Superstitious Behavior — An Explanation Based on Control Strategy Theory

Abstract: Although science and technology are advancing rapidly and many traditional superstitious ideas have been dispelled, in fact the forms of superstition are also constantly being renovated. It runs through all fields of traditional and modern society, crossing all socioeconomic statuses and educational levels. This study, from the perspective of control strategy theory, attempts to explain superstitious behavior in terms of its psychological causes, elaborating on the situational triggers, cognitive factors, emotional factors, and adaptive functions of superstitious behavior. With the improvement of people’s scientific literacy, superstitious behavior will inevitably be eradicated in the future.

提 要：尽管科学技术日新月异，很多传统迷信思想已经被破除，但事实上迷信形式也在花样翻新，它贯穿于传统和现代社会的各个领域之中，跨越所有社会经济地位和教育水平。本研究以控制策略理论为视角，试图从心理成因方面对迷信行为进行解释，阐述了迷信行为的情境诱因、认知因素、情绪因素以及适应功能，随着人们科学素养的提高，必将在未来根除迷信行为。

Keywords: superstitious behavior; psychological causes; control strategy

关键词：迷信行为 心理成因 控制策略

I. Introduction

一、引言

Although science and technology are advancing rapidly and many traditional superstitious ideas have been dispelled, in fact the forms of superstition are also constantly being renovated. It runs through all fields of traditional and modern society, crossing all socioeconomic statuses and educational levels.[1]1 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. A 2006 questionnaire survey showed that the most common superstitious psychological tendency among contemporary college students was traditional secular superstition,[2]2 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. such as the popular “online divination” among college students, that is, computer fortune-telling cloaked in the so-called guise of science. A 2008 questionnaire survey showed that 12.9% of college students held beliefs in spirits and ghosts; 8.6% held relatively strong fatalistic beliefs; 6.3% believed in supernatural powers; 3.1% believed in luck; 25.5% wore lucky charms; 26.1% engaged in praying to gods and Buddhas; 6.2% played superstitious games; 20.6% engaged in divination; and 13.9% had taboo behaviors. 31.2% of college students believed in superstition to seek good fortune and avoid harm; 20.7% believed that through superstition they could obtain psychological support; 6.3% believed that through superstition they could gain a sense of control; and 32.4% were curious about superstition. These data all indicate that the phenomenon of superstition among college students is already a problem that cannot be ignored.[3]3 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. Why are college students, who have received a good education, easily attracted to superstition? One possible answer is that people of different eras all face similar life circumstances.

尽管科学技术日新月异，很多传统迷信思想已经被破除，但事实上迷信形式也在花样翻新，它贯穿于传统和现代社会的各个领域之中，跨越所有社会经济地位和教育水平①。2006年的一项问卷调查显示，当代大学生最常见的迷信心理倾向是传统世俗迷信②，如大学生中比较流行的“网络占卜”，也就是披上所谓科学外衣的电脑算命。2008年的一项问卷调查显示，有12．9％的大学生具有灵魂鬼神信念；8．6％的大学生存在较强的命运论信念；有6．3％的大学生相信超自然能力。有3．1％的大学生相信运气说，有25．5％的大学生会佩戴幸运物，有26．1％的大学生有求神拜佛现象，有6．2％的大学生玩过迷信游戏，有20．6％的大学生有过占卜行为，有13．9％的大学生有禁忌行为。有31．2％的大学生相信迷信是为了趋利避害，有20．7％的大学生相信通过迷信可以得到心理依托，有6．3％的大学生认为通过迷信能够获得控制感，而有32．4％的大学生对迷信存有好奇心。这些数据都说明大学生迷信现象已经是一个不容忽视的问题③。为什么受过良好教育的大学生群体容易被迷信所吸引呢? 一个可能的答案是，不同时代的人都面临着相似的人生境遇。

II. Control Strategy Theory

二、控制策略理论

Rothbaum et al. proposed the control strategy theory in 1982, arguing that individuals always strive to control the external world and adopt certain control strategies. Control is a dual-process structure, and they distinguished between primary control strategy and secondary control strategy. Primary control strategy is a strategy in which the individual takes direct action aimed at influencing the external environment; secondary control strategy is a strategy in which the individual aims to change their own cognition.[4]4 Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 5-37. Heckhausen and Schulz further proposed that in uncertain situations, individuals will first attempt primary control. Subsequently, if it exceeds the individual’s capability and primary control is perceived as unable to achieve the control goal, in order to reduce the negative consequences of control failure, adapt to and conform to the environment, and regain a sense of control, they will resort to compensatory secondary control. Secondary control may play a buffering role against negative affect or learned helplessness.[5]5 Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102(2), 284-304.

Rothbaum等人于1982年提出控制策略理论，认为个体总是努力去控制外界，并采取一定的控制策略（control strategy），控制是双进程结构，并对初级控制策略（primary control strategy）与次级控制策略（secondary control strategy）做出了区分，初级控制策略是个体直接采取行动，以影响外界环境为目的的策略，次级控制策略是个体以改变自身认知为目的的策略④。Heckhausen和Schulz进一步提出在不确定情境中，个体会首先尝试初级控制，之后，如果超出个人的能力范围，初级控制被知觉为无法达成控制目标，为了减少控制失败的消极后果，适应并顺应环境，重获控制感，就会诉诸于补偿性的次级控制，次级控制可能起着对抗消极影响或习得无助感的缓冲作用⑤。

Rothbaum et al. distinguished several subtypes of secondary control strategy, one of which is called secondary illusory control strategy. It relies on magical or superstitious thinking strategies and refers to a control strategy in which the individual attributes desired outcomes to luck, fate, chance, and the like, such as accepting the arrangement of fate while believing that fate is benevolent toward them and believing that miracles will happen. Surveys have shown that when facing the fragility of life and human limits, when people feel powerless, the elderly, by entrusting themselves to God, unburden themselves mentally, thereby coping more easily and gaining a sense of control — a control illusion.[6]6 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. When asked how they cope with stressful events, the elderly often answer: trust in God.[7]7 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. People use various superstitious means and rituals to control the situation rather than relying on themselves. In a word, illusory control strategy is people’s attempt to form an alliance with supernatural forces.

Rothbaum等人对次级控制策略的几种亚型进行了区分，其中一种被称为次级虚幻型控制策略（secondary illusory control strategy），它依赖于奇幻或迷信思维策略，是指个体将所期待的结果归因于幸运、命运和机遇等的一种控制策略，如接受命运的安排，同时相信命运对他们是仁慈的，相信会有奇迹发生。有调查显示，当面对生命的脆弱和人的极限，当人无能为力的时候，老年人通过把自己交托给上帝，而卸下精神负担，从而更容易地应对，并获得控制感——控制幻觉⑥。当问老年人如何应对压力事件时，他们经常回答：相信上帝⑦。人们通过各种迷信手段、各种仪式来控制情境而不是依赖自身控制，一句话，虚幻型控制策略就是人们与超自然力量结盟的尝试。

III. Explanation of Superstitious Behavior by Control Strategy Theory

三、控制策略理论对迷信行为的解释

(1) Situational Triggers

（一）情境诱因

In life, there are many critical moments when we have only limited opportunities to perform and individuals must make a desperate effort to perform at their best. For example, students often have only one chance to defend a thesis or take a final exam; the result of an important exam or interview can be extremely important and determine a person’s life. Similarly, athletes, when competing for qualification in the Olympic Games, also rely on their performance on the spot. Given the importance of competitive outcomes for individual survival and development, most people will prepare as fully as possible for the tests they face. Just as students study hard before exams, athletes train intensively before tournaments to achieve optimal physical condition. However, no matter how well prepared, people still feel that some factors in such competitive situations are uncontrollable. For example, students cannot decide the exam questions, and athletes cannot control external factors such as opponents and competition conditions (e.g., weather, equipment quality, etc.).

在生命中有很多关键时刻，我们只有有限的机会来表现自己，个人需要奋力一搏，发挥最佳状态。例如，学生们常常只有一次机会来论文答辩或参加期末考试，一次重要考试或面试的结果可能是极其重要的并且决定一个人的一生，同样，运动员在争取奥运会的比赛资格时，也依赖于他们的临场发挥。鉴于竞争结果对于个体生存和发展的重要性，大多数人都会为所面临的考验尽可能地充分准备。和学生在考试前努力学习是一样的，运动员在参加锦标赛之前紧张训练，以求达到最佳身体状态。但是，无论准备得多么好，在这种竞争情境中人们依然觉得有一些因素是无法控制的。例如学生无法决定考试的题目，运动员无法控制像对手、比赛条件（例如天气，器材质量等）这样的外部因素。

Surveys have shown that groups in uncertain and stressful situations are most likely to exhibit superstitious behavior, such as gamblers, sailors, financial investors, soldiers,[1]1 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. and athletes.[8]8 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. According to control strategy theory, the reason uncertain and stressful situations easily induce superstitious behavior is that in uncontrollable situations, a simple way to cope with stress is to resort to luck; people hope that good luck will help them perform at their best. In social psychology, luck is regarded as a causal category used by people to explain success or failure, attributing it to factors beyond the individual (such as ability, effort, or more stable situational factors like task difficulty).[9]9 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. Sometimes it is equated with random probability or chance; sometimes it specifically refers to supernatural causal reasons, often associated with fate.[10]10 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. In fact, most people rely on superstitious thoughts and rituals to pray for good luck or avoid bad luck.[8]8 The original text cites a source here but does not provide a full reference; the note is retained as in the original. For example, Michael Jordan (a graduate of the University of North Carolina) always wore his faded blue University of North Carolina shorts under his NBA uniform for good luck. Similarly, the famous tennis player Bjorn Borg did not shave during tournaments. Professional golfer Tiger Woods wore a red shirt on Sundays for good luck, and tournament finals are usually held on Sundays.

有调查显示，处在不确定和压力情境中的群体最可能表现出迷信行为，如赌徒、水手、金融投资者、士兵①以及运动员⑧。根据控制策略理论，不确定和压力情境之所以容易诱发迷信行为，是因为在不可控情境中，应对压力的一种简方式是求助于运气，人们希望好运帮助自己发挥最佳水平。在社会心理学中，运气被视为人们用来解释成败时，归因于个人因素之外（如能力、努力或像任务困难这样更稳定的情境因素）的因果范畴⑨。有时等同于随机概率或机遇，有时特指超自然的因果原因，往往与命运相关⑩。事实上，大多数人依靠迷信思想和仪式来祈求好运气或避免坏运气⑧。例如，迈克尔·乔丹Michael Jordan（毕业于北卡罗来纳州大学）一生总是在他的NBA制服下面穿着他发旧的蓝色北卡罗来纳州大学短裤以求好运气。同样，著名的网球运动员比约恩·博格Bjorn Borg在打锦标赛期间不刮胡子。职业高尔夫球手老虎伍兹Tiger Woods在周日穿红色衬衫以求获得好运，而锦标赛的决赛通常都在周日举行。

(2) Cognitive Factors

（二）认知因素

According to control strategy theory, superstitious behavior is a secondary illusory control strategy based on invalid beliefs; the attribution does not conform to objective reality, and there is no causal connection between behavior and outcome. Heckhausen and Schulz argued that the goal of superstitious behavior is not to directly control the external environment, but to gain self-confidence by distorting one’s own cognition.[5]5 Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102(2), 284-304. For example, Ma Jinfei’s research shows that in gain situations, when assessing moderate risk, college students obtain risk gains by actively controlling random events; when assessing high risk, they obtain certain gains through conservative strategies. In loss situations, when assessing high risk, college students avoid losses by actively controlling random events. This irrational decision-making can be understood as college students’ blind superstition in their own personal luck.[11]11 Ma, J. F. (2014). [The original Chinese title is not provided in the text; the note is retained as in the original.]

根据控制策略理论，迷信行为是建立在无效信念上的次级虚幻型控制策略，归因并不符合客观现实，行为与结果之间根本没有因果联系。Heckhausen和Schulz认为，迷信行为的目标并不是直接控制外部环境，而是通过扭曲自己的认知获得自信⑤。例如，马锦飞的研究表明，在获得情境中，评估中等风险时，大学生通过主动控制随机事件的方式获得风险收益；评估高风险时，大学生通过保守策略获得确定性收益。在损失情境中，评估高风险时，大学生通过主动控制随机事件的方式避免损失，这种非理性决策可被理解为大学生对自己个人运气的盲目迷信{11}。

Interestingly, research has shown that people adopt superstitious strategies merely to gain a sense of control, without actually endorsing the controlling power of such superstition.{12} For example, studies on superstitious thinking in uncertain and stressful situations indicate that people attempt to use superstitious strategies when they cannot determine the outcome of events and lack a sense of control,{13} yet while employing these strategies, they simultaneously deny their effectiveness. Research on superstition in sports shows that although athletes frequently use superstitious strategies (such as prayer, dressing rituals, and lucky charms), they generally do not believe in the efficacy of these superstitions.{14}~{16} Therefore, in uncertain, stressful situations, even when people recognize that superstitious behavior is ineffective, they will engage in it with a mixture of belief and doubt in order to gain a sense of control.{17} This sense of control is merely an illusion of control.{18}

有趣的是，有研究表明，人们仅仅为了获得控制感而采取迷信策略，而并不认可这种迷信的控制力{12}。例如，对不确定和压力情境下人们的迷信思想（superstitionl）的研究表明，人们在无法决定事件的结果，以及缺乏控制感的情况下会尝试使用迷信策略（superstition strategy）{13}，但是人们使用迷信策略的同时，却对其效果持否认态度。对体育领域的迷信研究表明，尽管运动员频繁地使用迷信策略（如祈祷、着装仪式、幸运符），但他们一般都不相信这些迷信的效果{14}~{16}。因此，在不确定、压力情境下，人们即使认识到迷信行为是无效的，也会将信将疑地进行这种行为来获得控制感{17}。而这种控制感仅仅只是控制幻觉{18}。

(3) Emotional Factors

（三）情绪因素

When facing important turning points in life, individuals experience rising tension and anxiety; a temporary sense of loss of control triggers anxiety, while a prolonged sense of loss of control can lead to learned helplessness. Learned helplessness refers to the belief that the current situation is uncontrollable, a belief that subsequently affects individuals’ performance in controllable situations.{19}

当面临人生的重要转折点，个体的紧张和焦虑感油然而生，暂时的失控感会引起焦虑，长期的失控感会引发习得性无助感（learned helplessness）。习得性无助是指人们认为当前情境是不可控的，这种信念会影响他们之后在可控情境中的行为表现{19}。

According to control strategy theory, humans possess a motivation to avoid the negative emotions elicited by the perception of uncontrollability. In emergency events, adopting illusory control strategies can reduce the aversive feeling of loss of control.{20} Research on the illusion of control shows that in uncontrollable situations, individuals do not necessarily exhibit learned helplessness; in fact, in such situations, people may develop a misperception of the causal relationship between behavior and outcome—that is, they fail to recognize that behavior is independent of the outcome. Based on this, Matute argues that learned helplessness and the illusion of control represent opposite poles of the same continuum.{21} This explains why superstitious behavior is so prevalent in reality: in uncontrollable situations, individuals, driven by the need to gain a sense of competence through control or to maintain a sense of control in order to alleviate anxiety over loss of control, use superstitious behavior to obtain a sense of control—though this sense of control is illusory.{22} For example, Keinan used a school setting as the background for superstition research, contacting students at Tel Aviv University either one and a half hours before an exam (high-stress group) or on a regular study day (low-stress group). Participants were asked several questions, some of which were designed to elicit superstitious behavior (such as knocking on wood). For instance, participants were asked whether they had ever been involved in a traffic accident. The experimenter recorded whether participants knocked on wood. As Keinan predicted, participants in the high-stress group knocked on wood more frequently than those in the low-stress group.{13}

根据控制策略理论，人具有一种避免由不可控知觉引发的消极情绪的动机，在紧急事件中，采取虚幻控制策略可以减少失控的厌恶感{20}。控制幻觉的研究表明，在不可控情境中人们不一定会表现出习得性无助，事实上，在不可控情境中，人们可能对行为—结果两者因果关系的认知产生错觉，即无法认识到行为是独立于结果的。Matute据此认为习得性无助和控制幻觉分别代表了同一连续体相反的两极{21}。这也就解释了为什么迷信行为在现实中如此普及，在不可控情境中，个体出于通过控制获得胜任感或维持控制感以缓解失控焦虑的需要，利用迷信行为获得控制感，当然这种控制感是虚幻的{22}。例如，Keinan以学校情境为迷信研究的背景，在考试前一个半小时前接触特拉维夫大学的学生（高压力组）或者在一个常规学习日接触他们（低压力组）。询问参与者好几个问题，其中一些是为引发迷信行为（如敲木头）而设计的。例如，询问参与者是否卷入过一场交通意外。实验者记录参与者是否敲击木头（Knock on wood按字面的意思就是“敲敲木头”，这个短语是指接触木制的东西可以确保好运、甩掉坏运气。这是一个典型的英语惯用语）。就像Keinan预测的那样，高压力组的被试比低压力组的被试更频繁地敲木头{13}。

(4) Adaptive Function

（四）适应功能

A lack of a sense of control often leads to a lack of self-confidence,{23} and just as excellent performance requires learning and training, the cultivation of self-confidence is also necessary.{24} So, how can we maintain a sense of confidence and control in order to better adapt to our environment?

对控制感的缺乏时常会导致自信心的缺乏{23}，就像出色的表现需要学习和训练一样，自信心的培养也是必要的{24}。那么，我们如何才能保持自信和控制的感觉以更好的适应环境呢?

According to control strategy theory, superstitious people generally believe that luck is a stable personal characteristic,{25} believing that some people are born lucky; when people talk about luck, they mostly refer to a supportive force they can rely on, treating luck as a means of controlling outcomes. Many students and athletes report engaging in superstitious thoughts and behaviors to enhance their performance.① Neil argues that superstition has a “psychological placebo” function.{26} That is, superstitious behavior does lead to better performance, simply because people believe in this effect. Keinan explains this phenomenon along the same line of thought.{13} He argues that superstition and magical thinking help individuals reduce stress, because superstitious thinking can create a self-fulfilling prophecy: practical superstition can increase optimism, reduce stress, and thereby improve work efficacy.

根据控制策略理论，迷信的人普遍认为幸运是个人的一种稳定的特征{25}，相信有些人生来就是幸运儿；当人们谈到幸运，大都是指他们可以依赖的支持力量，把幸运作为一种控制结果的途径。许多学生和运动员报告说参与迷信思想和行为是为了增进他们的表现①。Neil认为迷信有“心理安慰剂”的功能{26}。也就是说，迷信行为确实导致更好的表现，仅仅因为人们相信这种效果。Keinan基于相同的思想路线解释了这一现象{13}。他认为迷信和奇幻思想会帮助个体减少压力，因为迷信思想可以树立一个自我实现的预言：实践型的迷信可以增加乐观， 减少压力，并因此提高工作效能。

4. Implications

四、启示

According to control strategy theory, in controllable situations, the choice of control strategy is primary control, which is singularly oriented toward skills and abilities. In uncertain situations, individuals will first attempt primary control; if this fails, they will then switch control strategies and choose secondary control, such as the secondary illusory control strategy of superstition, thereby obtaining an illusion of control and inhibiting the development of learned helplessness. In situations that contain both deterministic and uncertain factors, individuals will simultaneously choose both primary and secondary control strategies, with both control processes operating concurrently, which has a certain adaptive significance for the individual. Regardless of the era, humanity must face unknown domains, uncertainty, and stressful situations. The use of superstitious strategies is preserved precisely as a secondary control strategy; it helps people overcome learned helplessness and regain a sense of control, serving as a means for people to seek inner peace. Whatever people’s existing attitudes toward superstition may be, when their sense of control is weakened, superstitious strategies will exert a universal appeal.

根据控制策略理论，在可控情境中，控制策略的选择是以技能和能力为单一定向的初级控制。而在不确定情境中，个人会首先尝试初级控制，如果失败，会继而转换控制策略，选择次级控制，例如迷信这种次级虚幻型控制策略，从而获得控制幻觉，抑制习得无助的发展。在同时具备确定性因素和不确定性因素的情境中，个体会同时选择初级控制策略和次级控制策略，两种控制过程同时起作用，这对于个体具有一定的适应意义。而无论哪个时代，人类都要面对未知的领域、不确定性以及压力情境，迷信策略的使用正是作为一种次级控制策略而得以保留，它帮助人克服习得性无助、重获控制感，是人们寻求内心平静的一种手段。无论人们现有的对迷信的态度如何，当人们的控制感削弱，迷信策略就会产生普遍的吸引力。

Precisely because of this, we must use the weapon of scientific education to eliminate superstition. Continuing to conduct ideological and political education for the people, especially for university students, and popularizing scientific and cultural knowledge are extremely necessary, because scientific knowledge can effectively arouse people’s doubts about the effectiveness of superstitious strategies. Due to a lack of necessary scientific knowledge, primitive people used superstition as a primary control strategy, and as primary control, superstition is clearly not adaptive in any way. Therefore, in contemporary society, education can prevent superstitious strategies from being used as primary control by ignorant minds. As people’s scientific literacy improves, superstitious behavior will inevitably be eradicated in the future.

正因为如此，我们要用科学教育的武器来扫除迷信。继续对人们，特别是大学生群体进行思想政治教育，普及科学文化知识是极其必要的，因为科学知识可以有效地唤起人们对迷信策略有效性的质疑。由于缺乏必要的科学知识，原始先民把迷信当做初级控制策略来使用，而作为初级控制，迷信显然是不具有任何适应性的。所以，在当代社会，教育可以预防迷信策略被愚昧的头脑当作初级控制来使用，随着人们科学素养的提高，必将在未来根除迷信行为。

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