The Historical Origins of Marxist Atheism

As is well known, atheist thought is the starting point and cornerstone of Marxism; Marxist atheism is the advanced form of the entire development of atheist thought. Since reform and opening up, various religions have revived and achieved significant development over more than thirty years. The five traditional religions, some emerging sects, and various spiritual trends have all become increasingly active. At the same time, cults and pseudo-religious swindlers and “masters” have emerged in an endless stream, seriously affecting social security and the normal life of the people; religious extremism, moreover, has been exploited by hostile forces abroad, becoming a major hidden danger to national security. Under such social circumstances, strengthening research on and propaganda for Marxist atheism has become a very important task.

众所周知，无神论思想是马克思主义的出发点和基石；马克思主义无神论是整个无神论思想发展的高级形态。改革开放以来，各种宗教复苏，并在30多年的时间里获得明显的发展。五大传统宗教、一些新兴教派、以及各种灵性思潮都日益活跃。与此同时，邪教以及伪宗教的骗子、“大师”也层出不穷，严重影响社会安全和人民的正常生活；而宗教极端主义更为境外敌对势力所利用，成为国家安全的一个重大隐患。在这样的社会形势下，加强马克思主义无神论的研究和宣传成为一项非常重要的任务。

This article situates Marxist atheism within the entire river of the development of Western atheist thought. By sorting out the developmental thread of atheist thought and the historical origins of Marxist atheism, it clarifies some key points in the development of atheist thought, in the hope of guiding today’s research and propaganda and reaping some insights beneficial for the current era.

本文将马克思主义无神论置于整个西方无神论思想发展的长河之中，通过梳理无神论思想的发展脉络和马克思主义无神论的历史渊源，澄清无神论思想发展中的一些关键点，以期能够指导今日的研究和宣传，收获对于当前这个时代有益的一些启示。

I. The Developmental Course of Western Atheist Thought

一、西方无神论思想的发展历程

Atheism, as a concept originating in the West, has its connotation and development deeply influenced by Western civilization. In different eras, the embodiment of atheist thought has also differed. Here, according to the developmental situation of Western atheist thought, it will be divided into the classical period, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the modern period to briefly introduce the process of atheist thought. All thought has its corresponding material basis; however, due to space limitations here, the introduction will mainly highlight the main content and points of contention of atheist thought in each period, touching only briefly on the relevant social background and material basis. Throughout world history, atheism is not a major theme, but it is indeed one of those key themes that concern the fate of humanity. Only by clarifying the historical thread of atheist thought can we truly understand its connotation, thereby guiding today’s research on Marxist atheism.

无神论作为一个源自西方的概念，其内涵以及发展深受西方文明的影响。在不同的时代，无神论思想的体现也不一样。这里将根据西方无神论思想的发展情况，分为古典时期、中世纪、文艺复兴、启蒙运动和现代这几个阶段来简要介绍无神论思想的进程。一切思想都有其相应的物质基础，然而此处由于篇幅所限，介绍时将主要突出每个时期无神论思想的主要内容和争论点，对相关社会背景和物质基础只能点到即止。在整个世界历史中，无神论并不算是一个大主题，但它确实是关系人类命运的那几个关键主题中的一个。理清无神论思想的历史脉络，我们才能真正认识其内涵，从而指导今日马克思主义无神论的研究。

1. The Classical Period

1、古典时期

Before the emergence of Christianity, in early ancient Greek and Roman thought—which James Thrower [1]1 James Thrower (1936–1999), a British historian of atheism and author of *The Alternative Tradition: A Study of Unbelief in the Ancient World* and *Marxist-Leninist "Scientific Atheism" and the Study of Religion and Atheism in the USSR*. calls the classical period of Western atheist history—atheist thought mainly manifested as a naturalistic philosophy that opposed the belief in the gods of traditional religion.

在基督教出现以前，早期的古希腊和罗马思想中，——詹姆士·斯鲁威尔将之称为西方无神论历史的古典时期，无神论思想主要表现为一种自然主义的哲学，它反对传统宗教的诸神信仰。

In the early 6th century BCE, the Ionian school put forward the theory of the natural formation of the world. Subsequently, Heraclitus of Ephesus was the first to use naturalism to publicly deny that the gods created the world. Changes in natural phenomena have their own laws, namely the “logos”; therefore, all theological theories of gods creating the world and gods governing the world are fundamentally untenable. [2]2 Heraclitus (c. 535–c. 475 BCE) argued that the world is an ever-living fire, governed by logos (reason or law), not by personal gods. In the late 5th century BCE, Democritus proposed atomism, that is, besides atoms, the smallest indivisible material particles, there is only void in the world, and nature is precisely the manifestation of the interaction of countless atoms in the void governed by accidental forces. Therefore, no form of divinity exists either outside nature or within nature. The concept of the gods that exists in people’s minds arises from dreams; religion originates precisely from humanity’s ignorance of and awe toward nature. [3]3 Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 BCE) developed the atomic theory; his explanation of religion as arising from fear of natural phenomena is a classic naturalistic account.

公元前6世纪初，伊奥尼亚学派提出了世界的自然形成说。随后，爱非斯城邦的赫拉克利特第一次用自然主义公开否认了神创世界。自然现象的变化有其自身的规律，即“逻各斯”，因此，所有的神创造世界以及神支配世界的神学理论根本都站不住脚。[1]公元前5世纪末，德谟克利特提出了原子论，即世界上除了不可分的最小物质粒子原子之外，就是虚空，自然正是虚空中被偶然力量所支配的无数原子的相互作用的体现。因此，不论在自然之外还是在自然之内都不存在任何形式的神性。而人们心灵中存在的诸神的观念，是从梦中产生的；宗教正起源于人类对自然的无知和敬畏。[2]

From the late 4th to the early 3rd century BCE, Epicurus believed that what most hindered his pursuit of inner tranquility of mind and emotion was religious superstition, that is, ignorance of the universe and fear of gods and the fate after death; from the naturalistic worldview provided by Democritus, one could eliminate the source of this pain and distress. Of course, Epicurus acknowledged the existence of the gods, but believed that they, like other things, were composed of atoms and simply did not concern themselves with human affairs; therefore, there was no need to fear them or pray to them. [4]4 Epicurus (341–270 BCE) taught that the gods, if they exist, are composed of atoms and live in the intermundia (spaces between worlds), indifferent to human affairs. By the early Roman Empire, although the populace showed great enthusiasm for the newly imported Eastern religions, the thought of the upper classes clearly displayed indifference toward religion. Lucretius inherited Epicurus’s thought; he calmly contemplated the laws governing the universe and pointed out that gods do not exist, that death marks the end of life, so we should go along with life; and that religion had committed many evils, so it should be completely abolished. [5]5 Lucretius (c. 99–c. 55 BCE), Roman poet and Epicurean, author of *De Rerum Natura* (*On the Nature of Things*), which argues against divine intervention and fear of death.

公元前4世纪末到3世纪初，伊壁鸠鲁认为，最妨碍他争取心灵和感情的内在平静的东西就是宗教迷信，即对宇宙的无知以及对神灵和死后命运的恐惧，而从德谟克利特提供的自然主义的世界图景中，我们可以消除这种痛苦和烦恼的根源。当然伊壁鸠鲁承认了诸神的存在，但认为他们跟其他事物一样是由原子构成，并且根本不过问人类的事务，因此对他们感到恐惧或者向他们祈祷也就没有什么必要。[3]到罗马帝国早期，尽管民众对刚输入的东方宗教产生了极大的热情，上层阶级的思想却清楚地显示出对宗教的淡漠。卢克莱修继承了伊壁鸠鲁的思想，他冷静思考支配宇宙的规律，并指出神并不存在，死亡就标志着生命的终结，所以我们应当顺应人生；而宗教犯下了许多恶行，所以应当彻底予以废除。[4]

Observing and explaining the world in a naturalistic way, and even providing naturalistic explanations for the origin and concepts of religion—this is precisely an important contribution of the entire classical period to the later development of atheist thought. Of course, the tendency toward agnosticism also grew during this period. Some skeptical schools in the late classical period held that theological themes were too complex and life too short to hold any definite conclusions on these questions. [6]6 The skeptical schools, such as Pyrrhonism, suspended judgment on all matters, including the existence of gods.

以一种自然主义的方式来观察和解释世界，乃至对宗教的起源和观念也进行自然主义的说明，这正是整个古典时期对后来无神论思想发展的一个重要贡献。当然不可知论的倾向在这个时期也日益增长。古典后期一些怀疑论学派认为：神学主题太复杂，而人生又太短促，因此不能对这些问题持有任何肯定的结论。[5]

2. The Middle Ages

2、中世纪

In the classical period, free thought had not yet been excessively constrained by the social theocratic form; even though the Christian church organization had been established, it had not yet suppressed it. However, by the Middle Ages, as Christianity’s status as the state religion became increasingly stable, free thought inevitably came into conflict with orthodox theology. Therefore, we can only see some tendencies with atheist thought in heresies, paganism, or pantheism. It was not until the 14th and 15th centuries, when the medieval church and monarchical structures gradually began to collapse, that explicit expressions of agnosticism and atheism began to appear. [7]7 The collapse of the medieval synthesis refers to the decline of feudalism, the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), the Western Schism (1378–1417), and the rise of centralized monarchies.

在古典时期，自由的思想尚未过度受到社会神权形式的束缚；基督教教会组织即便已经建立，但也未对它进行压迫。然而到了中世纪，由于基督教作为国教地位的日益稳固，自由的思想便会不可避免的与神学正统派发生冲突。因此，我们只能在异端、异教或泛神论中看到一些带有无神论思想的倾向。一直到14、15世纪，中世纪教会和王权结构逐渐开始崩溃，不可知论、无神论的明确表述才开始出现。[6]

Nevertheless, during the Middle Ages, as Aristotle’s thought was increasingly introduced to Europe, reason gradually broke free from the control of faith and began to explore nature on its own; philosophy also began to break away from theology and turn to the study of the empirical world, completely ignoring any claims put forward by faith. [8]8 The recovery of Aristotle’s works in the 12th and 13th centuries, especially through Arabic commentaries, led to Scholasticism, which sought to reconcile faith and reason but also opened space for rational inquiry independent of theology.

尽管如此，在中世纪，随着亚里士多德思想日益被介绍到欧洲，理性逐步摆脱了信仰的控制，开始独自探索自然界，哲学也开始摆脱神学转而研究经验世界，完全不理会信仰提出的任何说法。[7]

3. The Renaissance Period (16th–17th Centuries)

3、文艺复兴时期（16-17世纪）

By the Renaissance, due to the revived and developed interest in the cultural heritage of the classical period, humanity and the world were no longer understood entirely against a religious background, and human behavior was no longer measured solely by whether it achieved salvation from God. Humanity and the world began to be studied and understood as they originally were, and this was done purely for the benefit of humanity itself. [9]9 This refers to the Renaissance humanist turn, emphasizing the study of classical texts (*studia humanitatis*) and the dignity of man, as in Pico della Mirandola’s *Oration on the Dignity of Man* (1486).

到文艺复兴时期，由于人们对古典时期文化遗产的兴趣日益复活并得到发展，人类和世界便不再完全依据宗教背景来理解，人的行为也不再以是否获得上帝的拯救为唯一的衡量标准。人类和世界开始以它们本原的样子被研究和理解，而且这样做纯粹只是为了人类自身的利益。[8]

Classical works might cultivate a firm moralist or a keen philosopher, but such a person was not necessarily a good Christian. A large number of works with skeptical and exploratory qualities had a tremendous effect on freeing the populace from the influence of Christianity, for example, the writings of Lucian, Lucretius, Cicero, Pliny, Plutarch, and others, which displayed tendencies toward agnosticism and atheism. [10]10 Lucian of Samosata (c. 125–c. 180 CE) was a satirist who mocked superstition and the gods; Cicero (106–43 BCE) and Plutarch (c. 46–c. 119 CE) discussed the nature of the gods with skeptical detachment; Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) expressed naturalistic views in his *Natural History*.

古典著作很可能会培养出一个坚定的道德论者，或敏锐的哲学家，但这个人并不必然是好的基督徒。大量带有怀疑和探索性质的著作对民众摆脱基督教的影响产生了巨大的作用，比如琉善、卢克莱修、西塞罗、普林尼、普鲁塔克等人的著述，它们显示出不可知论、以及无神论的倾向。[9]

In addition to the revival of classical skepticism and atheism, the “Machiavellianism” of this period and the conflicts between different Christian sects, typically the conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the newly established Protestant churches, became important reasons for the widespread phenomenon of unbelief in the 16th century. [11]11 “Machiavellianism” refers to the political realism of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), especially in *The Prince* (1532), which separated politics from Christian morality and was widely condemned as promoting atheism and amorality. Someone discussing Machiavelli’s influence on France once lamented, “…it (Machiavelli’s thought) deeply infected atheists and those who despise God and all religion, even elevating those who had no religious faith at all extremely highly, and using court language to call them public officials; filled with unbelief and atheism, … they had no scruples about anything.” [12]12 The quotation is from a French source of the period, likely a Catholic critic of Machiavelli’s influence; the original author is not specified in the text. Furthermore, both Catholicism and Protestantism had large numbers of groups and followers, each claiming a monopoly on revealed truth; so which one was correct? This religious controversy directly led to the existence of atheists at that time and the continuous development of various phenomena of unbelief. [13]13 The Protestant Reformation (beginning 1517) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation led to intense polemics, with each side accusing the other of heresy and unbelief, fostering a climate of religious skepticism.

除了古典怀疑论和无神论的复活之外，这一时期的“马基雅维利主义”以及不同基督教宗派之间的冲突，典型的比如罗马天主教教会与新建立的新教教会之间的冲突，都成为16世纪非信仰现象广泛传播的重要原因。[10]有人在谈到马基雅维利对法国的影响时曾哀叹，“……它（马氏的思想）深深地感染了无神论者以及藐视上帝和全部宗教的人，甚至把那些根本就没有宗教信仰的人抬得极高，而且用宫廷语言把他们称为公职人员；他们由于满怀着不信神和无神论，……因此他们对什么都毫无顾忌。”[11]再者，无论是天主教还是新教，都拥有大量的团体和信徒，它们各自又都声称拥有对启示真理的垄断权，那么究竟哪个才是正确的呢？这种宗教争论直接导致了当时无神论者的存在以及各种非信仰现象的不断发展。[12]

Furthermore, empirical science also began to rise during this period, exploring the natural world under the guidance of reason. Although it contained the possibility of atheism and unbelief, in its early emergence it showed no obvious anti-religious tendency, but rather served as a new way for people to understand and explain the world outside of theology. It was not until the 17th century that Thomas Hobbes, building on the experimental scientific thought of Francis Bacon and others, put forward a naturalistic philosophical viewpoint that displayed a clear atheistic content. The only things that truly exist in the world are bodies and the motion of bodies; therefore, God as an “incorporeal spiritual substance” simply cannot exist. The concept of the divine originally arose from people’s ignorance of natural forces and natural causes; the reason the concept of the divine nevertheless became prevalent in this situation is that it served the function of “ruling over others.” [13]13 The Protestant Reformation (beginning 1517) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation led to intense polemics, with each side accusing the other of heresy and unbelief, fostering a climate of religious skepticism. He regarded religion as a tool for maintaining social order: “The mysteries of our religion are like pills that benefit the patient: swallowed whole, they are good for the cure; chewed thoroughly and then mostly spat out, they have no effect.” [14]14 Thomas Hobbes, *Leviathan*, Chapter 32. The English translation follows the standard rendering: “The mysteries of our religion are like pills that benefit the patient: swallowed whole, they are good for the cure; chewed thoroughly and then mostly spat out, they have no effect.” Spinoza further pointed out that theologians attempted to make philosophy serve theology, thereby making theological dogmas appear “rational,” and that this had extremely harmful consequences. For philosophy and theology have absolutely nothing in common: the former pursues truth, while the latter only seeks obedience and piety; the foundation of the former is nature, while the foundation of the latter is “revelation.” He firmly advocated that philosophy break free from theology, and through analysis of the Bible he denied all supernatural elements within it. Only nature is the sole, infinite, and objectively existing “substance”; God is equivalent to nature, and to know nature and its laws is to know God. [15]15 Baruch Spinoza, *Ethics*, Part I, Proposition 14: “Besides God no substance can be granted or conceived.” Spinoza’s atheistic thought carried a certain pantheistic coloring.

此外，经验科学也在这一时期开始兴起，以理性为指导来探索自然界。虽然它包含着无神论和非信仰的可能性，但早期出现之时并没有明显的反宗教倾向，而是作为人们在神学之外认识和解释世界的一种新方式。直到17世纪，托马斯·霍布斯在培根等人的实验科学的思想基础之上，提出了自然主义的哲学观点，其中显示出明确的无神论内涵。世界上真正存在的只有物体和物体的运动，因此作为“无形体的精神实体”的上帝根本就不可能存在。神观念的产生最初源于人们对自然力量和自然原因的无知，在这种情况下神的观念仍然流行起来是因为它具有“统治别人”的作用。[13]他将宗教视作一种维护社会秩序的工具，“我们宗教的奥秘，有如利于患者的药丸，囫囵吞下，于治疗有益，细细咀嚼然后又大都吐掉，则无疗效。”[14]斯宾诺莎则进一步指出，神学家们企图使哲学服务于神学，从而使神学教条显得合乎“理智”，这样做带来极坏的影响。因为哲学和神学这二者绝无相同之处，前者追求真理，后者只寻求顺从和虔敬；前者的基础是自然，后者的基础却是“启示”。他坚决主张哲学摆脱神学，并通过分析《圣经》而否定其中一切超自然的东西。只有自然才是唯一的、无限的和客观存在的“实体”，上帝就等同于自然，认识了自然及其规律，也就是认识了上帝。[15]斯氏的无神论思想带有一定的泛神论色彩。

4. The Enlightenment (18th Century)

4、启蒙运动（18世纪）

By this point, the struggle between reason and religion in the ideological sphere had become very evident. If before the 18th century there had still existed a “double truth,” that is, the coexistence of religious and rational truth, then the Enlightenment brought the age of reason. Openly declared unbelief was visible everywhere, directed not only against Christianity but against all religions. Whether God and the soul exist at all was a widely debated issue. People attempted to replace religion’s interpretation of life and the world with reason and nature, as well as with a morality unrelated to theology. [16]16 Reference to the “double truth” theory, which held that philosophical and religious truths could coexist even if contradictory, a position associated with medieval Averroism. Skepticism continued to exist, deism [17]17 Deism: the belief in a creator God who does not intervene in the natural world, often contrasted with revealed religion. opposing revelation was put forward, and a large number of scientific discoveries directly brought about the development and flourishing of atheism in the mid-18th century.

到目前为止，理性与宗教之间在思想领域的争夺已经非常明显。如果说18世纪以前还存在“双重真理”，即宗教和理性这两种真理并存，那么启蒙运动则带来了理性的时代。公开宣称的非信仰现象处处可见，不仅针对基督教，也针对一切宗教。究竟有没有上帝和灵魂，这是普遍争论的议题。人们试图以理性和自然，以及与神学无涉的道德观来代替宗教对生活和世界的解释。[16]怀疑主义继续存在，反对启示的自然神论[17]被提出来，而大量的科学发现更直接带来了18世纪中叶无神论的发展和繁荣。

Diderot was initially a deist, but soon turned to believing in atheism. He used scientific evidence to argue for atheism and was convinced that if the idea of God could be completely eliminated, everything in the world would improve. [18]18 Denis Diderot, *Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature* (Thoughts on the Interpretation of Nature), 1754. And “the first unequivocally self-proclaimed atheist in the Western tradition” can be said to be Holbach. He believed that nature or the universe is composed only of matter and motion, that matter itself is in eternal motion, and that humans, like matter, are part of nature. He openly accused religion: it provides a false foundation for morality; it is unscientific, its doctrines running counter to scientific truth; it is the main support of a corrupt social order, and with its doctrines about the afterlife it diverts people’s attention from the evils of the present world. Religion arises from fear of the unknown and ignorance of natural causes; the foundation of morality lies in society, and it should be built upon people’s feelings of self-respect. [19]19 Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d’Holbach, *Système de la nature* (The System of Nature), 1770.

狄德罗起初是一位自然神论者，但不久就转向相信无神论。他利用科学的论据来说明无神论，并确信只要能完全消除上帝的观念，世界上的一切都会好起来。[18]而“西方传统中第一位毫不含糊地公然自认的无神论者”，可以说是霍尔巴赫。他认为自然或宇宙只是由物质和运动构成的，物质本身就处于永恒运动之中，人与物质一样，是自然的一部分。他公开地指控宗教：它给道德提供了一个错误的基础；它是非科学的，其教义与科学真理背道而驰；它是腐败的社会秩序的主要倚靠，更以其关于来世的教条将人们的注意力从现世的罪恶转移开去。宗教产生于对未知物的恐惧和对自然原因的无知；而道德的根基在社会，它应建立在人们自尊的感情之上。[19]

During this period, the skeptic David Hume put forward his arguments against theism and held that all traditional proofs of the existence of God were unverifiable. [20]20 David Hume, *Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion*, 1779. Although Kant also criticized the rational basis of theism—for example, he believed that “pure reason can tell us nothing about God or about any possible relationship between God and the world”—his ultimate aim was to place religion on a firmer foundation, such as morality, so that it could be exempted from rational critique. Therefore, this kind of discourse on theism and morality, represented by Kant, became a new target of struggle for many atheists in the following century (the 19th century). [21]21 Immanuel Kant, *Critique of Pure Reason*, 1781; *Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason*, 1793.

这一时期，怀疑论者大卫·休谟提出了自己反对有神论的论证，并认为传统上所有关于上帝存在的证明都是无法确证的。[20]康德虽然也批判有神论的理性基础，比如他认为“纯粹理性并不能告诉我们任何关于上帝以及关于上帝与世界所可能有的任何关系的事情”，但他最终的目的却是要将宗教建立在更坚实的基础比如道德之上，使之能够免除理性的批判。因此，以康德为代表的这种对有神论以及对道德的论述，就成为下一个世纪（19世纪）许多无神论者斗争的新对象。[21]

During the Enlightenment, the status of the natural sciences was established; theological hypotheses, revelation, or miracles were thoroughly destroyed. Naturalism and reason became the sole methods for observing the world. Of course, reason was also confined to the realm of nature, which could only be understood through scientific methods. [22]22 Reference to the Enlightenment’s epistemological limitation of reason to the empirical world, as in Kant’s distinction between phenomena and noumena.

启蒙运动时期，自然科学的地位得到了确立，神学假说、启示或神迹都被彻底摧毁。自然主义和理性成为观察世界的唯一方法。当然，理性也被限制在自然领域之内，该领域唯有采用科学的方法才能认识。[22]

5. The Modern Period (19th–20th Centuries)

5、现代（19-20世纪）

In the 19th century, just as Kant had attempted to base theism on moral consciousness, Friedrich Schleiermacher attempted to base theism on individual religious feeling, confining God to the sphere of religious consciousness. [23]23 Friedrich Schleiermacher, *On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers*, 1799. Ludwig Feuerbach criticized this and developed his humanistic philosophy. He believed that human religious consciousness is merely the reflection of humanity’s highest ideals in the form of some supernatural existence, and that humanity’s highest ideals can only be formed by humanity itself. Feuerbach denied God, but not in order to abolish religion; rather, he sought to perfect it. However, his thought had a decisive influence on both Marx and Engels. [24]24 Ludwig Feuerbach, *The Essence of Christianity*, 1841. Marx further pointed out: “Religion is the self-consciousness and self-feeling of the person who has either not yet found himself or has already lost himself again. … Thus, the struggle against religion is indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual aroma is religion.” [25]25 Karl Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right: Introduction,” 1844. The English translation follows the standard rendering in the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. It was on the basis of this thoroughgoing atheism of Marx that Marxism, later spread throughout the world, was formed, and Marxist atheism also became the advanced form of the development of Western atheistic thought.

19世纪，如同康德曾试图将有神论建立在道德意识的基础上一样，弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫试图将有神论建立在个人宗教情感的基础上，将上帝限制于宗教意识的范围内。[23]路德维希·费尔巴哈对此进行了批判，并发展出人本学。他认为人的宗教意识只不过是人的最高理想以某种超自然存在的形式反映出来，而人的最高理想只能由人所形成。费尔巴哈否认上帝，却并不是为了废除宗教，而是要使宗教完善化。但他的学说对马克思和恩格斯都产生了决定性的影响。[24]马克思进一步指出：“宗教是还没有获得自身或已经再度丧失自身的人的自我意识和自我感觉。……因此，反宗教的斗争间接地就是反对以宗教为精神抚慰的那个世界的斗争。”[25]正是在马克思这种彻底的无神论思想之上形成了后来传播到全世界的马克思主义，而马克思主义无神论也成为西方无神论思想发展的高级形态。

Another German atheist, Nietzsche, directly pointed out that God is dead; and the chaos and nihilism this fact would cause in the realm of values had not yet been given sufficient attention. He attempted to replace the transcendental morality derived from God’s will and theological teleology with a naturalistic morality that derives its reason for existence from the human environment. Nietzsche foresaw the most profound impact of the collapse of religious views on the moral sphere in Western society. [26]26 Friedrich Nietzsche, *The Gay Science*, 1882, Section 125; *Thus Spoke Zarathustra*, 1883–1885. In the 20th century, the existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre took atheism as the first premise of his theory: “If God is dead, then everything is possible.” Since God is dead, every individual must provide meaning for their own existence. [27]27 Jean-Paul Sartre, *Existentialism Is a Humanism*, 1946. Thereafter, some other outstanding Western thinkers, starting from the premise of atheism, put forward their own views on solving the problems of Western society, which will not be discussed further here.

另一位德国的无神论者尼采则直接指出，上帝死了；而这一事实将会在价值领域造成怎样的混乱和虚无，人们尚未给予足够的重视。他试图以一种从人的环境中引出其存在理由的自然主义的道德，来取代从上帝意志和神学目的论而来的先验道德。尼采预见了西方社会宗教观的崩溃对其道德领域最深远的影响。[26]到20世纪，存在主义者让·保罗·萨特将无神论作为自己理论的第一个前提，即“如果上帝死了，那么一切都可能发生”。既然上帝死了，那么每一个人都要为自己的生存提供意义。[27]之后，西方又有一些杰出的思想家从无神论的前提出发，提出自己对于西方社会问题的解决看法，这里就不再过多涉及。

Furthermore, since the 19th century, the scientific critique of religion has grown increasingly robust, and religion and religious experience have come to be explained in naturalistic terms. In Britain, Darwin’s *On the Origin of Species* (1859) overturned the traditional Christian assumptions about human origins, and the theory of natural selection nearly subverted theism entirely. Darwin himself, however, was an agnostic; evolution moved him, yet the fact of its non-teleological character disheartened him. He “deeply felt that the whole problem was too profound for the human intellect…”[28]28 Charles Darwin, *The Autobiography of Charles Darwin*, ed. Nora Barlow (London: Collins, 1958), p. 94. Nonetheless, the impact of evolutionary theory on Western and world history is incalculable. The conflict between science and religion began here, typified by the 1860 debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science between Thomas Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce over the lineage of humanity. From this, scientific humanism began to spread. A contemporary preacher defined humanism as follows: “(The humanist) sees no reason for believing in a supernatural God or an afterlife; he believes that in solving problems people must rely on their own reason and morality, not appeal to supernatural aid; no supernatural authority, nor any other authority, should be allowed to hinder inquiry in any field of thought.”[29]29 Corliss Lamont, *The Philosophy of Humanism*, 8th ed. (New York: Humanist Press, 1997), p. 12. The humanist John Stuart Mill argued that a world so full of suffering, yet supposedly the benevolent creation of an omnipotent and perfectly good God, was a moral contradiction. The 20th-century humanist Bertrand Russell held that science could, or would ultimately, explain all the activities of the universe, and that we needed no other explanation.[30]30 Bertrand Russell, *Religion and Science* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 242.

此外，19世纪以来，科学对宗教的批判日益发展壮大，宗教以及宗教经验越来越被人们以自然主义的方式进行解释。在英国，达尔文的《物种的起源》（1859）推翻了基督教对于人类起源的传统假设，自然选择学说几乎颠覆了整个有神论。而达尔文本人却是一位不可知论者，进化论固然让他感动，但非目的论的事实又让他沮丧，他“深深地感到这全部问题对人的理智而言，是过于深奥了……”[28]尽管如此，进化论的提出对西方乃至世界历史的影响都是不可估量的。而科学与宗教之争也从这里拉开了序幕，典型的比如1860年英国科学促进会上托马斯·赫胥黎与大主教维伯福尔斯之间关于人类谱系的争论。由此，科学人文主义开始传播。某位当代的传道者对人文主义下了这样的定义：“（人文主义者）认为没有理由来信仰超自然的上帝或来世；他认为人在解决问题时必须以本人的理智和道德作为依据，而不是求助于超自然的援助；无论是超自然的权威，还是别的什么权威，都不应该允许他们来妨碍任何思想领域内的研究。”[29]人文主义者约翰·斯图亚特·穆勒认为，这样一个痛苦的世界，却被认为是一位至善全能的神的仁慈创造，这在道德上是矛盾的。20世纪的人文主义者罗素认为，科学完全可以或者最终将说明宇宙的一切活动，我们并不需要任何其他的说明。[30]

Still within the realm of science, the 20th-century psychologist Freud inherited the philosophical views of Marx and Nietzsche. He believed that grounding morality on religion was unreliable, and that people should learn to be independent in the moral sphere just as in other spheres. He explained religious experience in naturalistic terms and regarded scientific work as the only path to understanding reality. People who believe in religion feel powerless and fearful before the universe; they project the father image, which they have obtained comfort from since childhood, onto nature, and thus create their God. Therefore, religion is an illusion; and because it cannot be independently established on the foundation of reason and science, it is also false.[31]31 Sigmund Freud, *The Future of an Illusion*, trans. W. D. Robson-Scott (London: Hogarth Press, 1928), pp. 42-43, 76.

仍然在科学的领域，20世纪的心理学家弗洛伊德继承了马克思和尼采的哲学看法，他认为将道德建立在宗教的基础上是不可靠的，人们哪怕在道德的领域也应当像在其他领域中一样学会独立。他用自然主义的术语来说明宗教经验，并认为科学工作是认识实在的唯一道路。相信宗教的人们在宇宙面前感到无能和恐惧，便把自小就可以获得某种安慰的父亲形象投射到自然身上，便创造出了他们的上帝。因此，宗教是一种幻想；同时由于它不能独立的确立于理性和科学的基础之上，所以它也是错误的。[31]

Since the 20th century, the development of linguistic philosophy has posed new challenges to theological thought. It no longer concerns itself with the truth or falsity of religious statements, but with the meaning of religious statements themselves. Religious statements are criticized as meaningless propositions that should be discarded entirely. The logician A. J. Ayer said that the agnostic maintains that the existence of God is merely a possibility, and that there is no sufficient reason either to believe or disbelieve; the atheist maintains that God does not exist, which is at least possible; however, we hold that all statements about the nature of God are meaningless, and therefore we are fundamentally opposed to both agnosticism and atheism. This can be said to be the most radical challenge theology has yet encountered.[32]32 A. J. Ayer, *Language, Truth and Logic* (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), p. 115. It is thus evident that the naturalistic way of understanding and knowing the world is attempting to exclude theology entirely from the realm of human cognition. Nevertheless, in the West, the debate between non-belief and theology continues.

20世纪以来，语言哲学的发展对神学思想提出了新的挑战。它不再关注宗教陈述的真假，而是关注宗教陈述的意义本身。宗教陈述被批判为没有意义的命题，应当完全丢弃。逻辑学教授艾耶尔说，不可知论者主张，上帝的存在只是一种可能性，无论相不相信，都没有充分的理由；而无神论者主张，上帝并不存在，这至少是可能的；然而我们认为，一切关于上帝本性的说法都无意义，因此，我们与不可知论和无神论都是根本对立的。这可以说是神学迄今为止遇到的最为激烈的挑战了。[32]由此可见，认识和了解世界的自然主义方式正在试图将神学完全从人的认识领域排除出去。尽管如此，在西方，目前非信仰与神学之间的争论仍在继续。

II. Historical Lessons

二、历史的启示

The above has briefly outlined the developmental thread of Western atheist thought. Reviewing this history can make us wiser and clearer in the study of Marxist atheism. From it we can discern the following important lessons:

以上简要勾勒了西方无神论思想的发展脉络。重温这一历史可以让我们在马克思主义无神论的研究问题上更为明智和清晰。从中我们可以看出以下几点重要的启示：

First, the naturalistic philosophical tradition of classical antiquity can be said to be the “living source” [n] of the entire development of atheist thought. No matter how the times change, its influence persists, and in the modern and contemporary eras it has manifested itself in the form of a thoroughgoing naturalism, namely, natural science.

首先，古典时代自然主义的哲学传统可以说是整个无神论思想发展的“源头活水”，不论时代如何变迁，其影响一直在持续，在现当代更是以一种彻底的自然主义，即自然科学的方式展现出来。

Second, atheism is not the invention of any single individual, but the accumulated crystallization of the collective wisdom of countless people throughout history who have harbored atheist ideas. In Holbach, one can already see the shadow of Marx’s later critique of religion. In fact, by Marx’s time, the problem of theism versus atheism had already been resolved; he essentially inherited the atheist judgments of his predecessors, applied this thought in a more thoroughgoing way to the social and historical realm, and thereby creatively advanced his own doctrine, namely, Marxism.

其次，无神论并非某一个人的发明，而是历史上无数带有无神论思想的人们集体智慧不断积累的结晶。从霍尔巴赫那里已经可以看出后来马克思进行宗教批判的影子。事实上到马克思的时候，有神无神的问题已经解决，他基本上是继承前人的无神判断，以一种更加彻底的方式将此思想广泛应用到社会、历史的领域，进而创造性地提出自己的学说，即马克思主义。

Third, atheist thought develops continuously in response to the needs of the times. During the Enlightenment, due to the development of science and the intensifying contradictions of feudal society, atheist thought manifested itself more sharply and boldly. Holbach, “the first unequivocally and openly self-proclaimed atheist in the Western tradition,” appeared at this time. In the modern period, it was the need to resist feudal forces that gave rise to the most thoroughgoing atheist thought in the West, namely, Marxist atheism. Therefore, as the times differ, the manifestations of atheist thought will not be entirely the same. This point reminds us that the current research and propagation of Marxist atheism should also consider adapting to the needs of the present era, rather than simply copying history or relying entirely on one’s subjective wishes.

再次，无神论思想是因应时代的需要而不断向前发展的。启蒙运动时期，由于科学的发展以及封建社会的矛盾日益激化，无神论思想表现得更为鲜明和大胆，“西方传统中第一位毫不含糊地公然自认的无神论者”霍尔巴赫就出现在这个时候。到现代，由于反抗封建势力的需要，西方才出现了最为彻底的无神论思想即马克思主义的无神论。因此，时代不同，无神论思想的表现也不会完全一样。这一点就提醒我们，现在马克思主义无神论的研究和宣传也应当考虑适应当前这个时代的需要，而不能简单的照搬历史或者完全凭个人的主观意愿。

Fourth, the different manifestations of atheist thought in different eras also remind us that atheism is very rich. Whether in the classical period or the Enlightenment era, some atheist thinkers were more or less tinged with pantheism or deism. For example, Epicurus acknowledged the existence of the gods, but held that they were utterly unconcerned with human affairs, so there was no need to pray to them or fear them. Spinoza held that God is identical with nature; to know nature and its laws is to know God. Although we consider Marxist atheism the most thoroughgoing, it is undeniable that in the entire history of atheist development, pantheism and deism, like atheism, have manifested as a state of non-belief and have effectively resisted mainstream theology. Although they are not equivalent to atheism and have certain limitations, they can be said to be close relatives of atheism.

第四，无神论思想在不同时代的不同表现也提醒我们，无神论是非常丰富的。不论是古典时期还是启蒙运动时代的一些无神论思想家，他们都或多或少的带有一点泛神论或者自然神论的色彩。比如伊壁鸠鲁就承认诸神的存在，只是他们根本不过问人类的事务，所以完全没必要向他们祈祷或对其感到恐惧。斯宾诺莎认为上帝就等同于自然，认识了自然及其规律，也就是认识了上帝。虽然我们认为马克思主义的无神论是最彻底的，但不可否认，在整个无神论的发展史上，泛神论、自然神论同无神论一样都表现为一种非信仰的状态，都曾有力地抵制了主流神学。尽管它们并不等同于无神论，还有一定的局限，但是它们可以说是无神论的近亲。

In fact, in the West, the independent discipline of atheism is often divided into many schools, such as “classical atheism,” i.e., the atheism of ancient Greece and Rome; the atheism of “deism”; the atheism of the “Encyclopédistes”; Feuerbach’s atheism; and Marxist atheism, among others.[33]33 Michael Martin, ed., *The Cambridge Companion to Atheism* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 1. Therefore, when we today conduct research on Marxist atheism, we must not neglect the connotation of atheist thought itself and its rich extension.

事实上在西方，无神论这个独立的学科下面往往分为很多学派，比如“古典的无神论”，即古希腊与古罗马的无神论，“自然神论”的无神论，“百科全书派”的无神论，费尔巴哈的无神论，以及马克思主义的无神论等等。[33]因此，今天我们在进行马克思主义无神论的研究时，对无神论思想本身的内涵及其丰富的外延都不可忽视。

Fifth, the development of atheism has always been accompanied by skepticism. Whether in the classical period, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, or the modern era, this is very evident. This spirit of daring to question and constantly inquire is a main manifestation of the naturalistic tradition, and in the modern era it has been further developed in science and reason. On the question of theism, the direct result of skepticism is often agnosticism, a very important phenomenon of non-belief. Agnosticism is not equivalent to atheism, but in both Eastern and Western history, its relationship with atheism is very close. Confucianism in China contains a certain tradition of agnosticism.

第五，无神论的发展一直有怀疑主义相伴随。不论在古典时代还是文艺复兴、启蒙运动乃至现代，这一点都表现得非常明显。这种敢于质疑和不断探求的精神正是自然主义传统的一个主要体现，在现代更在科学和理性中得到了进一步的发扬。在有神论的问题上，怀疑主义的直接结果往往是不可知论，一个非常重要的非信仰现象。不可知论并不等于无神论，但不论在西方还是东方的历史上，它与无神论的关系都非常近。中国的儒家思想中就有一定的不可知论的传统。

Throughout history, many non-believers have thought: “I have no faith in God and am not concerned with matters related to Him, so I must be an agnostic, right?” However, the famous American atheist Michael Martin, through detailed analysis, discovered that many so-called agnostics are likely positive atheists, i.e., they not only lack belief in God but also believe that God does not exist; they simply have not yet realized, due to certain cognitive errors, that they are actually atheists.[34]34 Michael Martin, *Atheism: A Philosophical Justification* (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), pp. 463-464. [n] “Living source” (源头活水) is a classical Chinese allusion from Zhu Xi’s poem “Reflections on Reading – Part 1” (《观书有感·其一》), where it refers to the continuous renewal of knowledge from an inexhaustible source.

古往今来很多非信仰者都认为，自己没有对上帝的信仰，也不在意与之相关的事情，那么自己应该是个不可知论者吧？然而美国著名无神论者迈克尔·马丁通过详尽的辨析发现，很多所谓的不可知论者很可能都是积极无神论者，即不只没有对神的信仰，而且相信神并不存在；他们只不过因为思维上的一些误区还没有意识到自己其实是无神论者罢了。[34]

Sixth, based on the lessons of history, when we study atheism today we should place it within the broader context of non-belief for examination and comparison, and we should link the various rich phenomena of non-belief together for research. Atheist thought is in fact as ancient as the naturalist tradition. But it was precisely because of the development of medieval theology that the importance and necessity of atheism became increasingly prominent. Similarly, only by examining and distinguishing it within the broad scope of non-belief, and clarifying its relationship with pantheism, deism, and agnosticism, can atheism be more clearly presented to the world. And only then can the thoroughness and unique advantages of Marxist atheism become apparent.

第六，根据历史的启示，如今我们研究无神论，应当将之放在整个非信仰的大背景下进行考察和比较，要将各种丰富的非信仰现象联系起来进行研究。无神论思想其实跟自然主义传统一样久远。但正因为有了中世纪的神学的发展，无神论的重要性和必要性才日益凸显出来。同样，在非信仰的大范围内进行考察和辨析，厘清它与泛神论、自然神论、不可知论之间的关系，无神论才能更清楚地呈现在世人面前。而马克思主义无神论的彻底性和独特优势也才能够显现。

At the same time, this is also a process of helping the masses clarify their own thinking. For Marx, the question of theism versus atheism had already been resolved; his focus was more on the domain of social history. China is a socialist country guided by Marxism, but it has not yet reached communist society. Although the mainstream of Chinese society advocates atheist thought, the general populace is actually not very clear about their own atheist views. Am I a positive atheist who believes that God does not exist, or merely a negative atheist who does not believe in God, or an agnostic, or someone tinged with pantheism or deism? Ordinary people are likely to be unclear. And it is even more possible that the seemingly agnostic tradition of Confucian culture in Chinese history will lead many people to consider themselves agnostics, but in fact — according to Michael Martin's research — they are likely atheists, only they themselves do not yet know it.

同时，这也是一个帮助大众澄清自己的思想的过程。对马克思来说，有神无神的问题已经解决了，他更多的关注社会历史的领域。中国是一个在马克思主义指导下的社会主义国家，还没有抵达共产主义社会。中国社会的主流虽然推崇无神论思想，但广大民众对于自身的无神论观点其实并不是很清楚的。我到底是相信神并不存在的积极无神论者还是仅仅不信仰神的消极无神论者，还是不可知论者，抑或带有泛神论或者自然神论的色彩？普通民众很可能是模糊的。而更有可能的是，中国历史上儒家文化中貌似不可知论的传统会使很多人认为自己是个不可知论者，但事实上——根据迈克尔·马丁的研究——他们很可能是无神论者，只是他们自己还不知道而已。

Finally, Marx's thorough atheist thought has been inherited by us, while in the West, the debate between non-belief and theism continues, albeit in altered forms. Although science and reason have become mainstream concepts in the world today, the long-standing theological tradition in the West should not be underestimated. Since the 21st century, the "Four Horsemen,"[35]35 The "Four Horsemen" refers to Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, Sam Harris, and Daniel Dennett, prominent figures in the New Atheist movement of the early 21st century. led by British biologist Richard Dawkins, have stirred up a trend of New Atheism in European and American societies. Dawkins deeply analyzes the origins of religion and the constraints and deceptions it imposes on human thought, regarding it as a mental parasite in the history of human evolution, and advocates that people aspire to become happy, peaceful, moral, and rational atheists.[36]36 Reference to Dawkins' book *The God Delusion* (2006) and related works. Although the works of the "Four Horsemen" are written in rational, scientific language, they have all made the bestseller lists in Europe and America, exerting a huge influence on readers. The emergence of this trend is due not only to the influence of historical tradition but also to the reasons of the times, which will not be analyzed further here.[37]37 The author declines to elaborate on the contemporary reasons for the rise of New Atheism. Interestingly, this trend of New Atheism has begun to affect the domestic populace in China. The science popularization website "Science Park" has been holding the China Atheist Forum annually since 2012, discussing atheism and promoting science popularization, explicitly stating its intention to echo this trend in Europe and America. Therefore, persisting in the research and propaganda of Marxist atheism, and continuously paying attention to the changes and developments of atheist thought worldwide, is in line with the current trend of the times.

最后，马克思彻底的无神论思想被我们继承下来，而在西方，非信仰与有神论之间的争论仍在继续，只不过变换了形式。虽然在当今世界科学和理性已经成为主流观念，但西方一直以来的神学传统仍不可小觑。21世纪以来，以英国生物学家理查德·道金斯为首的“四骑士”[35]在欧美社会掀起了一股新无神论的思潮。道金斯深入剖析宗教的由来以及它对人类思想带来的禁锢和欺骗，认为它是人类进化史上的思想寄生虫，倡导人们要立志成为一名幸福、安宁、有道德和充满理智的无神论者。[36]“四骑士”的著作虽然是用理性、科学的语言所写，但都登上了欧美畅销书的排行榜，在读者中影响巨大。这一思潮之所以出现，不仅有历史传统的影响，还有时代的原因，这里就不再展开分析。[37]有意思的是，这股新无神论思潮开始波及国内的民众，科普网站“科学公园”从2012年开始每年举办中国无神论者论坛，讨论无神论并推广科普，明确提出要与欧美的这一思潮相呼应。因此，坚持马克思主义无神论的研究和宣传，持续关注全世界无神论思想的变化发展，这是符合当前的时代趋势的。

III. Conclusion

三、结 论

This article, through a brief review of the development of Western atheist thought, presents the historical origins of Marxist atheism and elaborates on several insights we may gain from this historical exploration. For today's study of atheism, these insights have very important guiding significance.

本文通过简要回顾西方无神论思想的发展历程，呈现了马克思主义无神论的历史渊源，并阐述了我们从这种历史探索中可能获得的几点启示。对于今天的无神论研究来说，这些启示具有很重要的指导意义。

In the first half of the 20th century, atheism was introduced to China along with the ideas of democracy and science. It precisely catered to the urgent needs of Chinese society at the time for opposing imperialism and feudalism. Typically, for example, the "Anti-Christian Student League" established by Shanghai students and the "Anti-Religious Grand League" initiated by students at Peking University both had the purpose of "specifically to free oneself from the shackles of religion and to give full play to scientific truth,"[38]38 Quotation from the founding documents of the anti-Christian and anti-religion movements in early 20th-century China. and they stirred up a wave across the country opposing Christianity and criticizing religion.

20世纪上半叶，无神论跟随民主与科学的思想被介绍到中国。它正迎合了当时中国社会反帝反封建的迫切需要。典型地，比如由上海学生筹备建立的“非基督教学生同盟”以及北京大学学生发起的“非宗教大同盟”，其宗旨都是“专为解脱宗教羁绊，发挥科学真理”[38]，他们在全国掀起了一场反对基督教、批判宗教的浪潮。

However, in contemporary China, the task of opposing imperialism and feudalism has long been completed. The basic line of governance of the Communist Party of China, guided by Marxism, centers on economic construction as its core task, adheres to the Four Cardinal Principles as the foundation for building the country, and promotes reform and opening up as the path to national strength. So how is Marxist atheism to play its due role in the present era? How is it to adapt to the needs of this era? This requires us to clearly grasp some key elements of the historical development and changes of atheist thought, and to apply them accordingly in conjunction with the current era.

然而在当今的中国，反帝反封建的任务早已完成。以马克思主义为指导的中国共产党，其执政基本路线的核心是以经济建设为中心，坚持四项基本原则作为立国之本，并推行改革开放作为强国之路。那么马克思主义无神论要如何在当代发挥其应有的作用？如何适应这个时代的需要？这都需要我们能够清楚地把握无神论思想在历史上发展变迁的一些关键要素，并结合当前这个时代来相应的运用。

The naturalist tradition of atheism, its manifestation and continuation as collective wisdom, its epochal character, the independence of its content and the richness of its extension, its skeptical nature, and its role as a key point reflecting the entire phenomenon of non-belief and even the entire domain of belief — these are all key elements of atheist thought that we should deeply grasp. Each and every one of them demonstrates the value of engaging in the study of Marxist atheism today. By expanding our research and propaganda on atheism, we can precisely respond to the phenomenon of the current "religious fever." By deeply excavating the naturalist tradition and the spirit of reason and science inherent in atheism, we can precisely curb the proliferation of pseudo-religions, the development of cults, and the spread of religious extremism. Atheism and religion are precisely two sides of the same coin. Under the current social situation, there is still much that can be done in this field.

无神论的自然主义传统、它作为集体智慧的展现和延续、它的时代性、内涵的独立性以及外延的丰富性、怀疑主义的特质、以及它本身作为一个关键点而呈现出的整个非信仰现象乃至对整个信仰领域的折射，这些都是我们应当深入把握的无神论思想中的一些关键要素。它们无一不显示出今日从事马克思主义无神论研究的价值之所在。我们拓展无神论的研究和宣传，正可以应对今日的“宗教热”现象。通过深入挖掘蕴藏在无神论之中的自然主义传统以及理性和科学的精神，正可以抑制当前伪宗教的泛滥、邪教的发展以及宗教极端主义的蔓延。无神论与宗教正是一体的两面。当前的社会形势下，这一领域可做的事情还有很多。

Even in today's secularized world, Western research on atheism continues, albeit in altered forms and with adjusted intensity. In the current era, with the development of science, technology, and the economy, and the extensive exchange of cultures, the world is increasingly becoming a whole. The Western trend of New Atheism has also affected our country. Therefore, whether from the perspective of the needs of the times or the development of atheist thought itself, conducting research on Marxist atheism in Chinese society at present holds great potential.

即便是在世俗化的今天，西方的无神论研究仍然在继续，只不过变换了形式、调整了力度。当今时代，随着科技和经济的发展、文化的广泛交流，全世界日益成为一个整体。西方的新无神论思潮也波及了我国。因此，不论是从时代需要还是从无神论思想本身的发展来说，目前在中国社会进行马克思主义无神论的研究，都是大有可为的。

[1]1 James Thrower (1936–1999), a British historian of atheism and author of *The Alternative Tradition: A Study of Unbelief in the Ancient World* and *Marxist-Leninist "Scientific Atheism" and the Study of Religion and Atheism in the USSR*. Zhang Shangren and Wu Song, *A Historical Account of Western Atheism* (Fujian People's Publishing House, 1987), p. 15.

[1] 张尚仁、吴松：《西方无神论史话》，福建人民出版社，1987年，第15页。

[2]2 Heraclitus (c. 535–c. 475 BCE) argued that the world is an ever-living fire, governed by logos (reason or law), not by personal gods. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 27-28.

[2] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第27-28页。

[3]3 Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 BCE) developed the atomic theory; his explanation of religion as arising from fear of natural phenomena is a classic naturalistic account. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 32-33.

[3] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第32-33页。

[4]4 Epicurus (341–270 BCE) taught that the gods, if they exist, are composed of atoms and live in the intermundia (spaces between worlds), indifferent to human affairs. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 40.

[4] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第40页。

[5]5 Lucretius (c. 99–c. 55 BCE), Roman poet and Epicurean, author of *De Rerum Natura* (*On the Nature of Things*), which argues against divine intervention and fear of death. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 45-47.

[5] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第45-47页。

[6]6 The skeptical schools, such as Pyrrhonism, suspended judgment on all matters, including the existence of gods. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 49-50.

[6] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第49-50页。

[7]7 The collapse of the medieval synthesis refers to the decline of feudalism, the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), the Western Schism (1378–1417), and the rise of centralized monarchies. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 54-55, 61.

[7] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第54-55页、61页。

[8]8 The recovery of Aristotle’s works in the 12th and 13th centuries, especially through Arabic commentaries, led to Scholasticism, which sought to reconcile faith and reason but also opened space for rational inquiry independent of theology. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 62-63.

[8] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第62-63页。

[9]9 This refers to the Renaissance humanist turn, emphasizing the study of classical texts (*studia humanitatis*) and the dignity of man, as in Pico della Mirandola’s *Oration on the Dignity of Man* (1486). (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 65-66.

[9] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第65-66页。

[10]10 Lucian of Samosata (c. 125–c. 180 CE) was a satirist who mocked superstition and the gods; Cicero (106–43 BCE) and Plutarch (c. 46–c. 119 CE) discussed the nature of the gods with skeptical detachment; Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) expressed naturalistic views in his *Natural History*. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 68.

[10] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第68页。

[11]11 “Machiavellianism” refers to the political realism of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), especially in *The Prince* (1532), which separated politics from Christian morality and was widely condemned as promoting atheism and amorality. Quoted in: (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 69.

[11] 转引自：（英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第69页。

[12]12 The quotation is from a French source of the period, likely a Catholic critic of Machiavelli’s influence; the original author is not specified in the text. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji'an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 70.

[12] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第70页。

[13]13 The Protestant Reformation (beginning 1517) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation led to intense polemics, with each side accusing the other of heresy and unbelief, fostering a climate of religious skepticism. Zhang Shangren and Wu Song, *A History of Western Atheism* (Fujian People’s Publishing House, 1987), pp. 202–207.

[13] 张尚仁、吴松：《西方无神论史话》，福建人民出版社，1987年，第202-207页。

[14]14 Thomas Hobbes, *Leviathan*, Chapter 32. The English translation follows the standard rendering: “The mysteries of our religion are like pills that benefit the patient: swallowed whole, they are good for the cure; chewed thoroughly and then mostly spat out, they have no effect.” (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 80–81.

[14] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第80-81页。

[15]15 Baruch Spinoza, *Ethics*, Part I, Proposition 14: “Besides God no substance can be granted or conceived.” Zhang Shangren and Wu Song, *A History of Western Atheism* (Fujian People’s Publishing House, 1987), pp. 223–227.

[15] 张尚仁、吴松：《西方无神论史话》，福建人民出版社，1987年，第223-227页。

[16]16 Reference to the “double truth” theory, which held that philosophical and religious truths could coexist even if contradictory, a position associated with medieval Averroism. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 88.

[16] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第88页。

[17]17 Deism: the belief in a creator God who does not intervene in the natural world, often contrasted with revealed religion. Deists oppose mysterious revelation, i.e., not only is revelation in principle impossible, but in historical fact it has never occurred. They use reason to prove religion, and although they believe God created the world, they hold that as the final cause He stands outside nature. Reference: (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 89–92.

[17] 自然神论者反对神秘的启示，即不仅在原则上根本不可能有启示这种东西，而且在历史事实中启示也从没有发生过。他们以理性来证明宗教，虽然相信上帝创造了这个世界，但认为它作为最终的原因处于自然之外。参考（英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第89-92页。

[18]18 Denis Diderot, *Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature* (Thoughts on the Interpretation of Nature), 1754. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 94–95.

[18] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第94-95页。

[19]19 Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d’Holbach, *Système de la nature* (The System of Nature), 1770. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 96–97.

[19] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第96-97页。

[20]20 David Hume, *Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion*, 1779. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 99.

[20] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第99页。

[21]21 Immanuel Kant, *Critique of Pure Reason*, 1781; *Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason*, 1793. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 104–105.

[21] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第104-105页。

[22]22 Reference to the Enlightenment’s epistemological limitation of reason to the empirical world, as in Kant’s distinction between phenomena and noumena. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 105–106.

[22] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第105-106页。

[23]23 Friedrich Schleiermacher, *On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers*, 1799. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), p. 108.

[23] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第108页。

[24]24 Ludwig Feuerbach, *The Essence of Christianity*, 1841. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 108–109.

[24] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第108-109页。

[25]25 Karl Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right: Introduction,” 1844. The English translation follows the standard rendering in the *Marx-Engels Collected Works*. Karl Marx, “Introduction to *A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, Vol. 1 (People’s Publishing House, 2009), p. 3.

[25] 卡尔·马克思：《<黑格尔法哲学批判>导言》，《马克思恩格斯文集》第1卷，人民出版社2009年版，第3页。

[26]26 Friedrich Nietzsche, *The Gay Science*, 1882, Section 125; *Thus Spoke Zarathustra*, 1883–1885. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 111–114.

[26] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第111-114页。

[27]27 Jean-Paul Sartre, *Existentialism Is a Humanism*, 1946. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 114–115.

[27] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第114-115页。

[28]28 Charles Darwin, *The Autobiography of Charles Darwin*, ed. Nora Barlow (London: Collins, 1958), p. 94. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 118–119.

[28] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第118-119页。

[29]29 Corliss Lamont, *The Philosophy of Humanism*, 8th ed. (New York: Humanist Press, 1997), p. 12. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 119–120.

[29] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第119-120页。

[30]30 Bertrand Russell, *Religion and Science* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 242. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 120–122.

[30] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第120-122页。

[31]31 Sigmund Freud, *The Future of an Illusion*, trans. W. D. Robson-Scott (London: Hogarth Press, 1928), pp. 42-43, 76. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 116–118.

[31] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第116-118页。

[32]32 A. J. Ayer, *Language, Truth and Logic* (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), p. 115. (UK) James Thrower, *A Short History of Western Atheism*, trans. Zhang Ji’an, ed. Lü Daji (China Social Sciences Press, 1982), pp. 122–124.

[32] （英）詹姆士·斯鲁威尔：《西方无神论简史》，张继安译、吕大吉 校，中国社会科学出版社，1982年，第122-124页。

[33]33 Michael Martin, ed., *The Cambridge Companion to Atheism* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 1. Ya Hanzhang and Wang Yousan, eds., *A History of Chinese Atheism*, Vol. 1 (China Social Sciences Press, 2011), p. 3.

[33] 牙含章、王友三 主编：《中国无神论史（上）》，中国社会科学出版社，2011年，第3页。

[34]34 Michael Martin, *Atheism: A Philosophical Justification* (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), pp. 463-464. [n] “Living source” (源头活水) is a classical Chinese allusion from Zhu Xi’s poem “Reflections on Reading – Part 1” (《观书有感·其一》), where it refers to the continuous renewal of knowledge from an inexhaustible source. (US) Michael Martin, “Atheism v. Agnosticism,” *Philosophers’ Magazine* 19 (2002): 17–19.

[34] （美）迈克尔·马丁：《无神论与不可知论》，《哲学家杂志》2002年第19期，第17-19页。(Michael Martin, “Atheism v. Agnosticism,” Philosophers’ Magazine 19 (Summer 2002): 17-19.)

[35]35 The "Four Horsemen" refers to Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, Sam Harris, and Daniel Dennett, prominent figures in the New Atheist movement of the early 21st century. British biologist Richard Dawkins (*The God Delusion*, 2006), American neuroscientist Sam Harris (*The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason*, 2004), Christopher Hitchens (*God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything*, 2007), and American philosopher and cognitive psychologist Daniel Dennett (*Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon*, 2006) are hailed as the “Four Horsemen” of the twenty-first-century New Atheist movement.

[35] 英国生物学家理查德·道金斯（《上帝的迷思》(The God Delusion) (2006)）、美国神经学家萨姆·哈里斯（《信仰的终结：宗教、恐怖和理性的未来》(The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason)(2004)）、克里斯托弗·希钦斯（《上帝不伟大：宗教如何毒害了一切》(God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything)(2007)）和美国哲学家和认知心理学家丹尼尔·丹尼特（《破除魔咒：作为一种自然现象的宗教》(Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon)(2006)）等四人被誉为21世纪新无神论思潮的“四骑士”(the Four Horsemen)。

[36]36 Reference to Dawkins' book *The God Delusion* (2006) and related works. Richard Dawkins, *The God Delusion*, trans. Chen Rongxia (Hainan Publishing House, 2010), p. 1.

[36] 理查德·道金斯：《上帝的迷思》，陈蓉霞 译，海南出版社，2010年，第1页。

[37]37 The author declines to elaborate on the contemporary reasons for the rise of New Atheism. See my article: Han Qi, “The New Atheist Trend in the West and the Value-Neutral Orientation in Religious Studies,” in *Research Report on the Sinicization of Marxism No. 4*, ed. Zhao ZhiKui and Jin Minqing, exec. eds. Xi Wuyi and Huang Yanhong (Social Sciences Academic Press, 2012).

[37] 可参考拙文：韩琪：《西方新无神论思潮以及宗教研究中的价值中立取向》，载《马克思主义中国化研究报告No.4》，中国社会科学院马克思主义研究院赵智奎、金民卿 主编，习五一、黄艳红 执行主编，社会科学文献出版社，2012年。

[38]38 Quotation from the founding documents of the anti-Christian and anti-religion movements in early 20th-century China. Duan Qi, *The Course of Endeavor: The Indigenization of Chinese Christianity* (Commercial Press, 2004), pp. 187–191. This passage is cited from: Sun Shangyang and Han Qi, “Peking University Students’ Attitudes toward Christianity: A Preliminary Investigation and Analysis,” *Fu Jen Religious Studies* 19 (Fall 2009): 55–57.

[38]段琦：《奋进的历程——中国基督教的本色化》，商务印书馆，2004年，第187-191页。本文此处转引自：孙尚扬、韩琪：《北大学生对基督宗教的态度：初步调查与分析》，《辅仁宗教研究》第19期（2009年秋），第55-57页。

(Author: Assistant Researcher, Academy of Marxism, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)

（作者：中国社会科学院马研院助理研究员）

Online Editor: Rainbow

网络编辑：彩虹

Originally published in: *Marxist Forum* (Vol. 11), Shandong People’s Publishing House, December 2015.

原文发表于：《马克思主义论坛》（第11辑）山东人民出版社2015年12月。