believing in religion. The notice proposed that to resolve the problem of Party members believing in religion, education should be placed first, and Party members should be regularly educated in Marxist atheism, basic Party knowledge, and scientific and cultural knowledge. [14]

1991年，针对有少数党员信仰宗教并参加宗教活动的情况，中共中央发布关于妥善解决共产党员信仰宗教问题的通知。通知提出解决党员信教问题，要把加强教育放在首位，要经常对党员进行马克思主义无神论的教育，进行党的基本知识和科学文化知识教育。[14]

In 1993, when Hu Jintao spoke at a symposium with representatives attending the National Forum on the Work of Training and Selecting Ethnic Minority Cadres, he also mentioned that Communist Party members “should, on the one hand, correctly understand and exemplarily implement the Party’s religious policy, respect and protect freedom of religious belief, respect and appropriately follow ethnic customs in daily life, and avoid becoming detached from the masses; on the other hand, every Party cadre should be a steadfast atheist, draw a clear line with religious belief in terms of worldview, and must not believe in religion or participate in religious activities.” [15]

1993年，胡锦涛在出席全国培养选拔少数民族干部工作座谈会代表座谈时的讲话中也提到，共产党员“一方面要正确理解和模范执行党的宗教政策，尊重和保护宗教信仰自由，在生活中尊重和适当随顺民族的风俗习惯，避免脱离群众；另一方面每个党员干部都要做一个坚定的无神论者，在世界观上同宗教信仰划清界限，不得信仰宗教和参加宗教活动。”[15]

This shows that Communist Party members should take the lead in comprehensively and correctly understanding and exemplarily implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief, both respecting and protecting the masses’ freedom of religious belief, while at the same time must uphold and propagate atheism. These two seemingly contradictory aspects can only be grasped through an in-depth understanding of Marxist atheist thought, because only a thoroughgoing atheist can truly respect and guarantee freedom of religious belief. From Communist Party members not being allowed to believe in religion to the requirement that they must uphold and propagate atheism, this not only indicates higher demands on Party members but also represents an in-depth understanding and further development of Marxist atheist thought.

这表明，共产党员要带头全面正确理解和模范执行宗教信仰自由政策，既尊重和保护群众的宗教信仰自由，同时又必须坚持和宣传无神论。这看似矛盾的两个方面，只有深入理解马克思主义无神论思想，才能得以把握，因为只有彻底的无神论者才能真正做到尊重和保障宗教信仰自由。从共产党员不得信仰宗教到必须坚持和宣传无神论，这不仅表明对党员提出了更高的要求，也是对马克思主义无神论思想的深入理解和进一步发展。

3. Strengthen the propagation of atheism and raise people’s scientific and cultural quality. In 1990, when Jiang Zemin inspected work in Xinjiang, he pointed out that the propaganda and education of atheism for the masses should be distinguished from the requirements for Party members, and should be combined with the concrete practice of building socialist material civilization and cultural-ethical progress. [16] One should be adept at using materialist viewpoints to explain the origins of religious belief, and make solid efforts to raise people’s scientific and cultural quality. In the same year, when he spoke with some representatives at the National Religious Work Conference, he again stated, “Communist Party members must not only not believe in religion, but must also propagate atheism and a scientific worldview to the masses,” further pointing out that one should not adopt a “Left” attitude toward religious belief because of believing in atheism, nor should one stop propagating atheism and cultivating “Four Haves” [4]4 “Four Haves” (四有) refers to the goal of cultivating a new generation of people who have ideals, morality, culture, and discipline, a slogan from the Deng Xiaoping era. new people because of the policy of freedom of religious belief. [17] In 1991, the notice of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on several issues concerning further improving religious work also mentioned that it was necessary to “actively carry out education in dialectical materialism and historical materialism (including atheism) among the masses, especially the broad masses of young people, and cultivate the broad masses of young people into a new generation with ideals, morality, culture, and discipline.” [18]

3.加强无神论的宣传，提高人们的科学文化素质。1990年江泽民在新疆考察工作时指出，对群众进行无神论宣传教育，要同对党员的要求区别开来，并同社会主义两个文明建设的具体实践结合起来。要善于用唯物主义观点说明宗教信仰的起源，下功夫提高人们的科学文化素质。[16]同年，他在全国宗教工作会议部分代表座谈时再次谈到，“共产党员不但不能信仰宗教，而且必须要向人民群众宣传无神论、宣传科学的世界观”，进一步指出，不能因为相信无神论，就用“左”的态度对待宗教信仰，也不能因为有了宗教信仰自由政策，就不宣传无神论和培育“四有”新人了。[17]1991年中共中央、国务院关于进一步做好宗教工作若干问题的通知中还提到，要“积极向人民群众特别是广大青少年进行辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义（包括无神论）的教育，培养广大青少年成为有理想、有道德、有文化、有纪律的一代新人”[18]。

In 1992, when Chen Junsheng spoke at the National Conference of Directors of Religious Affairs Bureaus, he pointed out that the focus of religious work is in the countryside, and the focus of atheist propaganda and education should also be placed in the countryside. When conducting propaganda and education, consideration should also be given to the cultural level of the peasant masses, with content that is easy to understand and forms that are lively, etc. [19] In 1995, the notice of the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council on forwarding the “Opinions of the Central Propaganda Department and the Ministry of Agriculture on Deeply Carrying out the Construction of Socialist Cultural-Ethical Progress in the Countryside” proposed, “Strengthen the propagation of basic knowledge of materialism, atheism, and other scientific knowledge.” [20]

1992年，陈俊生在全国宗教局长会议上的讲话中指出，宗教工作的重点在农村，无神论宣传教育的重点也应放在农村。进行宣传教育时还要考虑农民群众的文化水平，内容通俗，形式活泼等。[19]1995年中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅关于转发《中央宣传部、农业部关于深入开展农村社会主义精神文明建设活动的若干意见》的通知中提出，“加强唯物论、无神论基本常识和其他科学知识的宣传。”[20]

4. Lawfully manage religious affairs. Starting from the end of the 1970s, through more than a decade of implementing religious policy, continuously resolving some remaining problems, certain achievements had been made in religious work. By the 1990s, some new problems emerged both internationally and domestically, including the use of religion by external forces for infiltration, as well as chaotic phenomena in religious activities in some domestic areas, such as illegal proselytizing and criminal activities using religion. In 1990, when Li Peng spoke at the plenary session of the National Religious Conference, he proposed that religious affairs should be managed according to law, that is, the government should carry out administrative management and supervision over the implementation of relevant laws, regulations, and policies on religion. The speech also specifically mentioned the need to be highly vigilant against and resolutely resist the infiltration of our country by hostile external forces using religion. [21] In 1991, the notice of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on several issues concerning further improving religious work also emphasized that religious affairs should be managed according to law, illegal proselytizing activities should be resolutely stopped, and attempts by hostile external religious forces to control our country’s religion should be resolutely resisted. In addition, the notice also mentioned that criminal activities using religion should be resolutely combated. [22] During this period, a series of regulations and rules related to religion were issued, including the “Measures for the Registration and Management of Religious Social Organizations,” the “Regulations on the Administration of Religious Venues,” and the “Provisions on the Administration of Religious Activities of Foreigners within the Territory of the People’s Republic of China.”

4.依法管理宗教事务。从20世纪70年代末开始，通过十多年的宗教政策落实工作，不断地解决一些遗留问题，宗教工作已经取得了一定的成绩。到20世纪90年代，国际国内又出现了一些新的问题，包括境外势力利用宗教进行渗透的问题，也包括国内一些地方宗教活动出现混乱现象如非法传教和利用宗教的犯罪活动。1990年，李鹏在全国宗教会议全体会议上的讲话提出，要依法对宗教事务进行管理，即政府对有关宗教的法律法规和政策的贯彻实施进行行政管理和监督。讲话还特别提到，要十分警惕和坚决抵制境外敌对势力利用宗教对我国进行渗透。[21]1991年，中共中央、国务院关于进一步做好宗教工作若干问题的通知中也强调指出，要依法对宗教事务进行管理，坚决制止非法传教活动，坚决抵制境外宗教敌对势力控制我国宗教的企图。此外，该通知还提到，要坚决打击利用宗教进行的犯罪活动。[22]这一时期，出台了一系列与宗教相关的法规条例，包括《宗教社会团体登记管理实施办法》，《宗教场所管理条例》，《关于中华人民共和国境内外国人宗教活动管理规定》等等。

At the same time, it was also proposed to bring into play the role of patriotic religious organizations, to advocate that religious organizations guide religious believers to love their religion, love their country, and love socialism, and further proposed to further mobilize the enthusiasm of religious circles, better play the role of religious circles, and contribute to modernization construction, etc.

同时，还提出要发挥爱国宗教团体的作用，提倡宗教组织引导信教群众爱教、爱国、爱社会主义，并且还提出要进一步调动宗教界的积极性，更好地发挥宗教界的作用，为现代化建设做贡献，等等。

In addition, clear punitive measures were also proposed for Communist Party members who violate religious policy. For example, Party members who participate in religious activities in violation of policy and, after education, persist in not changing their ways, should be persuaded to withdraw from the Party; those who participate in inciting religious fanaticism and, after serious criticism and education, still do not repent, should be expelled from the Party. [23]

此外，对共产党员不遵守宗教政策的行为也提出明确的惩罚措施。如，对于违反政策参加宗教活动的共产党员，经教育后坚持不改的要劝其退党；对参与煽动宗教狂热的严肃批评教育后仍不悔改的，要开除党籍。[23]

In summary, during this stage, faced with new circumstances, religious work was comprehensively initiated. This involved both adhering to the policy of freedom of religious belief and persisting in managing religious affairs according to law, with the aim of guiding religion to adapt to socialist society.

总之，这一阶段，面对新的形势，开始全面开展宗教工作，既坚持贯彻宗教信仰自由政策，又坚持依法管理宗教事务，目的是要引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应。

III. From the Late 1990s to the 21st Century

三、20世纪90年代末到21世纪

During this stage, building a moderately prosperous society in all respects was our social development goal. Under this grand objective, understanding of Marxist atheist thought underwent new changes. In particular, the propaganda and education of Marxist atheism was placed in a more prominent position, using Marxist atheist thought to arm and educate the entire Party and the entire people, and to resist and prevent the infiltration of foreign religious forces. At the same time, it was also proposed to comprehensively understand the role of religion and to bring into play the positive role of religious figures and believers.

这一阶段，全面建设小康社会是我们的社会发展目标。在这一宏大的目标下，马克思主义无神论思想认识有了新的变化，尤其是，将马克思主义无神论的宣传教育置于更加突出的位置，用来马克思主义无神论思想武装和教育全党和全国人民，并抵御和防范境外宗教势力的渗透。同时，也提出全面认识宗教的作用，提出发挥宗教界人士和信教群众的积极作用。

After

1999年法轮功事件之后，《中共中央关于共产党员不准修炼“法轮大法”的通知》中指出，通过学习教育活动，使“广大党员普遍受到一次马克思主义唯物论和无神论的教育，增强政治敏锐性和政治鉴别力，牢固树立正确的世界观、人生观、价值观，坚定共产主义理想信念 ”[24]。

Subsequently, multiple central documents proposed strengthening propaganda and education work on materialism and atheism. The Circular of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Forwarding the "Decision on Several Issues Concerning Ideological and Political Construction of the Military under the Conditions of Reform and Opening Up and the Socialist Market Economy" clearly emphasized, "Firmly grasp the fundamental task of arming with Deng Xiaoping Theory, combine it with the situation, tasks, and the actual thinking of officers and soldiers, deeply carry out education on patriotic dedication, revolutionary outlook on life, respecting officers and loving soldiers, and hard struggle, propagate materialism and atheism, oppose idealism, feudal superstition, and pseudoscience, and resolutely resist the erosion and influence of money worship, hedonism, extreme individualism, and various erroneous trends of thought."[25] The "Several Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political Work" proposed to "strengthen education on Marxist materialism and atheism, and vigorously promote the scientific spirit."[26] In 2001, the Circular of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Forwarding the "National Cadre Education and Training Plan for 2001-2005" also emphasized, "Persist in regularly carrying out education on ideals and beliefs, Party spirit, Party conduct, and Party discipline, the mass line, policies and the rule of law, and atheism."[27]

随后，中央多个文件都提出加强唯物论和无神论的宣传教育工作。中共中央关于转发《关于改革开放和发展社会主义市场经济条件下军队思想政治建设若干问题的决定》的通知中明确强调指出，“紧紧抓住邓小平理论武装这个根本，结合形势、任务和官兵的思想实际，深入开展爱国奉献、革命人生观、尊干爱兵、艰苦奋斗教育，宣传唯物论和无神论，反对唯心主义、封建迷信和伪科学，坚决抵制拜金主义、享乐主义、极端个人主义和各种错误思潮的侵蚀和影响。”[25]《中共中央关于加强和改进思想政治工作的若干意见》中提出，要“加强马克思主义唯物论和无神论教育，大力提倡科学精神”。[26]2001年，中共中央关于印发《二○○一年——二○○五年全国干部教育培训规划》的通知中也强调，“坚持经常性地开展理想信念教育、党性党风党纪教育、群众路线教育、政策法制教育和无神论教育”[27]。

In 2000, Jiang Zemin, in his speech reporting on the "Three Emphases" education situation of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, pointed out, "We must guide comrades throughout the Party to strive to learn and master the viewpoints of historical materialism, actively propagate atheist ideas, and persist in educating the masses of all ethnic groups with the Marxist view on religion."[28] In 2000, in his speech at the Central Conference on Ideological and Political Work, he proposed, "We must strengthen propaganda and education on scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thinking, and the scientific spirit throughout society, help and guide people to draw clear distinctions between materialism and idealism, atheism and theism, science and superstition, civilization and ignorance, and enhance their ability to identify and resist various forms of idealism, feudal superstition, and pseudoscience."[29] In 2001, in his speech at the National Conference of Propaganda Department Heads, he pointed out, "We Communists are atheists, our country is a socialist country, so of course we cannot use feudalist or capitalist ideologies and values, nor can we use religion as the spiritual pillar of the entire society."[30] This clearly proposed that atheism, together with science and materialism, should serve as the source of ideological and spiritual nourishment for our Party, state, and people.

2000年江泽民在通报中央政治局常委“三讲”情况时的讲话中指出，“我们要引导全党同志努力学习和掌握历史唯物主义观点，积极宣传无神论思想，坚持用马克思主义宗教观教育各族群众。”[28]2000年，他在中央政治思想工作会议上的讲话中提出，“要在全社会加强科学知识、科学方法、科学思想、科学精神的宣传教育，帮助和引导人们划清唯物论和唯心论、无神论和有神论、科学和迷信、文明和愚昧的界限，增强识别和抵制各种唯心主义、封建迷信及伪科学的能力。”[29]2001年在全国宣传部长会议上的讲话中指出，“我们共产党人是无神论者，我国是社会主义国家，当然不能用封建主义、资本主义的思想意识和价值观念，也不能用宗教来作为全社会的精神支柱。”[30] 这就明确提出应将无神论与科学和唯物论一道，作为我们国家党和人民思想和精神食粮的来源。

In 2001, Jiang Zemin, in his speech "On the Issue of Religion" at the National Conference on Religious Work, systematically expounded the ideological achievements of the sinicization of Marxist atheism at this stage. He proposed, "We Communists uphold Marxist atheism, but we cannot simply equate the difference between atheism and theism with political opposition," and, "Although atheists and theists have different ideological beliefs, they can be consistent on principled issues involving political stance and political direction, such as patriotism, safeguarding national unity, and upholding socialism."[31] At the same time, he once again emphasized, "Communist Party members must not only not believe in religion, but should also actively propagate atheism, propagate a scientific worldview, and propagate correct views opposing feudal superstition."[32]

2001年江泽民在全国宗教工作会议上的讲话《论宗教问题》中比较系统地阐述了马克思主无神论中国化在这一阶段的思想成果。他提出，“我们共产党人坚持马克思主义的无神论，但不能简单地把无神论和有神论的区别等同于政治上的对立”，并且，“无神论者和有神论者思想信仰虽然不同，但在爱国、维护祖国统一、拥护社会主义等涉及政治立场和政治方向的原则问题上是可以一致的”。 [31]同时，再一次强调指出，“共产党员不但不能信仰宗教，而且应该积极宣传无神论，宣传科学的世界观，宣传反对封建迷信的正确观点”[32]。

In 2003, Li Changchun, in his speech at the National Conference on Propaganda and Ideological Work, pointed out, "We must unremittingly carry out in-depth education throughout society on the Party's basic theory, basic line, basic program, and basic experience; carry out in-depth education on patriotism, collectivism, and socialism; carry out in-depth education on Marxist materialism, atheism, the scientific spirit, and scientific methods; and guide people to firmly establish the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics and establish a correct worldview, outlook on life, and value system."[33]

2003年，李长春在全国宣传思想工作会议上的讲话中指出，“要坚持不懈地在全社会深入进行党的基本理论、基本路线、基本纲领、基本经验教育，深入进行爱国主义、集体主义、社会主义教育，深入进行马克思主义唯物论、无神论和科学精神、科学方法教育，引导人们牢固树立中国特色社会主义共同理想，树立正确的世界观、人生观、价值观。”[33]

Since 2003, the CPC Central Committee and its main leaders have continuously issued a series of instructions, emphasizing the need to strengthen research, propaganda, and education on atheism.

自2003年以来，中共中央及其主要领导人连续作出一系列的批示，强调指出要加强无神论的研究、宣传和教育。

In 2003, the main leader of the Party Central Committee, in an instruction on the "Suggestions on Further Strengthening Scientific Atheism Research and Propaganda Education" submitted by Ren Jiyu, President of the Chinese Society for the Study of Atheism, and others, pointed out, "Research and propaganda education on atheism is a long-term task that needs to be incorporated into the scientific research plan and the overall deployment of propaganda and ideological work, and carried out with perseverance. In particular, Communist Party members should firmly establish a materialist worldview. This is not contradictory to implementing the Party's policy of freedom of religious belief."[34]

2003 年，党中央主要领导人在对中国无神论学会理事长任继愈等《关于进一步加强科学无神论研究和宣传教育的建议》的批示指出，“关于无神论研究和宣传教育是一项长期任务，需纳入科学研究规划和宣传思想工作的总体部署，锲而不舍地进行。尤其是共产党员应牢固地确立唯物主义的世界观。这与贯彻党的宗教信仰自由政策并不矛盾。”[34]

In 2004, the "Notice on Further Strengthening Marxist Atheism Research and Propaganda Education Work" jointly issued by the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Propaganda Department, the Central Civilization Office, the Central Party School, the Ministry of Education, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences clearly stated that schools at all levels and of all types are important positions for carrying out Marxist atheism propaganda and education. Centering on the goal of cultivating "four haves" new people, adhering to the principle of separating national education from religion, Marxist atheism propaganda and education should be included in the teaching syllabi of political theory courses, ideological and moral courses, and relevant professional courses, ensuring that the teaching content and requirements are effectively implemented.

2004年，中共中央组织部、宣传部、中央文明办和中央党校、教育部、中国社会科学院联合发出的《关于进一步加强马克思主义无神论研究和宣传教育工作的通知》中，明确指出，各级各类学校是进行马克思主义无神论宣传教育的重要阵地，要围绕培育“四有”新人的目标，坚持国民教育与宗教分离的原则，把马克思主义无神论宣传教育列入政治理论课、思想品德课和有关专业课程的教学大纲，切实保证教学内容和教学要求落到实处。

In 2007, the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Public Security, and the State Administration for Religious Affairs jointly issued the "Opinions on Educating and Guiding College Students to Correctly Understand and Treat Religious Issues" (i.e., Document No. 16), proposing to adhere to the principle of separating education from religion, resolutely resist the infiltration activities of hostile foreign forces using religion, and cultivate students to establish a correct worldview, national view, and religious view.

2007年,中共中央统战部、教育部、公安部、国家宗教事务局联合下发了《关于教育引导大学生正确认识和对待宗教问题的意见》( 即16号文件)，提出，要坚持教育与宗教相分离的原则，坚决抵御境外敌对势力利用宗教进行的渗透活动，培养学生树立正确的世界观、民族观、宗教观。

In 2011, the "Opinions on Doing a Good Job in Resisting the Use of Religion by Foreign Forces for Infiltration into Universities and Preventing Campus Proselytism" (i.e., Document No. 18), forwarded by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council, jointly issued by the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee and the Ministry of Education, clearly proposed making Marxist atheism education a foundational task for resisting infiltration and preventing campus proselytism. The document proposed many specific measures to block channels for foreign forces using religion to infiltrate universities and proselytize on campus, and emphasized handling related infiltration and proselytism issues according to law. It particularly emphasized enriching the exposition of scientific atheism in ideological and political theory courses and relevant professional courses.

2011年，中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅转发的中央统战部和教育部等部门《关于做好抵御境外利用宗教对高校进行渗透和防范校园传教工作的意见》（即18号文件）中明确提出，将马克思主义无神论教育作为抵御渗透和防范校园传教的基础性工作。文件对阻断境外利用宗教对高校进行渗透和校园传教的渠道，提出诸多具体措施，并强调要依法处理有关渗透和传教问题。尤其强调，在思想政治理论课和有关专业课中，充实科学无神论的论述。

The above instructions, notices, and documents all indicate that Chinese Communists, based on the changed international and domestic situation, have developed Marxist atheism and put forward more specific and richer ideas.

上述批示、通知和文件都表明，中国共产党人根据变化了的国际国内形势，发展了马克思主义无神论，提出了更加具体和丰富的思想。

In addition to highlighting and emphasizing the propaganda and education of atheism, the Chinese Communists also proposed a more comprehensive and deeper understanding of the role of religion. In 2006, in his speech at the National United Front Work Conference, Hu Jintao pointed out, “We Chinese Communists are atheists and do not believe in any religion, but we are also historical materialists, and must view religion with a scientific and historical perspective, comprehensively understand the profound historical roots, social roots, and psychological roots of the emergence and existence of religion, comprehensively understand the objective reality that religion will exist for a long time in socialist society, comprehensively understand the complex situation in which religious issues are intertwined with political, economic, cultural, ethnic and other factors, and comprehensively understand the social phenomenon that religion has a relatively large influence on a considerable portion of the masses.” He also specifically pointed out, “Our protection of freedom of religious belief does not mean promoting religious belief.” [35] In 2007, in his speech at the second collective study session of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, Hu Jintao proposed that under the new historical conditions, we must adhere to the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method, comprehensively understand the objective reality that religion will exist for a long time in socialist society, comprehensively understand the complex situation in which religious issues are intertwined with political, economic, cultural, ethnic and other factors, comprehensively understand the special position of religious factors in contradictions among the people, strive to explore and master the laws of religion itself, and continuously improve the level of religious work. He also proposed that we must adhere to the Party’s basic policy on religious work, focus on stimulating the patriotic enthusiasm of religious believers and their initiative in building socialism with Chinese characteristics, unite them with non-believers, and jointly contribute to economic and social development.

除了突出和强调无神论的宣传教育外，中国共产党人也提出，更加全面和深入地认识宗教的作用。2006年，胡锦涛在全国统战工作会议上的讲话中指出，“我们中国共产党人是无神论者，不信仰任何宗教，但我们又是历史唯物主义者，必须以科学的历史的观点看待宗教，全面认识宗教产生和存在的深刻历史根源、社会根源、心理根源，全面认识宗教在社会主义社会将长期存在的客观现实，全面认识宗教问题同政治、经济、文化、民族等方面因素相交织的复杂状况，全面认识宗教对相当一部分群众有较大影响的社会现象。”还特别指出，“我们保护宗教信仰自由，并不是要提倡信教”。[35]2007年，胡锦涛在中央政治局第二次集体学习时的讲话时提出，在新的历史条件下，我们要坚持马克思主义的立场、观点、方法，全面认识宗教在社会主义社会将长期存在的客观现实，全面认识宗教问题同政治、经济、文化、民族等方面因素相交织的复杂状况，全面认识宗教因素在人民内部矛盾中的特殊地位，努力探索和掌握宗教自身的规律，不断提高宗教工作水平。他同时还提出，要坚持党的宗教工作基本方针，着力激发信教群众的爱国热情和建设中国特色社会主义事业的积极性，把他们同不信教群众团结在一起，共同为经济社会发展作贡献。

From 2003 onward, the Party’s relevant documents summarized the Party’s basic policy on religious work into four sentences, namely, “comprehensively implement the Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief, manage religious affairs according to law, adhere to the principle of independence and self-management, and actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society.” The revised Constitution of the Communist Party of China in 2007 for the first time included “comprehensively implement the Party’s basic policy on religious work, unite religious believers to contribute to economic and social development” in the Party Constitution. In terms of managing religious affairs according to law, in 2004, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on Religious Affairs.

从2003年以后，党的有关文件将党的宗教工作基本方针概括为四句话，即“全面贯彻党的宗教信仰自由政策，依法管理宗教事务，坚持独立自主自办的原则，积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应”。2007年修改后的《中国共产党章程》首次将“全面贯彻党的宗教工作基本方针，团结信教群众为经济社会发展作贡献”写进党章。在依法管理宗教事务方面，2004年，国务院颁布了《宗教事务条例》。

Overall, the situation China faced during this period was more complex: on the one hand, hostile forces from abroad, under the banner of religion, used various channels to infiltrate China, undermining ethnic unity and splitting national unification; on the other hand, contemporary trends of ignorant superstition still had considerable influence in China’s social life. In addition, domestically, especially in academia, there were different voices regarding religious development and the propaganda of atheism. Under these circumstances, the Party Central Committee maintained a clear understanding and developed and enriched the thought of Marxist atheism.

总的来说，这一时期我国所面临的局势更加复杂:一方面境外敌对势力打着宗教旗帜，利用各种渠道对我国进行渗透，破坏民族团结和分裂祖国统一；另一方面，当代愚昧迷信思潮在我国的社会生活中仍有相当影响。此外，国内尤其是学术界对于宗教发展和无神论宣传存在不同的声音。在这种情况下，党中央保持着清醒的认识，并发展和丰富了马克思主义无神论的思想。

In summary, across these three stages, the Chinese Communists adhered to the basic stance of Marxist atheism, such as upholding the policy of freedom of religious belief, upholding the separation of politics and religion, insisting that all Communist Party members should establish an atheistic worldview and not believe in religion, and insisting on the propaganda and education of atheism. However, the understanding and development of Marxist atheism differed in each stage, such as the role of religion in socialist society, the relationship between religion and cults, the practice of the principle of separating education from religion, and the status of atheist propaganda and education. These differences are closely related to the tasks and development goals of socialist construction in China at each stage, and are also the result of dealing with different practical problems faced in each period.

综上，在这三个阶段里，中国共产党人都坚持了马克思主义无神论的基本立场，如坚持宗教信仰自由政策、坚持政教分离、坚持共产党员都应树立无神论的世界观，不得信仰宗教，坚持无神论的宣传教育等等。然而每个阶段对马克思主义无神论的理解和发展又有所不同，如宗教在社会主义社会中的作用，宗教和邪教的关系，教育与宗教相分离原则的实践，无神论宣传教育的地位等等。这些不同，与每个阶段我国的社会主义建设任务和发展目标息息相关，也是处理每个时期所面临的不同实际问题而形成的。

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