China’s Humanist Tradition and Atheist Spirit

China’s humanist tradition of “people as the root, the people as precious”

中国“人为本、民为贵”的人本主义传统

If, in the West, humanism arose from the Renaissance movement, thereafter increasingly becoming a dominant social trend of thought, and ultimately establishing secular democratic states, then China’s humanist concept was already brewing in ancient civilization, developing continuously, and becoming the internal driving force for the endless vitality of our nation. China’s humanism is concentrated in two aspects: in the relationship between “Heaven” and “man,” it advocates “people as the root”; in the relationship between “the sovereign” and “the people,” it advocates “the people as precious.” This is the key to understanding all of China’s history and current situation.

如果说，在西方，人本主义是起自文艺复兴运动，而后日益成为一种社会主导思潮，并最终确立了世俗的民主国家，那么，中国的人本主义理念，早在古代文明中即已酝酿，并连绵发展，成为我们这个民族生生不息的内在原动力。中国的人本主义集中表现在两个方面：在“天”与“人”的关系上，主“人为本”，在“君”与“民”的关系上，主“民为贵”。这是理解中国全部历史和现状的钥匙。

“People as the root” and “the people as precious” are deeply ingrained concepts in traditional Chinese culture. Modern scholar Guo Moruo advocated using a “people-centered standard” [1]1 “People-centered standard” (人民本位): A historiographical principle advocated by the Chinese Marxist scholar Guo Moruo (1892–1978), meaning that history should be evaluated from the standpoint of the common people rather than the ruling elite. to replace a “monarch-centered standard” in observing all of Chinese history; this view of history reflects our humanist tradition. The author borrows this here: traditional Chinese culture is “human-centered,” not “deity-centered.”

“人为本”“民为贵”，是中国传统文化中根深蒂固的理念。现代学者郭沫若主张用“人民本位”替代“帝王本位”去观察中国的全部历史，这种历史观反映的就是我们的人本主义传统。笔者这里借用一下，中国的传统文化是“人本位”的，而不是“神本位”的。

The religion most characteristic of Chinese tradition can be broadly summarized as “revering Heaven and worshipping ancestors”; the attitude toward ghosts and spirits can be summarized by Confucius’s saying, “Respect ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance” [2]2 “Respect ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance”: A saying from the *Analects* of Confucius (6.22), reflecting a pragmatic, non-committal attitude toward the supernatural.; and what dominates all religious concepts is still the shamanic spirit that highlights man’s triumph over Heaven. “Revering Heaven and worshipping ancestors” is the core of Confucian religion and also a component of its ritual teachings. Because of “ancestor worship,” whether an immortal soul is needed became a long-debated issue within Confucianism; because Heaven is “supreme and unparalleled,” it must be revered in every sense, so the relationship between Heaven and man also acquired religious significance. The religious policies of successive dynasties mostly followed this maxim from the *Book of Changes*: “The sage uses the way of the spirits to establish teachings, and all under Heaven submit.” Why? According to the *Guanzi* chapter “Shepherding the People”: “If the spirits are not made clear, the ignorant people will not awaken”; the “way of the spirits” is merely a subject set up to educate the “ignorant people.” According to Xunzi’s “Discourse on Heaven,” “using the way of the spirits to establish teachings” is an ornamentation of “ritual,” a cultural form of ritual, not an affirmation of the real existence of ghosts and spirits: “When the sun or moon is eclipsed, they rescue them; when there is drought, they pray for rain; they divine by tortoise shell and milfoil before deciding great affairs—not because they think they will obtain what they seek, but to ornament them. Thus the gentleman regards them as ornament, but the common people regard them as spirits. To regard them as ornament is auspicious; to regard them as spirits is inauspicious.” They all believed that it is only the common people and the ignorant who believe in ghosts and spirits, not the great men and gentlemen.

最具中国传统特色的宗教，大体可用“敬天祭祖”概括之；对待鬼神的态度，则可用孔子所谓“敬鬼神而远之”概括，而支配一切宗教观念的，依然是突出人定胜天的巫觋精神。“敬天祭祖”是儒家宗教的核心，也是它的礼教组成部分。由于“祭祖”，所以是否需要一个不灭的灵魂，曾成为儒家内部长期争论的问题；因为天“至高无上”，不论从哪个意义上都需要敬畏，所以天人关系问题又具有了宗教意义。历代王朝的宗教政策，大都遵行《周易》的这一箴言：“圣人以神道设教而天下服矣”。为什么？按《管子·牧民》的解释：“不明鬼神则陋民不悟”，“神道”只是为了教育“陋民”设置的科目。依《荀子·天论》则“神道设教”是对“礼”的一种文饰，是礼的一种文化形态，而不是肯定鬼神的真实存在：“日月食而救之，天旱而雩，卜筮然后决大事，非以为得求也，以文之也。故君子以为文，而百姓以为神。以为文则吉，以为神则凶也。”他们都认为，相信鬼神的只是百姓陋民，而不应该是大人君子。

On the other hand, however, shamans, as a product of the separation of man from nature and man from the spirits, signify man’s awareness of his own strength, the consciousness of man striving to become his own master. Mythological stories like Sun Wukong’s havoc in Heaven, Nezha’s havoc in the sea, Jingwei filling the sea, the celestial maiden descending to earth, and Jiang Ziya conferring titles on gods all embody an unyielding attitude toward the “supreme and unparalleled” and a spirit of struggle to subdue the “supreme and unparalleled.” Therefore, as the magical arts of shamans, including superstitious practices like divination, summoning spirits, exorcising demons, and healing illnesses, were gradually replaced by the growth of empirical knowledge and science and technology, the spirit of striving for man to be his own master, especially the aspect of independence, self-respect, self-confidence, and self-reliance, was transformed into the inner character of our nation. This character is also clearly reflected in the traditional view of religion.

然而另一方面，巫觋作为人与自然分离，人与神分离的产物，则标志着人对自身力量的自觉，是人力求成为自己主人的自觉。像孙悟空闹天宫，哪吒闹海，精卫填海，天女下凡，姜太公封神一类的神话故事，都体现着对“至高无上”者的不屈，并力图制服“至高无上”者的抗争精神。因此，随着巫觋中的法术，包括卜筮、召神、降妖、医病之类的蒙昧行为，逐渐被经验知识和科学技术的增长所取代，而它力争人做人自身的主人的精神，尤其是独立自主，自尊自信自力的一面，则转化成了我们民族的内在性格。这种性格，也明显地反映在传统的宗教观上。

The traditional religious pattern in our country is roughly the parallel coexistence and convergence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Compared with Western religions, the commonality of these three religions is concentrated in this people-centered spirit. There are three points that are most prominent:

我国的传统宗教格局，大致是儒、释、道三教并行合流。这三教的共性，与西方的宗教相比，集中体现在这以人为本的精神上。其中有3点，最为突出：

First, the sacred is made by humans. The clever ones, like shamans; the sage-like ones, like the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors [3]3 Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (三皇五帝): A group of legendary sage-rulers and cultural heroes in ancient Chinese mythology, credited with founding Chinese civilization.; as well as the sages of Confucianism, the immortals of Daoism, and the Buddhas of Buddhism—all are heroes among humans; but they all, without exception, come from humans, not beyond humans, not lording over humans, and certainly not hostile to humanity or prone to punishing humanity.

第一，神圣是由人来作的。其聪明者如巫觋，其圣明者如三皇五帝，以及儒教的圣人，道教的神仙，佛教的佛，都是人中的英杰；但他们无例外的，都来自于人，而不是超越于人，驾凌于人，更不敌视人类，动辄惩罚人类。

Second, everyone can become a god or a sage. One of the Confucian tenets is that everyone can become a sage; an important proposition in Buddhism is that “all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature”; Daoism teaches people how to refine the physical body into an immortal god, with even one’s chickens and dogs ascending to Heaven [4]4 “Chickens and dogs ascending to Heaven”: A Chinese idiom referring to a person’s associates benefiting from their rise to power, originating from a Daoist legend about a man whose entire household, including animals, ascended to immortality with him.. The ideal land of Buddhism is the Pure Land; the ideal land of Daoism is Heaven; as long as one practices according to the “Dharma,” everyone can enter, without needing first to obtain the status of “the elect.”

第二，人人皆能成神成圣。儒家的信条之一，是人人都可成为圣人；佛教的重要命题，是“一切众生悉有佛性”；道教教人如何肉身炼成不死的神仙，鸡犬升天。佛教的理想国是净土，道教的理想国是天堂，只要依“法”修习，人人都能进入，无须乎首先取得“选民”的资格。

Third, gods are made by humans, not humans made by gods. Creating gods, conferring titles on gods, demoting gods, and destroying gods have a long history in China. From emperors, kings, generals, and ministers down to common people, peddlers, and porters, creating and destroying gods has almost become a custom; everyone has such qualifications and abilities. From ancient times to the present, exactly how many gods have been created and how many destroyed cannot be counted. Heroes people admire, martyrs they love, their own ancestors, and things they cannot see clearly or explain—all can be revered as gods; every plant, animal, and other small object, such as snakes, turtles, weasels, old trees, and old utensils, can also be worshipped as gods; of course, they often cannot escape the fate of being demoted, destroyed, or forgotten. From the great heavens above, the Five Sacred Mountains and the Four Seas, the state and the altars of soil and grain, down to villages and families, even doorways and corners, toilets and stoves—all have gods in charge; trade guilds and professions also each have their own patron gods. All these “gods” are established for specific people and specific matters, and they must all serve humans loyally and effectively; otherwise, they lose their value for offerings and existence. That belief entirely belongs to the realm of individual freedom, and the resulting frequent fluctuations and shifts in belief have become a prominent feature of Chinese religion.

第三，神由人造，而不是神造人。造神封神，贬神毁神，在中国有悠久的历史。上至帝王将相，下至黎民百姓，贩夫走卒，造神毁神几乎成为风气，人人都有这样的资格和能力。从古到今，究竟造过多少神，毁过多少神，无法统计。人们敬佩的英雄，爱戴的志士，自己的祖宗，以及看不明说不清的事物，都可以被尊之为神；每个动植物及其它细小物件，诸如蛇龟黄鼠狼，老树旧器，也可以被奉之为神；当然，他们也往往逃脱不了被贬被毁或被遗忘的命运。大至上天苍穹，五岳四海，国家社稷，小至村落家庭，以至门庭角落，厕所灶上，都有神的主管；行帮职业，也各有自己主祭的神。这所有的“神”，都是因人因事而设，而且都必须为人效忠效力，否则他就失去供养和存在的价值。信仰之完全属于个人的自由领域，以及由此造成的信仰波动和信仰转移频繁，就成了中国宗教的突出特点。

Precisely because of this, there has been no religious hatred, religious persecution, or religious war in Chinese history, and atheism has also had broad space for activity. There have been several incidents in Chinese history of destroying Buddhism and banning religions, but these were all because they harmed the practical interests of people, unrelated to religious belief itself.

也正因为如此，中国历史上没有宗教仇恨、宗教迫害和宗教战争，无神论也有宽阔的活动空间。中国历史上曾发生过数次毁佛禁教的事件，但那都是因为他们危害了人的现实利益，而与宗教信仰自身无关。

Therefore, China’s cultural tradition is pluralistic; polytheism and atheism coexist without contradiction, so it is also tolerant, not recognizing the existence of a single creator god, and unable to tolerate the exclusive worship of one god. Chinese legend holds that the creator of Heaven and Earth was “Pangu” [5]5 Pangu (盘古): The primordial being in Chinese mythology who separated Heaven and Earth from chaos. and the creator of humans was “Nüwa” [6]6 Nüwa (女娲): The goddess in Chinese mythology who created humanity and repaired the sky.; he and she are both our mythological ancestors, listed among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, but neither formed a religious organization based on them nor became objects of worship and belief. This is also why Chinese culture is a secular tradition, the greatest difference from the Western monotheistic tradition. Some Westerners say China is an “atheist” country; it would be more accurate to say that China denies the exclusive worship of one god while respecting both polytheism and atheism. In this regard, religion is not a problem in China; thus, in China’s modern revolution, religion did not become a major political issue shaking the social structure, as it did in the Western bourgeois revolution.

因此，中国的文化传统是多元性的，多神论和无神论并存而不悖，所以它也是宽容的，不承认有创世造人的唯一神存在，不能容忍一神独尊。中国传说开天辟地的是“盘古氏”，造人的是“女娲氏”，他与她都是我们神话中的祖先，被列在三皇五帝内，既没有依此形成宗教组织，也没有成为信仰崇拜的对象。这也是中国文化之所以是世俗的传统，与西方一神教传统区别最大的地方。西方有人说中国是“无神论”国家，毋宁说中国是否定一神独尊，同时尊重多神论和无神论的国家。就此而言，宗教在中国，不成为一个问题；所以在中国近现代革命中，宗教就不像西方资产阶级革命那样，成为一个震动社会结构的重大政治问题。

The development from humanism to atheism

人本主义到无神论的发展

The humanism embodied in Chinese religion is reflected in the view of morality: secular ethics determine religious morality, unlike in monotheistic religious countries, where religious morality regulates secular values and moral systems.

中国宗教中体现的人本主义，反映在道德观上，是世俗伦理决定着宗教道德，而不像一神论宗教国家，用宗教道德规范世俗的价值观和道德体系。

Confucianism itself is secular and has been the carrier of Chinese ethical relations and moral concepts since ancient times. In the realm of morality and ethics, Daoism is merely a supplement to Confucianism. Buddhism is the only foreign religion; its ability to take root in China and integrate into traditional Chinese culture best illustrates the depth and strength of China’s secular morality.

儒教自身就是世俗的，自古就是中国伦理关系和道德观念的载体。在道德伦理范围，道教只是儒教的补充。佛教是唯一的外来宗教，其能够在中国落脚，并融入中国的传统文化，最能说明中国世俗性道德之所以深厚和强大。

Buddhism was introduced to China in the pre-Qin period [7]7 Pre-Qin period: The period before the Qin dynasty unified China in 221 BCE, during which Buddhism was first transmitted to China via the Silk Road.. In its homeland, it had advocated abandoning the family, leaving the world, and detesting the human body, completely opposite to Confucian ethical concepts. Therefore, from the very beginning, it strove to reconcile this difference, and finally, in the name of “Mahayana,” it unified Chinese Buddhism and aligned it with Confucian teachings on social roles [8]8 Confucian teachings on social roles (名教): The Confucian ethical system emphasizing hierarchical relationships and social duties, often contrasted with Buddhist otherworldliness..

佛教在公元前传入中国。在它的本土，曾以弃家离世、厌恶人身相标榜，与儒家的伦理观念完全相反，因此从一开始，它就力图调和这种差别，终于以“大乘”名义，统一中国佛教，而与儒家名教一致起来。

“Buddha” means the awakened one or the wise one, taking awakening to life and grasping the true essence as the path to liberation. In philosophy, it advocates the theory of “dependent origination,” opposing the theory of a single cause; in religion, it opposes the Brahmanical theory of a creator god creating the world and humans, advocating “karmic retribution and rebirth.” It classifies “Heaven” as one category of worldly sentient beings, placed in an equal worldly series with humans, animals, and others, subject to the same law of karmic retribution. Everyone can be born as a “Heavenly being,” and all “Heavenly beings” may also fall into hell; the key depends on their individual thoughts and actions, what kind of image and environment they create for themselves.

“佛”是觉者或智者的意思，把觉悟人生，把握真谛作为解脱之道。在哲学上，它提倡“缘起”说，反对“一因论”；在宗教上，反对婆罗门教的天帝创世造人说，主张“业报轮回”。它把“天”定为世间众生的一类，与人、畜生等列在平等的世间系列，服从同一的业报法则。人人都可以生而为“天”，诸“天”也可能堕落而入地狱，关键看他们个人的思想行为，为自己创造了什么样的形象和环境。

This religious worldview is highly compatible with China’s humanist tradition. The Mahāyāna [“Great Vehicle”] strongly advocates engagement with the world, “delivering all beings from suffering,” affirms actual human relationships, proposes the so-called “ten good deeds” as moral principles, interprets the Confucian “five constant virtues” through the “five precepts,” respects the common people, and willingly serves as a bridge for their liberation—hence the saying “all dharmas are equal, with none higher or lower.” This stands in stark contrast to the morality and values of monotheism, which are founded on devout faith and awe of God, such as the basic doctrines of “original sin” and “redemption” and the legal provisions of the Mosaic “Ten Commandments.” Christianity was introduced to China during the Tang dynasty and, passing through the Yuan and Ming dynasties down to the Opium War, was never able to take root on Chinese soil over more than a thousand years. There may be multiple reasons for this, but the exclusivity of its monotheistic doctrine and the exclusiveness of its moral values were surely the most important.

这种宗教世界观，与中国的人本主义传统，非常契合。而“大乘”力主入世，“普度众生”，肯定现实的人伦关系，提出所谓“十善”的道德原则，用“五戒”解读儒家的“五常’，尊重世俗民众，甘为世俗民众的解脱作桥，所以有“诸法平等，无有高下”之说。这与一神教建立在虔信和敬畏上帝基础上的道德观和价值观，譬如“原罪”和“救赎”等基本教义以及摩西“十诫”律条大相径庭。基督教在唐代就传入中国，历经元明而至鸦片战争，在上千年的时间里，始终不能在中国土地上生根，可能有多种原因，但它在教义上的一神独尊和道德价值观上的排他性，当是最重要的一项。

After China entered the modern period, national power weakened, foreign powers bullied it, and traditional Confucian ritual teachings faced serious challenges. Consequently, summing up the gains and losses of ancient thought and learning from the West became two important tasks for awakened intellectuals. The results of this study and summation, as relevant to the issue we are discussing here, were, first, “religious reform”: the Chinese nation also needed religion to invigorate the national spirit and provide spiritual guarantees for transforming old China; and second, “science and democracy”: the most urgent path to China’s rejuvenation was science, technology, and democratic institutions, in order to change our backward mode of production and feudal autocratic monarchy.

中国进入近现代以后，国力衰弱，外强欺凌，传统儒家礼教受到严重挑战，于是总结古代思想的得失和向西方学习，就成了觉醒中的文化人的两项重要工作。学习和总结的结果，与我们这里讨论的问题有关的，一是“宗教改革”：中华民族也需要宗教，用以振奋国民精神，为变革旧中国提供精神上的保障；一是“科学与民主”：中华振兴之道，最急迫的是科学技术和民主制度，用以改变我们落后的生产方式和封建的君主专制主义。

Among the literati who advocated saving the nation through religion, the reformists were the mainstream: Kang Youwei established the “Confucian Church,” striving to elevate traditional Confucianism into a “state religion”; Liang Qichao advocated Buddhism for saving the world, hoping to invigorate the national spirit by reforming the national character. Zhang Taiyan, a representative of the revolutionaries, wrote both “On Establishing Religion” and “On Atheism”; he used “atheism” to oppose the monotheism of Western Christianity and used “religion” to develop Buddhist Consciousness-Only doctrine, striving to base the national spirit on “reason” and “self-reliance.” These theories of national salvation through religion had a distinct characteristic: they aimed to stimulate the Chinese people’s self-respect and self-confidence and the cohesion and passion for preserving the nation and the race. But the result was total failure.

主张宗教救国的文人中，维新派是主流：康有为建立“孔教会”，力图将传统儒教提升为“国教”；梁启超提倡佛教救世，期望从改造国民性上，振奋国民精神。作为革命派代表的章太炎，一面撰写《建立宗教论》，一面发表《无神论》；他用“无神论”反对西方基督教的一神论，又用“宗教论”发挥佛教唯识学，力图把国民精神建立在“理性”和“自力”的基础上。这些宗教救国论，有一个鲜明的特色，那就是激发国人的自尊自信和保国保种的凝聚力和激情。但结果是全部无效。

What truly changed the old face of China was “science and democracy.” The earliest advocates for introducing Western science and technology and replacing the imperial examination system with school education were the “New Learning” (Western learning) movement launched in the late Qing dynasty. Zhang Zhidong, in his *Exhortation to Learning*, especially regarded modern education as the foundation of national strength. To this end, he advocated converting all religious buildings—except for a few necessary monasteries, temples, and ancestral halls—into schools, to make up for the inadequacy of educational facilities. He placed the development of scientific and technological education in a position superior to that of religion. The “May Fourth New Culture Movement” raised the banner of “science and democracy,” took the popularization of culture as its direction, promoted traditional humanism to a completely new height, and provided entirely new impetus for the progress of the entire society.

真正改变中国旧面目的是“科学与民主”。最早主张引进西方科学技术，用学校教育取代科举制度的，是清朝末年发起的“新学”（西学）运动。张之洞著《劝学篇》，特别把现代化教育视作强国之本，为此，他主张，除保留少数必须的寺院道观以及宗族祠堂之外，将宗教建筑一律改作学校，用于补救教育设施之不足。他把科技教育的发展，放在优于宗教的地位上。“五四新文化运动”，打出“科学与民主”的旗帜，将文化大众化作为方向，促进传统的人本主义达到了一个全新的高度，为整个社会的进步提供了全新的推动力。

The figures of the May Fourth Movement universally received the baptism of the Western Renaissance and Enlightenment. They used science to criticize “spiritual studies” and sweep away feudal superstition; they used Western concepts of human rights and freedom to resist the invasion of Christianity and defend the independence of national education—the “Anti-Religion Movement” initiated with the participation of educator Cai Yuanpei was a landmark event. Shortly thereafter came the debate between science and “metaphysics”; Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi and their ilk vigorously advocated liberating the “outlook on life” from the domination of “theism and the theory of the immortality of the soul,” establishing a “scientific outlook on life,” and even named it “atheism.” Objectively, they reflected the direction of China’s mainstream culture thereafter.

“五四”人物普遍接受西方文艺复兴和启蒙运动的洗礼。他们用科学批判“灵学”，扫荡封建迷信；用西方的人权和自由观念对抗基督教的入侵，捍卫国民教育的独立性——有教育家蔡元培参加发起的“非宗教运动”，就是具有标志性事件。稍后，又有科学与“玄学”之辩，陈独秀、胡适辈力主把“人生观”从“有神论和灵魂不灭论”的统治中解放出来，树立“科学的人生观”，而且即以“无神论”命名。他们客观上反映了中国此后主流文化的走向。

The humanist spirit is deeply rooted in national cultural consciousness

人本主义精神深植于民族文化意识

The humanist spirit, borne by Confucianism and establishing traditional moral categories, has always been deeply embedded in our nation’s cultural consciousness. The successive revolutions, including the “May Fourth Movement,” not only failed to overthrow it but may even have been an eruption of this spirit. Let us take morality as an example: How does morality arise, how does it change, and how can the level of social morality be effectively raised? Traditional culture provides us with answers. On these questions, traditional culture gives two answers: one relates to society, the other to human nature, and both are founded on a people-centered basis.

由儒家承载的，确立传统道德范畴的人文主义精神，是一贯地深蕴在我们民族的文化意识中的，包括“五四运动”在内的历次革命，不但没有打倒，或许还是这种精神的一种爆发。我们就以道德来说吧——道德是怎样产生，是如何变动的，怎样才能有效的提升社会道德水平？传统文化给了我们答案。在这些问题上，传统文化给出的答案有两个，一个是与社会有关，一个与人性有关，二者都建立在以人为本的基础上。

First, consider the answer related to society. This also has two aspects. One can be called the theory of determination by the conditions of people’s livelihood, a common view among the ancients for solving moral problems, most typically represented by Guan Zhong’s saying: “When the granaries are full, the people know propriety and righteousness; when food and clothing are sufficient, they know honor and disgrace.” “Propriety and righteousness” belong to ethical norms; “honor and disgrace” belong to the moral category. To maintain normal social ethics and good moral standards, the prosperity of the state and the people must be the major premise. Here, human survival and adequate food and clothing are the key factors determining the level of ethics and morality; God is useless, and mere preaching is also useless. The *Guanzi* “Shepherding the People” also has a saying: “The empire does not worry about lacking wealth, but about lacking people to distribute it.” In Confucius’s time, there was an even clearer proverb: “Those who possess states and families do not worry about scarcity but about inequality.” These all indicate that when morality goes wrong, it also involves the distribution of existing wealth. Under normal social conditions, the people’s prosperity plus fair distribution are the prerequisites for maintaining good ethical relations and noble morality; and noble morality and good ethical relations are often also reflected in the struggle for the development of productive forces and social justice, all of which have nothing to do with belief in religion.

先看与社会有关的答案。这也有两种，其一可称作人民生活条件决定论，是古人解决道德问题的普遍见解，而以管仲所谓“仓廪实则知礼仪，衣食足则知荣辱”最有代表性。“礼仪”属伦理规范，“荣辱”属道德范畴。要维护正常的社会伦理和良好的道德准则，必须以国家和人民的富足为大前提。在这里，人的生存和温饱是决定伦理道德水平的要害因素，上帝没有用，单纯的说教也没有用。《管子·牧民》中还有一句话：“天下不患无财，患无人以分之”。孔子时代有一个谚语更明确：“有国有家者，不患寡而患不均”。它们都表示：道德出现问题，还涉及对既有财富的分配问题。 在正常的社会条件下，人民富裕，加上分配公平，是维系良好的伦理关系和高尚道德的前提；而高尚的道德和良好的伦理关系，往往也反映在争取生产力的发展和社会正义的斗争中，都与是否相信宗教无关。

Another can be called the theory of determination by social system. This comes from the famous “Chapter on the Conveyance of Rites” in the *Book of Rites*. The “public” in its phrase “the world is for all” refers to public ownership of property; its “Great Harmony” refers to social equality. In such a society, interpersonal ethical relations are naturally good, and everyone’s moral character is naturally noble. Therefore, institutionalized ethics and morality used for edification need not exist, let alone the inducements and threats of spirits. However, with the rise of private property in “the world is for the family,” the state apparatus, rules, and regulations emerged from private property, creating the need to regulate social relations, and thus ethics and morality came into being. In this regard, ethics and morality are products of private property and have nothing at all to do with religion or God. The *Laozi* contains a similar opinion: “When the Great Way is abandoned, there is benevolence and righteousness. When wisdom and cleverness appear, there is great hypocrisy. When the six relations are not in harmony, there is filial piety and parental kindness. When the state is in chaos, there are loyal ministers.” This also shows that moral preaching is a manifestation of each person pursuing his own private interests in a “family-based world” and a reaction to the ethical decay caused by the “abandonment of the Great Way.” Hence it explicitly opposes governing through morality. Moral problems are first and foremost attributed to social and economic problems, and their ultimate resolution requires the perfection of the social system. This is one of the most valuable ideas bequeathed by the Confucian tradition.

另一种可称社会制度决定论。这出在著名的《礼记·礼运篇》中。其所谓“天下为公”的“公”，指的是财产公有制；其所谓“大同”，则是指社会的平等。在这样的社会里，人际间的伦理关系自然良好，每个人的道德情操也自然是高尚的。因此，作为制度化的伦理和用于教化的道德，是无须存在的，更用不着神灵的利诱和恐吓。然而，“天下为家”私有制的兴起，由私有制而产生国家机器、规章制度，有了规范社会关系需要，于是伦理道德也就应运而生了。就此而言，伦理道德是私有制的产物，与宗教和上帝也全无关系。《老子》中有类似的意见：“大道废，有仁义。智惠出，有大伪。六亲不和，有孝慈。国家昏乱，有忠臣。”这也说明，道德说教是“家天下”中各私其私的表现，是对“大道废”导致伦理败坏的反应。所以它明确地反对道德治国。道德问题，首先归根于社会经济问题，最终的解决，需要社会制度的完善。这是儒家传统给出的最有价值的思想之一。

Second, consider the answer related to the theory of human nature. This is another important Confucian view: morality is not only needed by society but also arises from human natural nature. Whether this natural nature is good or evil, it comes from people’s internal needs, and in this respect it is the same. Therefore, in Confucianism, there is no “original sin,” nor is there any need for God’s “redemption”; only the consideration of “human nature” exists.

其次是与人性论有关的答案。这是儒家的另一个重要观点：道德不但为社会所需要, 而且是出自人的自然本性。这自然本性或善或恶，其来自人的内需，则是同样的。因此, 在儒家那里, 没有什么 “原罪”，也无须上帝的 “救赎”，唯有 “人性”的考量。

The early representatives of the “theory of human nature” were Mencius, Gaozi, and Xunzi. Gaozi’s famous sayings are, first, “Appetite for food and sex are nature,” and second, “Life as such is nature.” To seek life, and to seek a better life—this is human nature. The basic prerequisites for life are food and sex; “food” is the prerequisite for sustaining the present life; “sex” is for producing life and ensuring the continuation of the species. In this sense, meeting the needs of life and solving practical livelihood problems for the people are good; the opposite is evil. As the saying goes, “The people regard food as their heaven”; “food” is the primary internal driving force governing people’s behavior.

“人性论”的早期代表，当是孟子、告子和荀子。告子的名言，一曰“食、色，性也”，二曰“生之为性”。求生，而且要生活得更好，这就是人性。而生的基本前提，是食与色；“食”是维系当前生命的前提；“色”是生产生命，并令族类得以延续的保障。就此而言，维护生命的需要，解决实际的民生问题，那就是善，反之就是恶。所谓“民以食为天”，“食”是支配人们行为第一内驱力。

This idea of Gaozi was inherited by Xunzi, but he developed it in a negative direction: this “life as such is nature” is evil, not good. For if people completely follow their natural nature in pursuing “food” and “sex,” they will be no different from animals; the resulting indulgence and greed would cause great damage and harm to social order and interpersonal relations. Therefore, they must be subjected to acquired education and the rule of law: here “ritual and righteousness” are coercive ethical and moral norms. His basic view is: “Human nature is evil; goodness is acquired.”

告子的这一思想，为荀子所继承，但他作了负面的推演：这种“生之为性”是恶，而不是善。因为人们若完全依凭自己的自然本性去追逐“食”“色”，那将与动物无有区别；由此造成的放纵和贪欲，对社会秩序和人际关系会造成极大的破坏和伤害，所以必须给以后天的教育和法治：此中“礼义”就是带强制性的伦理道德规范。他的基本观点是：“人之性恶，其善者伪也”。

Xunzi’s theory that “human nature is evil” may have been directed against Mencius. Mencius was the founder of the theory that “human nature is good”; his basic view was that “human nature’s tendency toward good is like water’s tendency to flow downward. There is no human being who does not tend toward good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward.” As for “evil” or the mixture of good and evil, this is mainly the result of the postnatal environment: “In years of abundance, the young men are mostly lazy; in years of famine, the young men are mostly violent. It is not that Heaven’s endowment differs in such cases, but that circumstances have sunk their hearts.” [16]16 Mencius, *Mencius: Gaozi I*, sections 2 and 7. The first quotation is from section 2, the second from section 7. — that people are sometimes lazy and sometimes violent is not due to a difference in human nature but is related to whether the harvest is good or bad. Therefore, Mencius not only attached importance to postnatal education but also gave equal weight to the problem of the people’s livelihood.

荀子的“性恶”说可能是针对孟子的。孟子是“性善”说的奠基人，他的基本观点是，“人之性善也，犹水之就下也；人无有不善，水无有不下”。至于“恶”或善恶混杂，主要是后天环境使然：“富岁，子弟多赖；凶岁，子弟多暴。非天之降才殊尔也，其所以陷溺其心者也”——人们之所以有时懒惰，有时凶暴，并非人性有别，而与收成好坏有关系。因此，孟子不但重视后天教育，同样看重民生问题。

Theories of human nature occupy an important place in the history of Chinese philosophy and ethics. There are various propositions, but their common feature is that they never resort to God or other deities to explain or resolve moral problems.

人性论在中国哲学史和伦理学史中占有重要的地位，有各种各样的主张，他们的共同点，是决不启用上帝或其他神灵解释和解决道德问题。

Whether this kind of Confucian thought belongs to “economic determinism” is not discussed here. But it is definitely not “cultural determinism,” nor does it incorporate religion into the considerations of governing the state. There is a famous dialogue in the *Analects*: “Ji Lu asked about serving ghosts and spirits. The Master said, ‘If you are not yet able to serve people, how can you serve ghosts?’ He then said, ‘May I ask about death?’ The Master said, ‘If you do not yet understand life, how can you understand death?’” This roughly expresses the basic attitude of Confucianism on the relationship between believing in ghosts and spirits and solving human affairs: human affairs come first, ghosts and spirits second; what is important is to understand how to “live” well, not to design what happens after death. Why? A statement by a man named Shi Xiao in the *Zuo Commentary* can serve as the answer: “When a state is about to prosper, it listens to the people; when it is about to perish, it listens to the spirits.” [17]17 *Zuo Commentary*, Duke Zhuang, 32nd year. The phrase is attributed to Shi Xiao, a minister of the state of Guo. Listening to the people or listening to the spirits — this is an important sign of a state’s rise or fall. The line “He does not ask about the common people but asks about ghosts and spirits” (from a Tang-dynasty poem by Li Shangyin) [18]18 From Li Shangyin’s poem “Jia Sheng,” which criticizes Emperor Wen of Han for consulting the scholar Jia Yi about ghosts and spirits rather than about state affairs. is the image of a fatuous ruler created by the poet. “Serving people” includes both solving the problems of society’s material civilization and solving the problems of people’s cultural-ethical progress; the core is to rely on people, not on gods.

儒家的这类思想，是否属于“经济决定论”，这里不论。但它绝对不是“文化决定论”，也不把宗教纳入治理国家的考量中。《论语》中有段著名的对话：“季路问事鬼神。子曰：‘未能事人，焉能事鬼。’曰：‘敢问死。’曰：‘未知生，焉知死。’”这大体表达了儒家在信仰鬼神还是解决人事的关系上的基本态度：人事第一，鬼神次之；重要的是认识如何好好的“生”，而不是设计死后如何。为什么？《左传》记一个叫史嚣的话，可以作为回答：“国将兴，听于民；将亡，听于神”。是听人民的，还是听神灵的，这是国家兴亡的重要标识。所谓“不问苍生问鬼神”（唐李商隐句），是诗人塑造的昏君形象。“事人”中既包括解决社会的物质文明问题，也包括解决人的精神文明问题，核心是依靠人，而不是依靠神。

In contrast to certain Western countries that declare themselves to be founded on religion and to have established their constitutions on religion, New China has inherited and developed the humanist tradition, founding the state and establishing its constitution according to the will of the people. All power in the republic belongs to the people. At present, “people-centered” is taken as the foothold, and “serving the people” as the fundamental purpose; the ruling party regards faithfully relying on the masses of the people and working for the people’s welfare as the sole source of its strength. Believers and non-believers alike belong to the people, enjoy the same rights, fulfill the same duties, and bear the same social responsibilities and historical missions; whether one believes or not should be entirely a private matter for the individual, receiving equal protection and respect. But in state decision-making, there is no place for God or spirits.

相对西方某些国家宣称自己以宗教建国，以宗教立宪，新中国则继承和发展了人本主义的传统，依人民的意志建国和立宪，共和国的一切权力属于人民。当前，把“以人为本”作为立足点，“为人民服务”为根本宗旨；执政党把忠诚地依靠人民大众，为人民谋福利，视作力量的唯一源泉。信教者和不信教者，统属人民，享同样权利，尽同样义务，承担同样的社会责任和历史使命；信不信教，应该完全成为个人的私事，得到平等地保护和尊重；但在国家决策上，没有上帝和神灵的位置。

Online editor: Ke Qing

网编：客卿