An Outline of the Atheist Thought in the “Inner Enterprise” Chapter of the Guanzi

The Jixia Academy was the central arena of the “contention of a hundred schools of thought” during the Warring States period, and the Jixia school emerged from this academic contention. A number of valuable works came into being relying on the Jixia school and the illustrious figures of its era, and the Guanzi is one of them. Within the Guanzi, the chapters “Inner Enterprise” (Neiye), “White Heart” (Baixin), “Art of the Mind I” (Xinshu shang), and “Art of the Mind II” (Xinshu xia), which are prominent for their philosophical thought, are known as the “Four Chapters of the Guanzi,” and among them the “Inner Enterprise” chapter is of particularly high value. As a representative work of Jixia Daoist thought, the “Inner Enterprise” chapter formed a relatively complete and systematic ideological system; its discussions on the view of matter and the view of life fully embody the characteristics of an atheist consciousness, possessing pioneering merit and unique insights. “Inner Enterprise” takes “vital essence” (jingqi) as the origin of all things in the world, indirectly criticizing, from the perspective of a materialist view, the superstitious thinking that attributes phenomena of motion to the power of ghosts and spirits. At the same time, “Inner Enterprise” places great emphasis on affirming human thought and subjective initiative, stressing the plasticity of human growth and development, and promoting human subjectivity itself—something truly rare and valuable in pre-Qin literature. On this basis, “Inner Enterprise” undertakes a preliminary exploration of the mechanisms of life, providing a basic explanation of the holistic view of life and the principles of nurturing life, thereby dispelling the superstitious notion that life is manipulated by ghosts and spirits.

稷下学宫是战国时期的“百家争鸣”中心地带，而稷下学派则由学术争鸣而生成。一批有价值的著作依托稷下学派及其时代明贤而问世，《管子》便是其中之一。《管子》中哲学思想突出的《内业》《白心》《心术上》《心术下》被称为“《管子》四篇”，其中《内业》篇价值尤高。《内业》篇作为稷下道家思想的代表作品，形成了比较完善、系统的思想体系，关于物质观、生命观的论述充分体现了无神论意识的特色，具有先发之功和独到之处。《内业》以“精气”为世界万物的本原，间接以物质观的视角批判了讲运动现象诉诸鬼神之力的迷信思想。同时，《内业》十分重视人的思维和主观能动性的肯定，强调人生成长和发展的可塑性，弘扬人自身的主体性，这在先秦文献是实属难能可贵的。以此为基础，《内业》对生命的机理有了初步的探索，对生命整体观和保养生命的原则做了基本阐释，破除了生命被鬼神操控的迷信思想。

I. Denying the Dominant Will of Ghosts and Spirits

一、否定鬼神的主宰意志

When the ancients lacked a full grasp of objective laws, they naturally believed that mysterious drivers lay behind natural phenomena, allowing ghosts and spirits to intrude into the human spiritual world and long occupy the basic scope of modes of thinking, becoming deeply entrenched concepts. The Shang people elevated ghosts and spirits to a supreme position, basing politics and daily life on imagined standards of ghosts and spirits, and requiring that human words and actions conform to the supposed demands of ghosts and spirits. They believed that only by obeying ghosts and spirits could life be peaceful and happy; as long as they pleased ghosts and spirits, people could obtain their help. During the Spring and Autumn period, as various schools of thought increasingly affirmed the value of human beings themselves, the concept of ghosts and spirits was somewhat impacted; however, belief in ghosts and spirits still existed in the minds of rulers and common people, exerting a negative influence on the formation of social and political structures and moral order. At this time, some enlightened thinkers launched targeted critiques of the concept of ghosts and spirits. Although their works were not specialized atheist writings, they displayed a clear atheist character, and “Inner Enterprise” is a masterpiece among them.

在先民对于客观规律缺乏充分把握之时，自然会认为自然现象背后有神秘的驱动者，鬼神得以闯入人的精神世界，并长期占据了思维方式的基本范围，成为根深蒂固的观念。殷人把鬼神抬高到了至高无上的地位，政治和生活皆以臆想的鬼神法则为标准，人的言行举止也要符合预设的鬼神要求。他们认为只有依从鬼神，生活才能平安幸福；只要讨得了鬼神的欢喜，人们就能获得鬼神的帮助。春秋时期，随着诸子对于人自身价值的不断肯定，鬼神观念受到一定冲击，然而对鬼神的信仰依旧存在于君主和百姓的头脑里，并对社会政治建设和道德秩序的形成产生了消极影响。这时一些开明的思想家有针对性地展开了对于鬼神观念的批判，他们的作品虽不是专门的无神论著述，但表现出显明的无神特色，《内业》便是其中的杰作。

(1) Defining Ghosts and Spirits through “Vital Essence”

（一）以“精气”论定鬼神

“Inner Enterprise” uses “vital essence” to explain the material foundation of the world’s existence. The opening of “Inner Enterprise” states: “The essence of all things—this gives life. Below, it produces the five grains; above, it forms the array of stars.” The “essence” here refers to “vital essence,” meaning subtle, refined qi. “Inner Enterprise” explicitly takes “vital essence” as the origin of the world, holding that vital essence pervades heaven and earth, and all things depend on vital essence for their existence. Thus, the distribution of vital essence: on earth it produces the five grains, and in the heavens it gathers into the multitude of stars. It also states: “As for the essence of humans, heaven gives forth its essence, earth gives forth its form; these combine to make a human.” That is, in the view of “Inner Enterprise,” humans are no exception; their life comes from the vital essence bestowed by heaven and the physical form provided by earth, and only when the two combine can a human be formed. Fang Xuanling of the Tang dynasty annotated: “Essence refers to the most numinous of spirit. Obtaining this gives life.” What is called “the most numinous of spirit” is a kind of quintessential movement of things—it is the “spirit of essence,” not the “spirit of spirit”; its changes take material existence as their premise and foundation. This dispels the mystery of the origin of human life, providing a simple materialist understanding of human life.

《内业》以“精气”来说明世界存在的物质基础。《内业》开篇讲到：“凡物之精，此则为生。下生五谷，上为列星。”这里的“精”，即是“精气”，指精微的气。《内业》明确以“精气”为世界的本原，认为精气弥漫于天地之间，万物赖精气而存在。于是，精气之敷布，在地生为五谷，在天则聚为众星。又讲到：“凡人之精也，天出其精，地出其形，合此以为人。”即在《内业》看来，人也不例外，其生命来自天赋予的精气和地提供的形体，只有两者结合才可以成为人。唐代房玄龄注：“精，谓神之至灵者也。得此则为生。”所谓“神之至灵者”，就是一种事物精粹的运动，是“精之神”，而非“神之神”，其变化是以物质性存在作为前提和基础的。这就破除了人的生命来源的神秘感，对人的生命有了朴素的唯物主义认识。

Regarding the substance of “ghosts and spirits,” “Inner Enterprise” proceeds from the theory of vital essence, stating: “Flowing between heaven and earth, it is called ghosts and spirits.” Thus, the so-called phenomena of ghosts and spirits are merely the state of vital essence flowing between heaven and earth, nothing more than an activity of vital essence. Therefore, the existence of “ghosts and spirits” is only the motion and change of the material world, not an independent dominant will with agency. “Inner Enterprise” further elaborates: “If you think and cannot penetrate, ghosts and spirits will penetrate it. It is not the power of ghosts and spirits; it is the extreme of vital essence.” This means that when a problem cannot be understood through thought, it may appear that “ghosts and spirits” will help you penetrate it, but this is not the power of ghosts and spirits; it is vital essence reaching its extreme state. The scholar Ma Feibai interprets “essence” as “concentration” (zhuanyi), while “qi” is synonymous with “spirit” (shen), thus interpreting “the extreme of vital essence” as “spiritual concentration.” When the spirit is concentrated, one can recognize the laws of the objective world; this process involves no participation by ghosts and spirits with a dominant will, but rather a specific state of human thought playing its role. “Inner Enterprise” was unable to clearly distinguish between material phenomena and spiritual activity, holding that the spirit capable of thought is also a kind of qi—not ordinary qi, but a refined qi, vital essence—yet by reducing spiritual existence to the activity of qi, it still rejected the entry of “ghosts and spirits.”

对于“鬼神”的实质，《内业》以精气论出发，讲到：“流于天地之间，谓之鬼神。”由此，所谓鬼神现象是精气在天地之间的流布状态，也不过是一种精气活动而已。所以“鬼神”的存在只是物质世界的运动变化，而不是有意志的独立主宰。《内业》进一步阐述到：“思之而不通，鬼神将通之。非鬼神之力也，精气之极也。”意思是说，思考不通的问题，看起来会有“鬼神”将帮你疏通，但其实这并不是鬼神的力量，而是精气达到了极至状态。学者马非百把“精”解释为“专一”，而“气”与“神”同义，即把“精气之极”解释为“精神专一”。精神专一了就可以认识客观世界的规律，这个过程并没有主宰意志的鬼神参与，而是人的思维的特定状态起了作用。《内业》没有能够把物质现象和精神活动明确区别开来，认为能够思维的精神也是一种气，但不是普通的气，而是一种精细的气——精气，但把精神存在归结为气的活动，还是拒绝了“鬼神”的进入。

“Inner Enterprise” defines what people recognize as “ghosts and spirits” as material phenomena, thereby fundamentally denying the existence of dominant ghosts and spirits.

《内业》把人们认可“鬼神”论定为物质现象，从而从根本上否定了主宰性鬼神的存在。

(2) Governing the State and Pacifying the People without Ghosts and Spirits

（二）治国安民不以鬼神

“Inner Enterprise’s” denial of the dominant will of “ghosts and spirits” is reflected not only in its understanding of the nature of ghosts and spirits, but more importantly in its proposal that governing the state and bringing peace to the people should rely on the ruler and the populace, rejecting the interference of ghost-and-spirit doctrines in political affairs. It also offers a profound analysis of divination and other primary means by which ghost-and-spirit doctrines intervened in politics.

《内业》否定“鬼神”的主宰意志，不只体现在对“鬼神”本质的认识上，更重要的是提出了治国安邦要依靠君主和民众，拒绝以鬼神之说干预政治事务。对于卜筮等作为鬼神之说干预政治的主要方式也有深刻的剖析。

“Inner Enterprise” holds that whether governance of the state achieves results depends on the correct decisions of the ruler and the response of the people, not on the protection of ghosts and spirits. “Inner Enterprise” states: “If the mind is ordered within, words are ordered from the mouth, and affairs are ordered in dealing with others, then the world will be well governed.” This means that the prerequisite for governing the state is that the ruler first regulates his own spirit and clarifies his thoughts; only then can he issue decrees that harmonize affairs, and such policies will then be recognized by the people, so the world will inevitably be greatly ordered. Thus, governing the state is nothing more than “speaking, then acting; acting, then governing.” The key to long-term stability and order in the state lies in the correct decisions of the governing authorities, and has nothing to do with the benefits or harms of ghosts and spirits. As it says: “One word correct and the world submits; one word settled and the world listens.” If the ruler cannot play his proper role, society will produce calamities, endangering the safety of the people and also causing instability in the state.

《内业》认为治理国家能否得其成效在于君主的正确决策和民众的响应，而不是鬼神之护佑。《内业》讲到：“治心在于中，治言出于口，治事加于人，然则天下治矣。”意思是说，治国的前提是君主先把自身的精神调理好、思绪理清楚，才能发布能调协事务的政令，然后这样的政策就会被民众认可，那么天下必将会大治。所以治理国家无非就是“言然后使，使然后治”。国家长治久安的关键在于施政者的正确决策，与鬼神为利、为害没有关系。正所谓：“一言得而天下服，一言定而天下听。”如果君主不能发挥应有作用，社会就会产生祸患，危机百姓安全，也导致国家的不稳定。

Divination (bu and shi) played an important role in political activities from the Shang and Zhou dynasties onward, because those in power believed that through divination they could detect the will of ghosts and spirits; for every major action, they used tortoise shells and yarrow stalks to divine good or bad fortune, resolve doubts, and predict the future. The relationship between divination by shell (bu) and divination by stalk (shi) in the decision-making process depended on the specific circumstances. During the Eastern Zhou period, although using divination as the basis for decisions in political affairs was increasingly criticized, it still had a broad social foundation, and divination practices in governance did not cease. “Inner Enterprise” offers a profound critique of this, stating: “Concentrate qi like spirit, and the ten thousand things are fully present. Can you concentrate? Can you unify? Can you know good and bad fortune without divination by shell or stalk?” The phrase “concentrate qi like spirit” here means that when a person’s own vital essence accumulates to a certain degree, they attain a high level of wisdom, and this wisdom can recognize the laws of all things in the objective world. This passage states that one can know good and bad fortune, blessings and calamities, and resolve doubts without using divination—so great is the effect of “concentrating qi like spirit”! That is, in the view of “Inner Enterprise,” when a person’s vital essence is full, they can achieve correct understanding of the objective world, and this process requires no reliance on ghosts and spirits.

卜筮在殷周以来的政治活动中是扮演了重要角色的，因为当权者相信通过卜筮能够探测鬼神之意，每有重大举动便用龟甲和蓍草来卜凶吉、断疑惑、预测未来。关于卜与筮在决策过程中的关系，要视不同情况而定。东周时期，以卜筮作为政事活动决断的根据虽然受到较多批判，但是仍有广泛社会基础，为政中的占卜之事未绝。《内业》对此进行了深刻的批判，其中讲到：“抟气如神，万物备存。能搏乎？能一乎？能无卜筮而知吉凶乎？”这里的“抟气如神”就是指人自身的精气积累到一定程度就有了高度的智慧，这种智慧能够认识客观世界万事万物的规律性。此处言不用卜筮而可知吉凶祸福、断除疑惑，可见“抟气如神”的作用如此之大！即在《内业》看来，人的精气饱满就能达到对客观世界的正确认识，这个过程是无须依赖鬼神的。

(3) Agricultural Production without Relying on Ghosts and Spirits

（三）农业生产不凭鬼神

During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, Chinese society underwent a great transformation from slavery to feudalism, and productive forces rapidly developed a social foundation. However, the pervasive folk belief in ghosts and spirits interfered with the normal conduct of agricultural production, seriously hindering agricultural development. People hoped to ensure favorable weather and good harvests by praying for the protection of ghosts and spirits. Under the prevalence of this custom, people submitted to ghosts and spirits, and their subjective initiative in production was dampened. This ghost-and-spirit determinism had deep cultural roots and a social foundation in pre-Qin society, and the corresponding concepts were firmly entrenched in people’s minds. Yet the author of “Inner Enterprise” had a clear understanding of this.

春秋战国之际，中国社会经历了从奴隶制到封建制的大变革，生产力有了迅速提升的社会基础，但民间浓郁的鬼神观念干扰着农业生产的正常进行，严重阻碍农业的发展。人们希望通过祈求鬼神的护佑来保证风调雨顺，以获得好的收成。这种风气盛行之下，人臣服在鬼神脚下，从事生产的主观能动性受到挫伤。这种鬼神决定论在先秦社会有深刻的文化根源和社会基础，人们头脑中的相应观念较为牢固，然而《内业》的作者对此却有清醒的认识。

The “Inner Enterprise” opens by emphasizing that “the essence of all things, this is what gives life. Below it produces the five grains; above it forms the array of stars.” All things are born from essential qi, and this material basis of essential qi has no fixed form; it is itself in motion and can generate various concrete substances such as the five grains and the stars. Since essential qi produces the five grains on earth, the growth process of crops naturally has no connection with the power of ghosts or spirits. With what factors, then, is it connected? The “Inner Enterprise” further explains: “Spring, summer, autumn, winter—these are the seasons of heaven.” Agricultural activities depend on the orderly changes of the natural seasons, meaning that agricultural production must arrange planting, harvesting, and other steps according to the farming seasons. The “Inner Enterprise’s” theory of “heavenly seasons” fundamentally denies that heaven is a willful sovereign, transforming “heaven as will” into “heaven as nature.” Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are the seasonal patterns of natural heaven, and if agricultural production proceeds rationally in accordance with these seasonal patterns, a good harvest can be obtained. Similarly, the “Inner Enterprise” also states: “The Way has no root or stem, no leaves or blossoms; yet all things are born by it, all things are completed by it; it is called the Way.” Here, the abstract existence of the “Way” is concretized to explain the nature of specific things, essentially treating the “Way” as the natural law of the objective world, emphasizing that people must follow objective laws to operate things. The “Inner Enterprise” does not link natural laws to the existence of ghosts and spirits; this in itself is a denial of the dominant position of ghosts and spirits.

《内业》开篇就强调“凡物之精，此则为生。下生五谷，上为列星”。万物由精气所生，而精气这种物质基础没有固定形式，本身是运动的，可生成各种具体的物质如五谷、群星。既然精气在地生成五谷，农作物的生长过程自然与鬼神之力就是没有关系的。那又和什么因素有关呢？《内业》进一步阐释到：“春夏秋冬，天之时也。”农事活动依赖自然界的时节有序变化，即农业生产要依照农时去安排耕种、收获等环节。《内业》“天时”之说便从根本上否定了天是有意志的主宰，把“意志之天”转换为了“自然之天”。春夏秋冬是自然之天的时节规律，而农业生产能循时节规律合理进行，就能获得好的收成。同样，《内业》也讲到：“凡道无根无茎，无叶无荣，万物以生，万物以成，命之曰道。”这里把“道”这种抽象的存在落实到解说具体的事物的性质，实质上便以“道”为客观世界的自然规律，强调人要遵守客观规律去运作事物。《内业》不把自然规律和鬼神存在勾连起来，本身就是对鬼神主宰地位的否定。

II. Affirmation of Human Subjectivity

二、肯定人的主体性

The belief in the “Lord on High” was an important concept during the Shang dynasty; it was a personified deity, and people believed that the “Lord” dominated and governed everything in worldly life. The influence of this concept extended to the Zhou dynasty, where people had a strong sense of the Mandate of Heaven, relied spiritually on deities, and human self-affirmation and conscious pursuit were restricted. Marx pointed out: “Atheism is the negation of God, and through this negation it affirms the existence of man.” The “Inner Enterprise” not only rejects the concept of domination by spirits but also elevates human subjective power, affirming the significance of individual human effort for growth, with the aim of liberating people from the shackles of theology. This in itself is a revolutionary development at the level of thought.

“上帝”的信仰是殷商之时的重要观念，它是人格化的神，人们相信“帝”主导和支配了世间生活的一切。这种观念影响所及，周代人具有强烈的天命意识，精神上倚赖神灵，人本身的自我肯定和自觉追求受到限制。马克思指出：“无神论是对神的否定，并且正是通过这种否定而肯定人的存在。”《内业》不但拒绝神灵支配的观念，高扬人的主体力量，肯定个体的人的努力对于成长的意义，目的在于把人从神学的束缚中解放出来。这本身就是思想层面的革命性发展。

(1) Affirmation of the Regularity of Human Cognition

（一）肯定人认识的规律性

The “Inner Enterprise’s” exposition of human cognition is mainly based on the understanding of “essential qi.” Since human life is generated by essential qi, the process of human cognition must also be inseparable from the function of essential qi. For people to acquire cognition, the key lies in guarding essential qi well; when essential qi is sufficient, it can give birth to a mind of wisdom. A mind of wisdom can penetrate all things; once people have a mind of wisdom, they can grasp the laws of the objective world, so as to better adapt to external changes and respond to various disturbances. The “Inner Enterprise” also inherits Laozi’s theory of the Way and provides a more vivid description of it, thereby making clear that cognition lies in one’s own self-cultivation, not in the revelation of specific deities.

《内业》对人的认识的阐发主要建立在对“精气”认识的基础之上。既然人的生命是由精气所生成，那么人的认识过程也必然离不开精气的作用。人要获得认识，关键在于守护好精气，精气充足就能生出智慧之心。智慧之心能洞察万物，人一旦有了智慧之心就能掌握客观世界的规律，以更好的适应外界的变化和应对各种干扰。《内业》也承继了老子的道论，并对之有了更加形象化的描述，由此明确认识在于自身的调摄，而不在特定神灵的启示。

The “Inner Enterprise” states: “Therefore this qi cannot be stopped by force, but can be settled by virtue; it cannot be summoned by sound, but can be welcomed by intent. Guard it respectfully and do not lose it—this is called ‘perfecting virtue.’ When virtue is perfected, wisdom emerges, and all things are fully obtained.” This means that the essential qi that constitutes human life cannot be made to stay by brute force, but can be made peaceful by cultivating virtue; it cannot be commanded by sound, but can be welcomed by the spirit. To guard essential qi respectfully is called “perfecting virtue.” If a person cultivates virtue, they can naturally give rise to a mind of wisdom, and further grasp the overall laws of the generation and development of all things. The “Inner Enterprise” affirms human cognition, holding that cognition is the result of nurturing essential qi, cultivating virtue, and thereby generating wisdom.

《内业》讲到：“是故此气也，不可止以力，而可安以德；不可呼以声，而可迎以意。敬守勿失，是谓成德。德成而智出，万物毕得。”意思是，构成人的生命之精气，不可以用拙力使它居留，却可以修德使它安宁；不可以用声音来支配它，却可以用精神来迎接它。恭敬地守护精气，这就叫“成德”。人如果德性有修为，自然能够生起智慧之心，进一步就能把握万物生成发展的整体规律。《内业》肯定了人的认识，认为认识是保养精气、修德行进而生智慧的结果。

The “Inner Enterprise” pays attention to inheriting and developing Laozi’s concept of pushing the origin of all things back to the Way. In Laozi, the Way is a metaphysical and mysterious existence, while the “Inner Enterprise” closely links this metaphysical Way with the phenomenon of human life itself. The “Inner Enterprise” states: “The Way has no root or stem, no leaves or blossoms; yet all things are born by it, all things are completed by it; it is called the Way.” This is a vivid description of the Way: the Way has no root or stem, no leaves or flowers. All things are inseparable from the Way, relying on it to sprout and grow. Obtaining the Way is not mysterious and unfathomable, but lies in people themselves. The “Inner Enterprise” further elaborates: “The Way has no fixed abode; only one who is good at cultivating the mind can make it settle. The Way is not far off; people rely on it to obtain life. The Way does not leave; people rely on it to obtain wisdom.” That is to say, the Way has no fixed dwelling place; only those who are good at cultivating the mind can make it settle. When the mind is calm and the qi is smooth, the Way can dwell in the person. The Way is not distant from people; people depend on it to obtain life. The Way does not leave people; people depend on it to obtain wisdom. Again, “The Way gives life; life gives thought; thought gives knowledge; knowledge is the stopping point.” This means that with the Way there is life; with life there is thought; with thought there is knowledge; with knowledge there is the guarantee of grasping problems. The “Inner Enterprise” closely links the Way with people’s own self-cultivation, affirming the regularity of the process by which people obtain wisdom and cognition, thereby denying the absurdity of the concept that deities bestow knowledge.

《内业》注意对老子关于推万物本原为道的观念进行了承继和发挥。在老子那里，道是形而上的玄妙的存在，而《内业》把这种形而上的道与人本身的生命现象紧密联系起来。《内业》讲到：“凡道无根无茎，无叶无荣，万物以生，万物以成，命之曰道。”这是对道进行的形象化的描述：道，无根无茎、无叶无花。万物都离不开道，都靠它萌生和长成。对于道的获得并不是神秘莫测的，而在于人自身。《内业》进一步阐述到：“凡道无所，善心安爱，心静气理，道乃可止。彼道不远，民得以产；彼道不离，民因以知。”也就是说，道没有固定的住所，只有善于修心的人才能使它安顿下来。心意静定、气脉畅通，道便能安住在人身上。道不远人，人们依赖它获得生命；道不离人，人们依赖它来获得智慧。又如，“道乃生，生乃思，思乃知，知乃止矣”。意思是说，有了道就有了生命，有了生命才有思想，有了思想才有知识，有了知识就是把握问题的保障了。《内业》将道与人自身的修养紧密联系起来，肯定了人获得智慧和认识过程的规律性，从而否定了神赋予知识观念的荒谬。

(2) Affirmation of Human Autonomy in Growth

（二）肯定人成长的自主性

On the basis of affirming the regularity of human cognition, the “Inner Enterprise” further elaborates on the plasticity of human growth and development, holding that everyone can achieve something, with the key lying in the degree of one’s own effort. Becoming a “sage” lies entirely in one’s own cultivation, not in a deity’s endowment of innate prophetic ability. The “Inner Enterprise” expounds on the issues in the process of human growth and development, and discusses the basic principles of physical and mental cultivation.

《内业》在肯定人认识的规律性基础上，进一步阐发了人的成长和发展的可塑性，认为每个人都能有所作为，关键在于自身的努力程度。成为“圣人”完全在于自身的修养功夫，而不在于神赋予的先天先知的能力。《内业》阐述了人在成长、发展过程中的问题，并对身心修养的基本原则作了探讨。

The “sage” is an ideal personality recognized by various pre-Qin schools of thought, but the accounts of how to become a “sage” differ among them. The “Inner Enterprise” states at the outset: “One who stores it in the breast is called a sage.” That is, a person who stores essential qi in the breast is called a “sage.” Since essential qi is the origin and general basis of all things, its function is naturally immeasurable. If a person can fully accumulate essential qi, they achieve the material basis for developing into a “sage”; this is the key to becoming a sage. In addition, the “Inner Enterprise” states: “Therefore the sage changes with the times but is not transformed, follows things but is not moved.” The “sage” always adapts to the times but is not transformed by the era, follows the changes of things but is not moved by external objects. This refers to the character of the sage; that is, the difference between the “sage” and ordinary people lies in their firm character and lofty integrity. The “Inner Enterprise” further elaborates: “One whose mind is complete within and whose form is complete without, who encounters neither heavenly calamity nor human harm, is called a sage.” That is, a person who maintains inner completeness and physical wholeness, and does not encounter natural disasters, can be called a “sage.” Here, the physical, mental, and external conditions for being a “sage” are elaborated, further clarifying the standard of the “sage.”

“圣人”是为先秦诸子各家所认可的一种理想人格，但对于何以成“圣”，各家所述并不相同。《内业》开篇阐述到：“藏于胸中，谓之圣人。”即精气藏于胸中的人，就叫做“圣人”。既然精气作为万事万物的本原和总依据，精气的作用自然不可估量。人如果能够充分积蓄精气，就达成了发展为“圣人”的物性基础，这是成圣之关键所在。另外，《内业》讲到：“是故圣人与时变而不化，从物而不移。”“圣人”总是随时变通而不为时代所化，顺应事物变迁而不为外物所移。这是就圣人品性而言的，也就是说，“圣人”与普通人的不同之处在于其坚定的品格和崇高的节操。《内业》进一步阐述到：“心全于中，形全于外，不逢天灾，不遇人害，谓之圣人。”即内心保持完满、身形保持健全、不遭遇天灾的人就可以称作“圣人”。在这里，对作“圣人”的身心和外在条件进行了阐述，进一步明确了“圣人”之标准。

Next, “Inner Enterprise” elaborates on the cultivation method by which the “sage” takes “dual cultivation of body and mind” as the foundation. “Inner Enterprise” offers the metaphor of a “refined abode,” emphasizing that a person must cultivate a harmonious state to provide a good dwelling environment for the refined qi within the chest, thereby practicing toward the goal of becoming a “sage.” The core of this harmonious state is the harmony of body and mind. Regarding the body, “Inner Enterprise” states: “If the form is not correct, virtue does not come.” Here “virtue” refers to obtaining refined qi; that is, if the body is not upright, refined qi will not arrive. It further states: “Correct the form and gather virtue, with heaven’s benevolence and earth’s righteousness, then it will come of itself abundantly.” This emphasizes that by rectifying the bodily form, cultivating virtue, and emulating the benevolence and righteousness of heaven and earth, refined qi will gradually arrive. Regarding the mind, “Inner Enterprise” states: “The nature of that mind is suited to peace and tranquility. Do not vex it or disturb it, and harmony will be achieved of itself.” This means that the original nature of the mind is stability and stillness. If one can avoid vexation and disorder, then a harmonious psychological state will naturally form. “Inner Enterprise” points out that “being able to be correct and still, then one can be settled,” meaning that with the body upright and the mind still, one can settle refined qi in the chest, making it the abode of refined qi. On the essentials of concentrating refined qi, “Inner Enterprise” summarizes: “Reverently clear out its abode, and refined qi will come of itself. Carefully think of it, peacefully regulate it, with solemn countenance and reverent awe, refined qi will arrive and settle.” Only by reverently “sweeping clean” the inner dwelling of one’s own mind will refined qi take up residence. Concentrate the spirit to nurture refined qi, quiet stray thoughts to regulate refined qi, rectify one’s appearance to revere refined qi, and refined qi will reach a settled state. Thus, the cultivating person achieves a harmonious state of body and mind, allowing refined qi to settle in the chest. At this point, character is naturally complete, thereby achieving a high degree of unity with the external environment, and one can become a “sage.” “Inner Enterprise” emphasizes that becoming a “sage” comes from后天 (acquired) physical and mental regulation, not from heaven or gods, severing the connection between the sage’s character and divine endowment, which embodies a distinct atheist thought.

接下来，《内业》就成为“圣人”以“身心双修”为根本的修养方法作了阐述。《内业》给出了一个“精舍”之喻，强调人要培养一种和谐状态来为胸中的精气提供一个良好的驻留环境，以此来向“圣人”目标修习。这种和谐状态的重心是身心的和谐。关于身，《内业》讲到：“形不正，德不来。”此处的“德”就是指得以精气，也就是说身体不端正，精气就不会来。又进一步讲到：“正形摄德，天仁地义，则淫然而自至。”此处即在强调端正身形、修饰德行，效法天地的仁慈正义，精气就会渐渐的来到。关于心，《内业》讲到：“彼心之情，利安以宁。勿烦勿乱，和乃自成。”意思是说，心的本性，是安定和宁静。如果能做到不烦不乱，那么和谐的心理状态就会自然形成。《内业》指出“能正能静，然后能定”，也就是说，身体端正内心宁静，就能让精气定下来存于胸中，成为精气的住所。对于抟聚精气之要，《内业》总结到：“敬除其舍，精将自来。精想思之，宁念治之，严容畏敬，精将至定。”只有恭敬地“扫除”自己内心的宅舍，精气才会住进来。聚精会神保养精气，宁息杂念调理精气，端正仪容敬畏精气，精气就会达到安定的状态。由此，修养之士身心达到和谐的状态，就能让精气安定于胸，这时品性自然具足，从而达到与外界环境的高度统一，也就能够成为“圣人”。《内业》强调成就“圣人”来自后天的身心调摄，不是上天或神派来的，让“圣人”的品性与神赋绝缘，体现了鲜明的无神论思想。

III. Exploring the Mechanism of Human Life

三、探索人的生命机制

In an era when superstition in ghosts and gods was prevalent, people naturally attributed the laws of life activity—an object requiring full scientific knowledge to grasp—to spiritual beings, and “Inner Enterprise’s” exploration of the mechanism of life is undoubtedly commendable. Although “Inner Enterprise” could not explore the mechanism of life through scientific knowledge, it developed a relatively systematic understanding of the principles of life movement based on the philosophical thought of the classical holistic view of life. “Inner Enterprise” holds that control over the length of human life lies entirely in one’s own health preservation, not in the manipulation of gods. The health preservation thought of “Inner Enterprise” was later developed by traditional Chinese medicine, providing important theoretical guidance for the development of Chinese medicine.

在鬼神迷信流行的时代，人们很自然把生命活动规律这个需要充分科学知识才能把握的对象诉诸神灵，而《内业》对生命机制的探索无疑难能可贵的。《内业》虽无法以科学知识探索生命机制，但其由古典整体生命观的哲学思想出发，对生命运动机理有了较为系统的认识。《内业》认为人的生命长短的控制权完全在于自身的养生，而不在于神的操控。《内业》的养生思想为后来的中医学所发扬，为中国医学的发展提供了重要理论指导。

(I) Refined Qi as the Material Foundation of Human Life

（一）精气是人的生命的物质基础

Refined qi is an important component of human life and the material foundation of human life. “Inner Enterprise” states: “In general, in the birth of a person, heaven gives forth its refined qi, earth gives forth its form, and these combine to make the person. Harmony then gives life; without harmony, there is no life.” That is, human life is an organic combination of refined qi and physical form. “Inner Enterprise” also says: “What a person loses to die, and obtains to live.” If a person loses refined qi, they die; if they obtain it, they live. Thus, refined qi is of utmost importance to human life.

精气是人的生命的重要组成部分，是人的生命的物质基础。《内业》讲到：“凡人之生也，天出其精，地出其形，合此以为人。和乃生，不和不生。”也就是说，人的生命是精气和形体的有机结合。《内业》还说：“人之所失以死，所得以生也。”人失去精气就死，得到精气就生。可见，精气对人的生命是至关重要的。

Refined qi can ensure a person’s physical health. If the mind is filled with refined qi, a person can be healthy. “Inner Enterprise” elaborates: “When refined qi is preserved, life is generated of itself; externally, it is peaceful and flourishing. Internally, it is stored as a fountainhead, vast and peaceful, becoming a reservoir of qi. If the reservoir does not dry up, the four limbs are firm; if the fountainhead does not run dry, the nine orifices are unobstructed.” When refined qi is preserved in the mind, there is inherent vitality, and this vitality flourishes and shines on the external appearance. Life originates from the internally stored refined qi; a broad and peaceful state of mind allows one to become a reservoir for nurturing refined qi. If the reservoir does not dry up, the limbs are strong; if refined qi is not exhausted, the nine orifices are畅通 (unobstructed). Thus, refined qi plays a crucial role in a person’s physical health. It also says: “When peace and correctness fill the chest, and governance is in the mind, by this one attains longevity.” When a person’s body is filled with balanced and correct refined qi, they can calm the mind and settle the spirit, thereby achieving longevity. In the view of “Inner Enterprise,” as long as one obtains refined qi, one can eliminate pathogenic qi, i.e., “a person who has attained the Way, with principles ascending and pores excreting, has no decay in the chest.” If a person’s refined qi is abundant enough to evaporate pathogenic qi out through the pores, the body will have no污秽 (impure) substances. Conversely, if refined qi is lost, then a person’s vitality will decline until death. The basic understanding of the refined qi view of life in “Inner Enterprise” is that for a person to be healthy and long-lived, they cannot do without the浸润 (infusion) of refined qi.

精气能保证人的身体健康。心中充满精气，人就可以健康。《内业》阐述到：“精存自生，其外安荣。内藏以为泉原，浩然和平，以为气渊。渊之不涸，四体乃固，泉之不竭，九窍遂通。”精气存于心中则自有生机，生机蓬勃容光焕发于外表。生命来源于内藏的精气，心境豁达平和就可以使自己成为存养精气的渊池。渊池不干涸，四肢就强健；精气不枯竭，九窍就畅达。由此可见，精气对一个人的身体健康起着至关重要的作用。又说到：“平和擅匈，论治在心，以此长寿。”人得平和中正的精气充满体内，就能够安心定神从而获得长寿。在《内业》看来，只要获得精气，就能够摒除邪气，即“得道之人，理丞而毛泄，匈中无败”。人若精气饱满足以把邪气从毛孔中蒸发出去，使身体中没有污秽之物。反之如果失去精气，那么人就会生命力衰减直至死亡。《内业》的精气生命观的基本认识就是，一个人要想健康长寿，是离不开精气的浸润的。

(II) Revealing the Internal Connection between Psychology and Physiology

（二）揭示心理与生理的内在联系

“Inner Enterprise” elucidates the unity of psychology and physiology, revealing the internal connection between the two, and holds that the seven emotions and six desires [7]7 The seven emotions (七情) and six desires (六欲) are traditional Chinese categories for basic human emotions and sensory desires, typically including joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, hate, and desire, and desires arising from the six sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind). can seriously affect physical health. Therefore, “Inner Enterprise” particularly advocates that health preservation should start from oneself, especially by preventing the泛滥 (excess) of desires.

《内业》阐发心理和生理的统一性，揭示了心理与生理的内在联系，认为七情六欲会严重影响身体健康。因此，《内业》特别主张保养生命应该从自身做起，特别是应该防止欲望的泛滥。

“Inner Enterprise” discusses the adverse effects of the seven emotions and six desires on human health, such as “worry causes loss of order, anger causes loss of measure” and “melancholy gives rise to illness; illness severe leads to death.” Worry causes life to lose its regularity; anger causes life to become disordered. Melancholy produces disease, and if the disease is unresolved, death follows. “Inner Enterprise” also points out: “If one ponders without letting go, internally distressed and externally pressed, if not planned for early, life will leave its abode.” It also says: “If the elderly do not moderate their worries, hardship will hasten exhaustion.” That is, excessive thinking dissipates energy and is also detrimental to physical health. For the elderly, it is especially important to moderate mental activity and avoid frequent worrying that accelerates the decline of life.

《内业》论述了七情六欲对人的健康的不利影响，如“忧则失纪，怒则失端”“忧郁生疾，疾困乃死”。忧愁会使生命失常，愤怒会使生命无序。忧郁会产生疾病，疾病无解就会死亡。《内业》还指出：“思之而不舍，内困外薄，不蚤为图，生将巽舍。”又说：“老不长虑，困乃遬竭。”即过度的思索耗散精力，也不利于身体健康。对老年人来说更要节制用脑避免频繁思虑加速生命的衰竭。

“Inner Enterprise” advocates that the human mind should return to its original nature, stating: “In general, the form of the mind is self-filling, self-replenishing, self-generating, self-completing. What causes it to lose this must be worry, joy, anger, desire, and profit. If one can remove joy, anger, sorrow, desire, and profit, the mind will return to its fulfillment.” Here “mind” refers to the material organ that preserves refined qi and can produce wisdom. “Form” (刑) is a loan character for “form” (形), referring to the form or image of the mind. Mr. Ma Feibai [8]8 Ma Feibai (马非百, 1896–1984) was a modern Chinese historian and scholar known for his commentaries on ancient Chinese texts, including the Guanzi. summarizes seven forms of the mind. The mind itself inherently possesses the original nature of self-filling with refined qi and self-generating and self-completing. This original nature is lost because of interference from worry, joy, anger,嗜欲 (addictive desires), and greed for profit; only by removing these emotions and desires can the mind’s original nature be restored. “Inner Enterprise” says: “In general, in the birth of a person, it must be through peace and correctness. What causes its loss must be joy, anger, worry, and distress.” That is, stable emotions can protect the original nature of the human mind, while不良 (unwholesome) emotions like joy, anger, worry, and distress are destructive to this original nature.

《内业》主张人心要回归本然之性，其中讲到：“凡心之刑，自充自盈，自生自成。其所以失之，必以忧乐喜怒欲利。能去喜怒哀乐欲利，心乃反济。”这里的“心”是保存精气能产生智慧的物质器官。刑，通“形”，指心的形体或形象。马非百先生概括总结心的形象有七种。心本身自有使精气充盈、生长完成的本然之性。这种本然之性之所以会失去，是因为忧、乐、喜、怒、嗜欲、贪利的干扰；只有把这些情欲摒除，心的本然之性才能够得到回归。《内业》说：“凡人之生也，必以平正。所以失之，必以喜怒忧患。”也就是，情绪平稳可以呵护人心本然之性，喜怒忧患的不良情绪就是对本然之性的破坏。

“Inner Enterprise” further elaborates on some specific methods of health preservation, such as: “Therefore, to stop anger, nothing is better than poetry; to remove worry, nothing is better than music; to moderate pleasure, nothing is better than ritual; to maintain ritual, nothing is better than reverence; to maintain reverence, nothing is better than stillness. Inner stillness and outer reverence can return one to one’s nature; one’s nature will be greatly settled.” “Inner Enterprise” advocates regulating the spirit through ritual and music, holding that the chanting of poetry can stop anger, the appreciation of music can eliminate worry, adherence to ritual law can moderate enjoyment, maintaining reverence is beneficial for upholding ritual, and inner emptiness and stillness are the prerequisite for maintaining reverence. If a person is inwardly empty and still and outwardly reverent, they can naturally return to the original nature of life; thus, their nature will be stable, and life will achieve health and longevity.

《内业》进一步阐述了一些具体的养生方法，如：“是故止怒莫若诗，去忧莫若乐，节乐莫若礼，守礼莫若敬，守敬莫若静。内静外敬，能反其性，性将大定。”《内业》主张以礼乐调摄精神，认为诗歌的吟咏可以制止忿怒，音乐的欣赏可以消除忧虑，遵守礼法可以节制享乐，保持恭敬有益于持守礼仪，而内心虚静是保持恭敬前提。人若内心虚静而外表恭敬，自然能回归到生命的本性，这样生性就会稳定，生命就得健康长寿。

(III) Essentials of Health Preservation through Physical and Mental Regulation

（三）身心调摄的养生法要

During the Warring States period, health preservation among the nobility was a trend of the times. In response to the蔓延 (spread) of shamanistic influences within this trend, “Inner Enterprise” proposed basic methods of health preservation, namely the cultivation of body and mind. This method of physical and mental cultivation is a process by which a person achieves the unity of movement and stillness and unimpeded通达 (access) in body and mind, and is the basic essential for health and longevity.

战国时期，贵族养生为时代风潮。出于对这一风潮中巫气弥延的回应，《内业》提出了基本养生方法，即身心的修习。这种身心修习的锻炼方法，是人身心达到动静统一、通达无碍的过程，是健康长寿之基本法要。

The “Inner Training” chapter discusses specific methods of practice, which can be summarized in one sentence: relax the body and clear the mind of distracting thoughts. The “Inner Training” states: “When the four limbs are aligned, when the blood and breath are still, when the intent is unified and the mind concentrated, when the ears and eyes are not excessive, then even what is far off seems near.” [9]9 *Guanzi*, “Nei ye” (Inner Training). The *Guanzi* is a foundational Chinese philosophical text traditionally attributed to Guan Zhong (c. 720–645 BCE), a statesman of the Qi state, but compiled later, containing diverse material from the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE). The “Nei ye” chapter is a key early text on self-cultivation and vital energy (qi). This means that in the process of self-cultivation, one must keep the body upright and relaxed, eliminate distracting thoughts from the mind, and reduce the interference of external things with the senses. Once the practitioner enters this state, events occurring far away can be perceived as if they were right before one’s eyes. That is to say, when body and mind achieve unity, one can obtain a deeper level of experience. The “Inner Training” further states: “Enlarge the mind and be daring, broaden the breath and make it expansive. Let the form be calm and unmoving; be able to hold fast to the One and discard the ten thousand vexations.” [10]10 *Guanzi*, “Nei ye.” “Holding fast to the One” (守一) refers to concentrating the mind on a single, unified state, a concept later central to Daoist and Confucian meditative practices. This means that in the process of practice, by relaxing the spirit, experiencing expansive breathing, and keeping the body stable, one can eliminate all distracting thoughts and achieve single-minded focus. The “Inner Training” also emphasizes that whether the body is in motion or at rest, the practitioner must maintain relaxation, and the mind should also remain in a state of ease and harmony. Only then can one achieve the unity of body and mind in motion and stillness, unimpeded and unobstructed. An expansive spirit allows the body’s functions to rest and recuperate better; long-term practice of this kind naturally maintains physical health.

《内业》讲到了具体的操作方法，用一句话总结就是：身体放松，心无杂念。《内业》讲到：“四体既正，血气既静，一意搏心，耳目不淫，虽远若近。”意思是说，人在修习自身过程中，身体要端正放松，排除内心杂念，减少外界事物对于感官的干扰。一旦修养者契入这种状态，远处发生的事情就像近在眼前一样能被感知到。也就是说，身心达到了统一，就能够获得更深层次的体验。《内业》进一步讲到：“大心而敢，宽气而广。其形安而不移，能守一而弃万苛。”这就是说，在修习过程中，放松精神，体会舒展的呼吸，身体保持安稳，就能排除一切杂念做到心无旁骛。《内业》还强调，修养者不管身体的动静与否，都要保持放松，内心也应该保持自在祥和的状态，这样才能实现身心动静统一、通达无碍。舒展的精神可以使得身体机能得到更好的休整，长期如此锻炼自然便能保持身体健康。

Based on the classical holistic view of life, the methods for regulating body and mind described in the “Inner Training” are simple and straightforward. They reveal that the length of a person’s lifespan depends on their own cultivation and is not under the control of spirits. Although the concept of health preservation in the “Inner Training” still contains idealized elements, its recognition that humans can autonomously grasp the health of their own lives undoubtedly carries an atheist character.

基于古典生命整体观的认识，《内业》中所言身心的调摄方法是朴实、简明的，它揭示了人的寿命的长短在于自身的修养，而不属于神灵的控制。《内业》的养生观念虽仍有理想化成分，但它对于人能自主把握生命健康的认识，无疑具有无神论色彩的。

IV. Conclusion

四、结语

The “Inner Training” is an important work with an atheist character in the history of ancient Chinese thought, and the theories it expounds are worthy of study and research by later generations. Based on the exploration of a materialist origin, the “Inner Training” affirms the value of the human person, offering a relatively detailed elaboration and explanation centered on human issues, and possesses a certain enlightening significance. As a product of a specific era, the “Inner Training” inevitably has the limitations of its time and theoretical incompleteness. However, its affirmation that humans can grasp objective laws helps to liberate thought, making it a document that made an important contribution to the evolution of ancient intellectual history. The “Inner Training” suppresses spirits and elevates humans, striving to liberate people from superstitious thinking and advocating that humans actively and proactively exert their subjective initiative to pursue their own value. In this respect, it played a pioneering role. Contemporary philosophical workers should deeply excavate the rich atheist thought in ancient texts such as the “Inner Training,” combine it with the needs of the New Era, carry out innovative development, and promote the smooth realization of the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

《内业》是中国古代思想史上具有无神论色彩的重要著作，所阐发的学理值得后人研究和学习。《内业》基于对物质性本原的探索，肯定人的价值，围绕着人的问题作了比较详尽的发挥和解释，有一定的启蒙意义。《内业》作为特定时代的产物，也必然有其时代的局限性和理论的不彻底性，但是它肯定人能把握客观规律，有助于解放思想，是古代思想史演进中做出了重要贡献的文献。《内业》抑神仰人，努力把人们从迷信的思想里解放出来，倡导人积极主动地发挥主观能动性，追求自身价值，这一点是具有先发之功的。当代哲学工作者，应该深入挖掘诸如《内业》等古代文献中丰富的无神论思想，结合新时代之需要，进行创新性发展，推动中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦顺利实现。

Online Editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心