The Question of Scientific Atheism from the Perspective of Adapting Marxism to the Chinese Context

Adapting Marxism to the Chinese context is the socio-historical process of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with the concrete realities of China’s socialist revolution and construction. Marxism adapted to the Chinese context is the product of Chinese Marxists’ continuous practical exploration and theoretical innovation in response to China’s national conditions. Scientific atheism is the ideological foundation of Marxism. In the process of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context, scientific atheism should also continuously adapt to China’s specific circumstances, developing and perfecting itself on the basis of China’s actual conditions.

马克思主义中国化是马克思主义基本原理同中国社会主义革命与建设的具体实际相结合的社会历史过程。中国化的马克思主义是中国的马克思主义者适应中国国情不断进行实践探索与理论创新的产物。科学无神论是马克思主义的思想基础。在马克思主义中国化的过程中，科学无神论也应不断适应中国的具体情况，在中国国情这一现实基础上不断发展和完善自身。

I. The Basic Connotations of Marxist Atheism

一、马克思主义无神论的基本内涵

Marxist atheism is the highest form of atheist development, a truly scientific and thorough atheism. The French Enlightenment, British empiricism, and especially classical German philosophy are the intellectual origins on which Marxist atheism relies; the development of modern natural science since the Renaissance provided the necessary technical means and empirical support for the emergence of Marxist atheism. As is well known, the maturation of Marxism underwent an intellectual trajectory from “religious critique” to “political critique” and then to “economic critique.” It can be said that atheism constitutes the starting point of Marxist thought, and Marxist atheism is precisely the spiritual essence of the Marxist view of religion.

马克思主义无神论是无神论发展的最高形态，是真正科学与彻底的无神论。法国启蒙运动与英国经验论思潮，特别是德国古典哲学是马克思主义无神论赖以产生的思想渊源，文艺复兴以来的近代自然科学的发展则为马克思主义无神论的产生提供了必要的技术手段与实证支持。众所周知，马克思主义的成熟经历了从“宗教批判”到“政治批判”，再到“经济批判”的思想历程。可以说，无神论构成了马克思主义的思维起点，而马克思主义无神论则正是马克思主义宗教观的精神实质。

Marxist atheist thought is concentrated in its analysis and critique of religion. Religion is the advanced form of theistic thought. Marxism scientifically reveals the essence of religion and the objective laws of its emergence, development, and extinction, and, on the basis of an accurate and comprehensive evaluation of religion’s social role, points out the basic attitudes and principles of the proletarian party toward religion.

马克思主义无神论思想集中体现于其对宗教的分析与批判中。宗教是有神论思想的高级形态。马克思主义科学地揭示了宗教的本质以及宗教产生、发展与消亡的客观规律，并在准确而全面评价宗教社会作用的基础上指明了无产阶级政党对待宗教的基本态度与基本原则。

Explaining religion through history is a fundamental perspective of the Marxist view of religion. Marx pointed out: “One should seek this essence (of religion) neither in ‘the essence of man’ nor in the predicates of God, but only in the real material world of each stage of religion’s development.” [1]1 Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Law: Introduction” (1843). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. Like other forms of social consciousness, religion is a reflection of social existence, though this reflection is illusory and distorted. “All religion is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men’s minds of those external forces which control their daily life, a reflection in which the earthly forces assume the form of supernatural forces.” [2]2 Engels, “Anti-Dühring” (1878). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. Religion originates neither from divine revelation nor from “the fabrications of swindlers,” but is the product of natural and social oppression, possessing profound natural, social, cognitive, and psychological roots. The social role of religion is also dual: on the one hand, in class society, religion is often used by the ruling class as an effective tool to narcotize the people and maintain rule; on the other hand, in specific periods, religion has also served as a spiritual weapon for the oppressed classes to resist class oppression. However, overall, as an illusory reflection of real existence, religion is essentially erroneous and negative; it cannot truly represent the fundamental interests of the working people, nor is it conducive to their real struggle for liberation and happiness. Historically, religion has undergone a process of development from natural religion to artificial religion, from polytheism to monotheism, from tribal religion to state religion, and then to world religion. With the development of productive forces and the improvement of people’s cognitive levels, religion will inevitably move toward extinction, but this will be a long historical process, “requiring a certain social foundation or a series of material conditions of existence, which themselves are the natural products of a long and painful process of development.” [3]3 Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 1 (1867). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. After the extinction of class society, the real roots on which religion depends will not be immediately eliminated; thus, religion will inevitably persist for a long time. The proletarian party should earnestly implement the policy of freedom of religious belief, oppose simplistic and crude “declarations of war on religion,” and at the same time persistently conduct atheist propaganda, guiding the masses to gradually establish a scientific worldview and outlook on life.

以历史说明宗教，是马克思主义宗教观的基本观点。马克思指出：“应该既不在‘人的本质’中，也不在上帝的宾词中去寻找（宗教的）这个本质，而只有到宗教的每个发展阶段的现实物质世界中，去寻找这个本质。”[1]如同其他社会意识形态一样，宗教是社会存在的反映，不过这种反映是虚幻的、歪曲的。“一切宗教都不过是支配着人们日常生活的外部力量在人们头脑中的幻想的反映，在这种反映中，人间的力量采取了超人间的力量的形式。”[2]宗教既非来源于天启，也非“骗子手的捏造”，而是自然压迫与社会压迫的产物，具有深刻的自然根源、社会根源、认识根源与心理根源。宗教的社会作用也具有两重性：一方面，在阶级社会中，宗教往往为统治阶级所用，成为其麻醉人民、维护统治的有效工具；另一方面，在特定时期，宗教也曾成为被统治阶级反抗阶级压迫的精神武器。不过，总的来说，宗教作为对现实存在的虚幻反映，本质上具有谬误性与消极性，不能真正代表劳动人民的根本利益，也不利于劳动人民争取自身解放与幸福的现实斗争。从历史上看，宗教经历了从自然宗教到人为宗教、从多神教到一神教、从部落宗教到国家宗教、再到世界宗教的发展过程。随着生产力的发展与人们认识水平的提高，宗教必然会走向消亡，但这将是一个漫长的历史过程，“需要有一定的社会基础或一系列物质生存条件，而这些条件本身又是长期的、痛苦的发展史的自然产物”[3]。阶级社会消亡之后，宗教赖以存在的现实根源并不会立即消除，因而宗教也必然将长期存在。无产阶级政党应当切实贯彻宗教信仰自由政策，反对简单粗暴地“向宗教宣战”，同时也应当坚持不懈地进行无神论宣传，引导人民群众逐步树立科学的世界观与人生观。

Marxist atheism provides us with a powerful ideological weapon for correctly understanding and handling various religious phenomena and atheist currents. Adapting to specific realities and actual conditions, accurately implementing the guiding ideology of Marxist atheism in the practice of socialist revolution and construction to address and handle various practical problems is an important task for Marxist atheists and also an opportunity to promote the development and innovation of Marxist atheism.

马克思主义无神论为我们正确看待和处理各种宗教现象与无神论思潮提供了有力的思想武器。适应具体实际与现实条件，在社会主义革命与建设实践中准确贯彻马克思主义无神论的指导思想以应对和处理各种现实问题，是马克思主义无神论者的重要任务，也是推动马克思主义无神论发展与创新的契机所在。

II. China’s Socio-Cultural Background and the Characteristics of Religious Belief

二、中国的社会文化背景与宗教信仰特质

Marxist atheism emerged from the European Christian cultural background and was gradually formed by Marxist thinkers on the basis of critiquing Christianity and summarizing the experience of the European workers’ movement. In terms of socio-cultural background and religious belief patterns, China and European countries exhibit extremely significant differences.

马克思主义无神论产生于欧洲基督教文化背景，是马克思主义思想家在批判基督教及总结欧洲工人运动经验的基础上逐步形成的。在社会文化背景与宗教信仰模式上，中国与欧洲各国具有极为显著的差异。

Similar to the early stages of other civilizations in world history, China’s ancient classical texts (such as the *Book of Documents*, the *Book of Songs*, and the *Book of Changes*) acknowledge and worship “Shangdi” (the Supreme Deity); later, the Chinese translation of the Bible’s term for the supreme god derived from this source. However, the Shangdi in the Confucian ancient tradition is fundamentally different from the Christian God. From the very beginning, it did not communicate with people through a prophet like Moses, but rather manifested directly through heaven, earth, and all things, especially through the will of the people—hence the saying, “Heaven sees as my people see; Heaven hears as my people hear.” [4]4 From the *Book of Documents* (Shangshu), a classic of ancient Chinese political and historical literature. The phrase expresses the idea that the will of Heaven is revealed through the will of the people. Therefore, “Heaven has no partial affections; it only assists the virtuous.” [5]5 From the *Book of Documents* (Shangshu). It means that Heaven does not show favoritism but only supports those who are virtuous. Heaven, based on the virtue demonstrated by the ruler among the people, decides whether to continue granting the ruling position. This tradition, from early on, determined the “far from gods, near to man” mode of thinking in traditional Chinese culture. Wise men of the Spring and Autumn period had already put forward the view that “the Way of Heaven is distant, while the Way of man is near.” [6]6 From the *Zuo Commentary* (Zuozhuan), a historical commentary on the *Spring and Autumn Annals*. The phrase is attributed to the statesman Zichan. Confucius explicitly stated: “To devote oneself to the duties due to the people, and to respect the spirits while keeping them at a distance, may be called wisdom.” [7]7 From the *Analects of Confucius* (Lunyu), Book 6, “Yong Ye.” The translation follows James Legge’s version. “If you do not know life, how can you know death?” [8]8 From the *Analects of Confucius* (Lunyu), Book 11, “Xian Jin.” The translation follows James Legge’s version. In later development, traditional Chinese culture, with Confucianism as its mainstream, consistently exhibited this humanistic color of “valuing the people rather than the gods,” profoundly influencing all aspects of society from daily life to state politics, and also determining the basic characteristics of China’s religious belief model.

与世界上其他民族文明初生的时代类似，在中国的上古经典文献（《尚书》、《诗经》及《周易》等）中是承认和崇拜“上帝”的，后来汉译《圣经》对至上神的翻译就来源于此。但儒家上古传统中的上帝与基督教有根本不同，它自始即不是借助摩西那样的先知与人进行交流，而是直接通过天地万物、特别是民众的意向而表现出来，所谓“天视自我民视，天听自我民听”[4]。因此，“皇天无亲，惟德是辅”[5]，上天会根据统治者在民众中表现出的德行，以决定是否继续赐予统治地位。这种传统，很早就决定了中国传统文化的“远神近人”之思维模式。春秋时代的贤士已提出“天道远，人道迩”[6]的观点。孔子更是明确指出：“务民之义，敬鬼神而远之，可谓知矣”[7]，“未知生，焉知死”[8]。在以后的发展中，以儒家为主流的中国传统文化始终表现出这种“重民而不重神”的人文主义色彩，深刻的影响着从百姓日用到国家政治等各个社会方面，也决定了中国宗教信仰模式的基本特质。

From “valuing the people rather than the gods,” three characteristics of the traditional Chinese religious belief model derive: 1. The state of religious belief exhibits pluralistic features. The native humanistic belief system of Confucianism, Daoism (based on indigenous shamanism and ghost worship), and foreign Buddhism, as well as Islam, coexisted peacefully, even mutually promoting one another. Although ideological confrontations were inevitable, there were no large-scale religious conflicts or persecutions. By the late traditional society of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the “unity of the three teachings” (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism) had become a conscious consensus among the three religions. This is almost unimaginable in the tradition of Christian monotheism. 2. The characteristics of religious belief are markedly utilitarian. People’s worship of specific religious idols often carries a clear worldly utilitarian consciousness; religious rituals and behaviors are directed toward utilitarian goals beyond faith itself, rarely exhibiting the “purity” esteemed in Christian belief. This further determined the traditional Chinese people’s weak awareness of religious doctrine, making specific religious beliefs relatively open and providing conditions for the coexistence and integration of different religions. 3. Religious belief is subordinate to political power. Various traditional Chinese religions have always been subordinate to imperial power, accepting its rule and domination, and never attained the status of ecclesiastical power above political power as in medieval Europe. Even within the Confucian order, which functioned as a quasi-“state religion,” the monarch firmly held religious authority in the name of the “Son of Heaven.” This made the status and role of religion in traditional Chinese society far inferior to that of Christianity in Europe.

由“重民而不重神”，衍化出中国传统宗教信仰模式的三个特点：1、宗教信仰状态呈现多元性特征。原生的人文信仰体系儒学与产生于本土巫术、鬼神信仰基础上的道教，以及外来的佛教，乃至伊斯兰教等和平共存，甚至相互促进。尽管必可避免地有思想上交锋，但却没有大规模的宗教冲突与宗教迫害。到了传统社会末期的明清时代，儒释道“三教合一”更是成为三家宗教的自觉共识。这在基督一神教的传统中几乎是不可想象的。2、宗教信仰特征具有明显的功利性。人们对特定宗教偶像的崇拜往往抱有明确的现世功利意识，宗教仪式与宗教行为都朝向信仰之外的功利目的，鲜有基督教信仰中所推崇的“纯洁性”。这又进一步决定了中国人传统的宗教信仰教义意识淡漠，从而使特定的宗教信仰都具有较大的开放性，为不同宗教的共处与融合提供了条件。3、宗教信仰从属于政权。中国传统的各种宗教一直从属于皇权，接受皇权的统治与支配，从来未获得欧洲中世纪那种教权高于政权的地位。即使在具备准“国教”功能的儒教秩序中，君主也以“天子”之名牢牢掌握着教权。这就使得中国传统社会中宗教的地位与作用远不能与欧洲基督教相比拟。

Although China’s socio-cultural background and religious belief model possess characteristics entirely different from those of the West, Marxism remains the sole correct ideological compass for our understanding and transformation of Chinese society, and Marxist atheism is likewise a powerful ideological weapon for our comprehension and handling of China’s religious theistic questions. It is only that Marxism continuously develops and perfects itself in the process of integrating with the actual conditions of various countries, and Marxist scientific atheism likewise needs to adapt to concrete realities and constantly undergo theoretical innovation before it can be truly implemented and carried out in the practice of socialist revolution and construction, playing its due role.

中国的社会文化背景与宗教信仰模式虽然具有与西方截然不同的特质，但马克思主义仍是我们认识和改造中国社会唯一正确的思想指针，马克思主义无神论同样也是我们理解和处理中国宗教有神论问题的有力思想武器。只是，马克思主义在与各国实际相结合的过程中不断发展和完善自身，而马克思主义的科学无神论同样也需要适应具体实际、不断进行理论创新，才能真正贯彻和落实于社会主义革命和建设实践中，发挥其应有的作用。

III. Experience and Reflections on the Sinicization of Marxist Atheism

三、马克思主义无神论中国化的经验与反思

As early as the period of the domestic revolutionary war, the Chinese Communists represented by Mao Zedong consciously applied Marxist atheist thought to guide the anti-imperialist, anti-feudal democratic revolutionary practice, both rationally integrating the anti-theocratic struggle into the anti-feudal struggle, and emphasizing the basic principle of freedom of religious belief, advocating the fundamental policy of propaganda and education, and at the appropriate time proposing the establishment of an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal united front led by the Communist Party that included religious believers. After the founding of New China, the Chinese Communists, on the basis of adhering to the basic principles of separation of politics and religion, separation of politics and education, and the propaganda and education of scientific atheism, united the broad masses of religious believers, launched an anti-imperialist patriotic movement targeting Christianity and Catholicism under Western control, and gradually transformed the churches into religious undertakings that were self-governing, self-propagating, and self-supporting by the Chinese people. In border areas with a strong religious atmosphere, vigorous democratic reform movements were carried out, fundamentally destroying the feudal exploitative and oppressive system on which religion depended, greatly promoting the development of social productive forces and the improvement of the people’s living standards. Since reform and opening up, the Party Central Committee has thoroughly reversed the leftist errors in religious work during the “Cultural Revolution,” and on the premise of clarifying the basic atheist stance of Communists and strengthening the propaganda and education of atheism, it has proposed comprehensively and correctly implementing the Party’s religious policy, strengthening the management of religious affairs according to law, and actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society, thereby opening a new phase in religious work.

早在国内革命战争时期，以毛泽东为代表中国共产党人就自觉地运用马克思主义无神论思想指导反帝、反封建的民主革命实践，既将反神权合理的融入反封建的斗争中，又强调宗教信仰自由的基本原则，主张宣传教育的根本方针，并适时提出建立共产党领导的、包括宗教信徒在内的反帝、反封建统一战线。新中国建立后，中国共产党人在坚持政教分离、政治与教育分离的基本原则与科学无神论宣传教育的基础上，团结广大信教群众，针对受西方控制的基督教与天主教开展了反帝爱国运动，逐步将教会变为由中国人自治、自传、自养的宗教事业。在宗教氛围浓厚的边疆地区，则开展了轰轰烈烈的民主改革运动，从根本上摧毁宗教赖以存在的封建剥削压迫制度，极大地促进了社会生产力的发展与人民生活水平的改善。改革开放以来，党中央彻底扭转了“文革”中对待宗教工作的左倾错误，在明确共产党人无神论基本立场与加强无神论宣传教育的前提下，提出要全面、正确地贯彻执行党的宗教政策，依法加强对宗教事务的管理，积极引导宗教与社会主义相适应，从而开启了宗教工作的新局面。

As a universal truth, Marxist atheism should and can adapt to various different concrete realities. The process of the sinicization of Marxist atheism is precisely the process of its development, perfection, and implementation in practice. In this process, first, the basic principles of Marxist atheism must be firmly upheld without wavering. Marxism necessarily takes atheism as its fundamental basis, and necessarily distinguishes itself from various religious theistic currents of thought with a thoroughgoing atheist stance. Here, there is no room whatsoever for wavering or compromise. Second, religious and theistic issues must be handled flexibly according to China’s national conditions. Based on China’s socio-cultural background, the characteristics of traditional religions, and the new circumstances of current religious propagation, appropriate religious management measures and methods of atheist propaganda and education should be adopted, avoiding a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Third, Marxist atheism should constantly criticize various new theistic currents of thought, leading the direction of development of social ideology and culture. Under circumstances where the realistic basis of theism will exist for a long time, religious theistic currents of thought will still perfect themselves as the times develop, and will still emerge in endless variety. Only by constantly advancing with the times can Marxist atheism effectively respond to and criticize religious theistic currents of thought. Finally, Marxist atheism should construct its own positive content from the perspective of serving reality, adapting to the needs of the era of socialist modernization, providing reasonable answers to questions of the meaning of life, establishing a stable foundation for moral practice, and finding a rational anchor for the value of life.

作为普遍真理，马克思主义无神论应该也能够与各种不同的现实情况相适应。马克思主义无神论的中国化过程也正是其发展完善并落实于实际的过程。在这个过程中，首先必须坚持马克思主义无神论的基本原则不动摇。马克思主义必然以无神论作为根本基点，必然以彻底的无神论立场与各种宗教有神论思潮区别开来。在这里，没有丝毫的动摇与调和之余地。其次，必须根据中国国情灵活地处理宗教与有神论问题。根据中国的社会文化背景、传统宗教特质以及当前宗教传播的新情况，采取适当的宗教管理措施与无神论宣传教育方式，不搞“一刀切”。再次，马克思主义无神论应当不断批判各种新有神论思潮，引领社会思想文化的发展方向。在有神论的现实基础将长期存在的情况下，宗教有神论思潮仍会随时代的发展而不断完善自身，仍会以各种面目层出不穷。马克思主义无神论惟有不断与时俱进，才能有效的应对和批判宗教有神论思潮。最后，马克思主义无神论应当从服务现实的角度构建自身的积极内容，适应社会主义现代化建设的时代需要，为人生意义问题提供合理的解答，为道德实践建立稳定的根基，为生命价值找到理性的维系。

References

参考文献

[1]1 Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Law: Introduction” (1843). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. *Selected Works of Marx and Engels*, Vol. 3, People’s Publishing House, 1979, p. 170.

[１] 《马克思恩格斯选集》，第3卷，人民出版社，1979，第170页。

[2]2 Engels, “Anti-Dühring” (1878). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. *Selected Works of Marx and Engels*, Vol. 3, p. 354.

[２] 《马克思恩格斯选集》，第3卷，第354页。

[3]3 Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 1 (1867). The citation is from the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 1, in *Selected Works of Marx and Engels*, Vol. 2, p. 142.

[３] 马克思：《资本论》，第1卷，见《马克思恩格斯选集》第2卷，第142页。

[4]4 From the *Book of Documents* (Shangshu), a classic of ancient Chinese political and historical literature. The phrase expresses the idea that the will of Heaven is revealed through the will of the people. *Book of Documents*, “Great Declaration, Part II.”

[４] 《尚书·泰誓中》。

[5]5 From the *Book of Documents* (Shangshu). It means that Heaven does not show favoritism but only supports those who are virtuous. *Zuo Commentary*, Fifth Year of Duke Xi of Lu.

[５] 《左传•僖公五年》。

[6]6 From the *Zuo Commentary* (Zuozhuan), a historical commentary on the *Spring and Autumn Annals*. The phrase is attributed to the statesman Zichan. *Zuo Commentary*, Eighteenth Year of Duke Zhao of Lu.

[６] 《左传•昭公十八年》。

[7]7 From the *Analects of Confucius* (Lunyu), Book 6, “Yong Ye.” The translation follows James Legge’s version. *Analects*, “Yong Ye.”

[７] 《论语•雍也》。

[8]8 From the *Analects of Confucius* (Lunyu), Book 11, “Xian Jin.” The translation follows James Legge’s version. *Analects*, “Advanced.”

[８] 《论语•先进》。

Online Editor: Jia Fei

网络编辑：嘉扉