Traditional Chinese Culture and Atheism

[Editor’s Note] At the ceremony celebrating the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping for the first time put forward the important viewpoint of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the best of traditional Chinese culture. The resolution of the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC and the report of the 20th National Congress of the CPC reaffirmed these “Two Integrations.” [1]1 The *He tu* (River Chart) and *Luo shu* (Luo Writing) are mythical diagrams from ancient Chinese legend, said to have been revealed by a dragon-horse from the Yellow River and a spirit-tortoise from the Luo River, respectively; they were often cited as auspicious signs of heavenly favor. The most crucial theoretical breakthrough of the “Two Integrations” lies in the “Second Integration.” [2]2 The Zitong deity (Zitong shen) is a folk god of literature and examinations, widely worshipped in imperial China, whose cult was often criticized by Confucian scholars as an excessive sacrifice. On June 2, 2023, at the Symposium on Cultural Heritage and Development, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “The ‘Second Integration’ is another ideological emancipation, enabling us to fully utilize the precious resources of the best of traditional Chinese culture within a broader cultural space, and to explore theoretical and institutional innovations oriented toward the future.” He emphasized that Chinese culture has a long and continuous history, and Chinese civilization is extensive and profound. Only by comprehensively and deeply understanding the history of Chinese civilization can we more effectively promote the creative transformation and innovative development of the best of traditional Chinese culture, more vigorously advance the construction of socialist culture with Chinese characteristics, and build the modern civilization of the Chinese nation. To study and implement this important speech, the editorial department of *Science and Atheism* organized a special symposium on “The ‘Second Integration’ and Atheism” on July 9. Among the participants, Professor Li Shen, a member of the Academic Steering Committee of the Research Center for Science and Atheism at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, delivered a speech entitled “Traditional Chinese Culture and Atheism,” the main content of which is as follows.

【编者按】习近平总书记在庆祝中国共产党成立100周年大会上首次提出把马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合的重要观点。党的十九届六中全会决议和二十大报告重申了这“两个结合”。“两个结合”最关键的理论突破在于“第二个结合”。2023年6月2日,习近平总书记在文化传承发展座谈会上指出:“‘第二个结合’是又一次的思想解放,让我们能够在更广阔的文化空间中,充分运用中华优秀传统文化的宝贵资源,探索面向未来的理论和制度创新。”他强调,中国文化源远流长,中华文明博大精深。只有全面深入了解中华文明的历史,才能更有效地推动中华优秀传统文化创造性转化、创新性发展,更有力地推进中国特色社会主义文化建设,建设中华民族现代文明。为了学习贯彻这一重要讲话精神,《科学与无神论》编辑部于7月9日组织了“‘第二个结合’与无神论”专题座谈会。其中，中国社会科学研究院科学与无神论研究中心学术指导委员会委员李申教授的发言是《中国传统文化与无神论》，主要内容如下。

The origins of Chinese culture can be traced back to the legendary era of the Yellow Emperor and the Flame Emperor. [3]3 The Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) and the Flame Emperor (Yandi) are legendary cultural heroes and ancestors of the Chinese nation, often considered the founders of Chinese civilization. In this legendary era, the belief in the Supreme Deity and the Mandate of Heaven, which would be passed down in an unbroken line in later Chinese history, was formed, and a series of experiences in governing the state and related knowledge of human society and the natural world were accumulated.

中国文化的源头，可以追溯到传说的黄帝、炎帝时代。在传说时代，形成了中华民族后来一脉相承的上帝、天命信仰，积累了一系列治国理政经验和相关的人类社会和自然界的知识。

During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the belief in the Mandate of Heaven and the Supreme Deity was consolidated, and various forms of knowledge developed further. The experiences of ancient state governance, after innovation and development by thinkers such as the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, and Laozi, formed relatively complete ritual systems and principles of state governance. From this time onward, the unity of the state and the stability of the political situation became the highest political and social goals pursued by the ancient Chinese people.

商周时代，天命、上帝信仰被稳固下来，各种知识进一步发展，上古治国理政的经验，经过周公、孔子、老子等思想家的创新和发展，形成了比较完备的礼仪制度和国家治理原则。从这时候开始，国家的统一和政局的稳定成为中国古人追求的最高政治和社会目标。

The establishment of the Qin dynasty achieved de facto unification of China on the material level. The Han dynasty’s choice to revere only Confucianism [4]4 Revere only Confucianism (独尊儒术): A state policy adopted by Emperor Wu of the Western Han dynasty (r. 141–87 BCE), making Confucianism the official state ideology and suppressing other schools of thought. achieved ideological unification in China. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodox guiding ideology of the ancient Chinese state. Regimes could change, and the individuals or ethnic origins of those holding power could change, but the reverence for Confucianism alone remained constant. Confucianism fulfilled its efforts and responsibilities for the stability of ancient Chinese state rule and for the continuity and unity of the traditional culture of the Chinese nation. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, also became the most important sage of ancient China and the iconic symbol of traditional Chinese culture. Corresponding to the unification of territory and culture, the unity of the state was considered normal and something people yearned for; the division of the state was considered abnormal. During periods of national division, the hope of returning to unity was a shared psychology of the Chinese nation and a precious legacy of traditional culture. The unity of the state ensured the unity of culture and ensured the continuity of that unified culture, making traditional Chinese culture the only culture in five thousand years that has never been interrupted.

秦朝的建立，在物质层面上使中国实现了事实上的统一。汉朝选择独尊儒术，使中国实现了思想上的统一。从此以后，儒术成为中国古代国家的正统指导思想。政权可以更迭，掌握政权的人物、民族出身可以变换，但独尊儒术则一如既往。儒术，为中国古代国家统治的稳定，为中华民族传统文化的延续和统一，尽到了自己的努力和责任。而儒术的创始人孔子，也成为中国古代最重要的圣人，成为中国传统文化标志性的符号。与疆土、文化上的统一相适应，国家的统一被认为是正常的，是人们所向往的；国家的分裂被认为是不正常的。在国家分裂时期，盼望回归统一，是中华民族共有的心理，也是传统文化的宝贵遗产。国家的统一保证了文化的统一，保证了该统一文化的延续，使中华传统文化成为五千年来唯一不曾中断的文化。

Confucius “followed the ways of Yao and Shun and modeled himself on the patterns of Kings Wen and Wu,” [5]5 A phrase from the *Doctrine of the Mean* (Zhongyong), praising Confucius for modeling himself on the sage-kings Yao and Shun and the founders of the Zhou dynasty, Kings Wen and Wu. claiming to “transmit but not create.” [6]6 A famous saying of Confucius from the *Analects* (7.1), indicating his role as a transmitter of ancient wisdom rather than an innovator. In reality, on the basis of inheriting the experiences of ancient sages in governing the state, Confucius also sought truth from facts in studying the various problems faced by ancient states, further proposing a series of new concepts such as “governing with virtue.” [7]7 Governing with virtue (以德治国): A core Confucian political concept emphasizing the ruler’s moral example as the foundation of good governance. The Han dynasty’s reverence for Confucianism alone implemented the principles of “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity” [8]8 Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity (仁义礼智信): The five constant virtues of Confucianism. —established by Confucius and developed by Confucian scholars—into state politics, creating a ritual system centered on “filial piety.” [9]9 Filial piety (孝道): A central Confucian virtue emphasizing respect and care for one’s parents and ancestors, extended to social and political hierarchies. This system played an important role in state stability, but it also brought about much hypocrisy and fraud. Consequently, during the Wei and Jin dynasties, figures like Wang Bi proposed that the invisible and intangible “Non-Being” [10]10 Non-Being (无): A key concept in Daoist philosophy, particularly in the *Daodejing*, referring to the formless, undifferentiated source of all things. Wang Bi (226–249 CE) was a major commentator on the *Daodejing* and the *Book of Changes*. behind the tangible rituals was more important. Because Wang Bi and others could not specify the concrete content of this “Non-Being,” it also led those who revered Non-Being to act according to their own whims, disregarding regulations. By the Tang dynasty, centered on Kong Yingda’s *Correct Meaning of the Five Classics*, [11]11 Kong Yingda (574–648 CE): A Tang dynasty scholar who led the compilation of the *Correct Meaning of the Five Classics*, the official commentary on the Confucian classics. it was proposed that the tangible “Being” and the intangible “Non-Being” were equally important. In the late Tang dynasty, Han Yu and others elevated the *Great Learning*, the *Doctrine of the Mean*, and the *Mencius*, [12]12 Han Yu (768–824 CE): A Tang dynasty writer and thinker who advocated a return to the orthodox Confucian tradition of the pre-Qin period, elevating the *Great Learning*, the *Doctrine of the Mean*, and the *Mencius*. heralding that Confucianism was about to enter a new era. By the Song dynasty, represented by the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi, [13]13 The Cheng brothers: Cheng Hao (1032–1085 CE) and Cheng Yi (1033–1107 CE), Song dynasty philosophers who laid the foundation for Neo-Confucianism. Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) was the most influential synthesizer of Neo-Confucianism. the *Analects*, the *Mencius*, the *Great Learning*, and the *Doctrine of the Mean* were compiled into the *Four Books*. [14]14 The *Four Books*: The *Analects*, the *Mencius*, the *Great Learning*, and the *Doctrine of the Mean*, which became the core curriculum for Confucian education from the Song dynasty onward. Personal inner cultivation was made a prerequisite for abiding by Confucian regulations, and it was pointed out that the more important “Non-Being” behind tangible “Being” was “Principle” or “Heavenly Principle.” [15]15 Principle (理) or Heavenly Principle (天理): The central metaphysical concept in Neo-Confucianism, referring to the rational principle or pattern underlying all existence and the source of moral order. Principle is order; obeying social order is human nature. The purpose of personal inner cultivation is to realize this Heavenly Principle and return to one’s own nature. This new Confucianism made obeying social order a matter of the heart’s self-awareness, thereby further ensuring the stability of the social order.

孔子“祖述尧舜，宪章文武”,自称“述而不作”。实际上，孔子在继承古圣治国理政经验的基础上，又实事求是地研究了古代国家所面临的种种问题，进一步提出了“以德治国”等一系列新的观念。汉代独尊儒术，把从孔子开始、儒者们创立的“仁义礼智信”原则，落实到国家政治，创造了以“孝道”为中心的礼仪制度。这套制度对国家稳定发挥了重要作用，同时也带来了许多虚伪和假冒现象。于是在魏晋时代，王弼等人提出，有形礼仪背后那看不见摸不着的“无”,才更加重要。由于王弼等人说不出那个“无”有什么具体内容，也使那些崇无的人们各行其是，不守规制。到了唐代，以孔颖达《五经正义》为核心，提出了有形的“有”和无形的“无”同样重要。唐代末年，韩愈等推崇《大学》《中庸》和《孟子》,预示着儒学将步入一个新的时代。到了宋代，以程朱为代表，把《论语》《孟子》《大学》《中庸》合编为《四书》,把个人的内心修养作为遵守儒学规制的前提，并且指出，那有形的“有”背后更加重要的“无”,就是“理”或者“天理”。理，就是秩序；遵守社会秩序，就是人的本性。人的内心修养，就是去体认这个天理，回归自己的本性。新的儒学把遵守社会秩序作为人心的自觉，从而进一步保证了社会秩序的稳固。

While Confucianism was continuously innovating and developing its own theory, Buddhism and Daoism were also updating their doctrines. In Buddhism, the Chan School [16]16 Chan School (禅宗): A major school of Chinese Buddhism (known as Zen in Japan) that emphasizes direct, intuitive insight into one’s own Buddha-nature, often through meditation and paradoxical statements. emerged, which held that the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, demons, and ghosts were merely thoughts in the mind, and that as long as one understood that one’s original nature was pure and clear, one was oneself a Buddha. In Daoism, after repeated failures in the movement for physical immortality, the idea of achieving immortality through the physical body was abandoned, and some even advocated that people of high moral character in the real world were themselves immortals.

在儒学不断创新、发展自己理论的同时，佛教、道教也在更新着自己的教义。佛教中，出现了认为佛祖、菩萨、妖魔鬼怪不过都是心头的一念，只要明白本性清净，自身就是佛的禅宗。道教在成仙运动不断遭受失败的情况下，抛弃了肉体成仙的念头，甚至主张现实中品德高尚的人就是神仙。

However, as Shusun Tong, [17]17 Shusun Tong: A Confucian scholar-official who served the founding emperor of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, and helped design the court rituals that established the authority of the new dynasty. who was honored as the “Confucian Master of the Han House,” said: “Confucians are difficult to employ for advancing and seizing, but can be employed for preserving what has been achieved.” [18]18 This saying is recorded in the *Records of the Grand Historian* (Shiji), reflecting the view that Confucianism was better suited for peacetime consolidation than for the founding of a new dynasty. In maintaining the stability of one’s own state, Confucianism made outstanding contributions. Confucianism did not advocate aggression against others, but when faced with external invasion, it was also difficult to cope. Especially in modern times, when encountering the strong ships and powerful cannons of the imperialist powers, Confucianism was even more lacking in the ability to respond. Therefore, at the final critical moment, the Qing dynasty, which had revered Confucianism alone, had to abolish Confucianism’s dominant position itself. This was followed by the Xinhai Revolution, [19]19 The Xinhai Revolution: The 1911 revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and ended the imperial system in China. and later by the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, which brought new life to China and also brought new life to traditional Chinese culture.

然而正如被尊为“汉家儒宗”的叔孙通所说：“儒者难与进取，可与守成。”在维护自己国家的稳定方面，儒学有杰出的贡献。儒学不主张侵略别人，但在遇到外部入侵的时候，也难以应对。特别是到了近代，遇到帝国主义列强的坚船利炮，儒学更缺乏应对的本领。所以在最后关头，独尊儒术的清朝，不得不自己取消了儒学的统治地位。接着就是辛亥革命，再后来就是中华人民共和国的建立，使中国获得了新生，也使中国传统文化获得了新生。

The state religion of ancient China, which revered Confucianism alone, had a pantheon of deities headed by the Supreme Deity, who were in principle the protective gods of the state. In the view of those who believed in these deities, one more deity meant one more layer of protection for the state, just as if the state had gained another elite general or soldier. Therefore, ancient China could regard the foreign Buddha and the native Laozi and Confucius all as sages. In fact, this was also the case in other ancient states. It was only later that world religions, especially Christianity, whose core doctrine is individual salvation, regarded the deities of other peoples as “idolatry” that must be eliminated, thereby changing the spirit of tolerance and peace of the peoples who believed in these world religions. In modern times, coupled with the expansionist demands of capitalism, the culture of tolerance and peace in these countries was almost completely destroyed.

中国古代独尊儒术的国家信仰以上帝为首的神祇系统，原则上都是国家的保护神。在信仰这些神祇的人们看来，多一尊神祇，国家就多一层保护，就像国家又多了一员精兵强将一样。所以中国古代可以把外来的佛祖和本土的老子、孔子、都称为圣人。古代的其他国家，其实也是如此。只是后来，以个人拯救为核心教义的世界宗教尤以基督教为代表，把其他民族的神祇都看作是“偶像崇拜”,一定要加以清除，才改变了信仰世界宗教的民族的包容精神与和平精神。近代又加上资本主义的扩张要求，更使这些国家的包容文化与和平文化，几乎荡然无存。

In ancient China, from the monarch to the common people, all believed in spirits. This is a historical fact. It is also a fact that Confucius was worshipped and sacrificed to by the ancient state as a state deity, his status as high as that of the gods of the land and grain. [20]20 Gods of the land and grain (社稷神): The state deities of the soil and harvest, central to the official state cult in ancient China. However, at least starting from Confucius, thinkers in every generation continuously corrected and abandoned low-level, crude witchcraft and excessive, unbridled superstition in ghosts and spirits. This constitutes the long-standing tradition of atheism within our country’s traditional culture.

中国古代的国家，从君主到民众，都是信神的。这是历史事实。孔子也曾被古代国家作为国家公神加以崇拜和祭祀，其地位和社稷神一样高，也是事实。但是，至少从孔子开始，历代都有思想家不断纠正和抛弃低级、粗陋的巫术和滥渎无度的鬼神迷信，这就构成了我国传统文化中历史悠久的无神论传统。

In the society of Confucius’s time, it was commonly believed that unusual celestial phenomena like comets and meteorites were “Heavenly omens” [21]21 Heavenly omens (天道): In ancient Chinese cosmology, the “Way of Heaven” was believed to manifest itself through natural phenomena, which could be interpreted as signs of approval or disapproval of the ruler’s conduct. manifesting the will of Heaven, but Confucius did not discuss matters related to so-called Heavenly omens. Confucius and his disciples also did not believe in the human-shaped ghosts and spirits described by the Mohist school, [22]22 The Mohist school (墨家): A school of thought founded by Mozi (c. 470–391 BCE), which advocated universal love, frugality, and belief in a personal, willful Heaven and in ghosts and spirits. and were thus called “atheists.” [23]23 The term “atheist” (无神者) is used here in its ancient Chinese context, referring to those who did not believe in anthropomorphic ghosts and spirits, not necessarily in the modern sense of denying any deity. Xunzi [24]24 Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE): A Confucian philosopher who emphasized the role of ritual and education in shaping human nature, which he considered inherently evil, and who argued that Heaven operates according to natural principles, not moral will. further pointed out that these unusual celestial phenomena were merely uncommon occurrences, not expressions of the will of Heaven. By the Han dynasty, the state enacted laws designating sympathetic magic [25]25 Sympathetic magic: A type of magic based on the belief that like produces like, or that objects once in contact continue to influence each other. as “witchcraft and black magic,” [26]26 Witchcraft and black magic (巫蛊): A term used in Han dynasty law to refer to harmful magical practices, often involving the use of dolls or effigies to curse others. which harmed society, and put forward the concept of “excessive sacrifices.” [27]27 Excessive sacrifices (淫祀): Sacrifices to spirits or deities not officially sanctioned by the state, considered illegitimate and potentially harmful to social order. From then on, abolishing and combating witchcraft, black magic, and excessive sacrifices—that is, sacrifices beyond those stipulated by the state—became the routine undertaking of ancient atheists.

孔子当时所在的社会都普遍相信，彗星、陨石等奇异天象是体现上天意志的“天道”,但孔子不谈论与所谓天道有关的问题。孔子和他的弟子们也不相信墨家所说的人形的鬼神，所以被称为“无神”者。荀子则进一步指出，那些奇异天象只是不常见而已，并不是上天意志的表达。到了汉代，国家制定法令，把交感巫术认定为危害社会的“巫蛊”,提出了“淫祀”的概念。从此以后，取消和打击巫蛊、淫祀，即超出国家规定的祭祀，成为古代无神论者的常规事业。

In the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu advanced a new theological concept of the interaction between heaven and mankind, transforming the earlier heaven, which was capricious and arbitrarily issued commands of reward and punishment, into a heaven that determined reward and punishment based on the good or evil of human conduct. This represented a progress in the ancient theology of Confucianism. Wang Chong, in turn, examined those events of interaction between heaven and mankind that Dong Zhongshu had identified, and found them to be nothing more than coincidences, thereby negating the concept of interaction between heaven and mankind and advancing the concept of "the Way of heaven is natural," which was a major achievement of Han-dynasty atheist thought. Wang Chong also denied that humans become ghosts after death, holding that the soul, once separated from the living body, possesses no cognitive function.

汉代董仲舒提出了天人感应的新的神学观念，把过去喜怒无常、任意发布奖惩命令的上天，改造为根据人的行为善恶决定赏罚的上天，是儒学古代神学的进步。王充则进一步考察了董仲舒认定的那些天人感应事件，发现都不过是偶然巧合，从而否定了天人感应观念，提出了“天道自然”观念，是汉代无神论思想的重大成就。王充还否认人死为鬼，认为脱离了活的肉体的灵魂没有认知的功能。

During the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Confucians opposed the Buddhist doctrine of karmic retribution and reincarnation. Fan Zhen went further, comparing the relationship between spirit and body to that between sharpness and a blade, arguing that after death there can be no ghost, just as sharpness cannot exist apart from the blade. In the Tang dynasty, Han Yu resolutely opposed the emperor's veneration of the Buddha's finger bone, nearly losing his life in the process. Liu Zongyuan criticized the concept of "auspicious omens" propagated by the theory of interaction between heaven and mankind, denouncing such statements as akin to the words of "licentious shamans and blind historians." Together with Liu Yuxi, he even denied heaven's function of rewarding good and punishing evil.

魏晋南北朝时期，儒者们反对佛教的轮回报应教义，范缜更是把精神和肉体的关系比喻为锋利和刀刃的关系，认为人死以后，不能有鬼，就像锋利离开刀刃就不会存在一样。唐代韩愈坚决反对皇帝迎拜佛骨，差一点送掉性命。柳宗元批评天人感应宣扬的“祥瑞”概念，认为这些言论类似于“淫巫瞽史”。他和刘禹锡一起，甚至否定上天的赏善罚恶功能。

By the Song dynasty, Ouyang Xiu, in writing history, recorded only unusual celestial phenomena and disasters, no longer noting any supposed responsive relationship between these events and human affairs, thereby further negating the idea of interaction between heaven and mankind. He even denounced the *He tu* and *Luo shu*,[1]1 The *He tu* (River Chart) and *Luo shu* (Luo Writing) are mythical diagrams from ancient Chinese legend, said to have been revealed by a dragon-horse from the Yellow River and a spirit-tortoise from the Luo River, respectively; they were often cited as auspicious signs of heavenly favor. then regarded as heavenly gifts, as fraudulent and monstrous fabrications by certain Confucians. In the Ming dynasty, Cao Duan not only resolutely opposed popular excessive sacrifices but also vigorously criticized the newly emerging geomancy superstitions. By the Qing dynasty, Xiong Bolong carried on Wang Chong's enterprise, including even later-added excessive sacrifices such as the worship of the Zitong deity[2]2 The Zitong deity (Zitong shen) is a folk god of literature and examinations, widely worshipped in imperial China, whose cult was often criticized by Confucian scholars as an excessive sacrifice. among his targets of attack.

到了宋代，欧阳修撰写历史，只记载异常天象和灾害事件，不再记录这些事件和人事的所谓感应关系，从而进一步否定了天人感应思想。他甚至斥责当时被认为是上天恩赐的《河图》《洛书》,乃是某些儒者假造的妖妄事件。明代的曹端不仅坚决反对民众淫祀，还极力批判当时新兴起的风水迷信。到了清代，熊伯龙接续王充的事业，把后世新增加的淫祀如梓潼神崇拜等，也作为他的抨击对象。

These atheist ideas in Chinese history constitute a sequence in the development of excellent traditional culture and provide valuable material for our atheist thought today. On the whole, however, the dissemination of ancient Chinese atheist thought and the experiences of atheists were difficult. Atheist thought, especially scientific and thoroughgoing atheist thought, can only be developed and expanded under a socialist society guided by Marxism.

中国历史上的这些无神论思想，构成了优秀传统文化发展的序列，为我们今天的无神论思想提供了宝贵的素材。但从整体来看，中国古代无神论思想的传播以及无神论者的遭遇是艰难的。无神论思想，特别是科学的、彻底的无神论思想，只有在以马克思主义为指导的社会主义社会，才有发扬光大的可能。

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心