The Developmental Thread, Main Connotations, and Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

Atheism is a basic viewpoint of Marxism and a powerful weapon used by Marx and Engels for religious critique. Marx pointed out: “Oppose all gods in heaven and on earth,” and “no god should be placed alongside human self-consciousness.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “Doctoral Dissertation: Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature,” in *Collected Works of Marx and Engels*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2009), p. 12. Marxist atheism, as an advanced form of scientific atheism, served as an ideological weapon for early Chinese Marxists to analyze and critique practical problems. Yun Daiying (1895–1931), hailed as “the beloved leader of Chinese youth,” was an early theoretical giant of the Chinese Communist Party and a pioneer in spreading atheism. Applying Marxist atheism, he launched a relatively comprehensive exposure and critique of religious theology and feudal superstition, continuously deepened the connotation of atheism, and formed a relatively scientific and complete atheist thought with his own distinctive characteristics.

无神论是马克思主义的基本观点，是马克思恩格斯进行宗教批判的有力武器。马克思指出：“反对一切天上的和地上的神”,“不应该有任何神同人的自我意识相并列。”1马克思主义无神论作为科学无神论的高级形态，是中国早期马克思主义者分析和批判现实问题的思想武器。恽代英(1895—1931)被誉为“中国青年热爱的领袖”,是中国共产党早期的理论巨匠和传播无神论的先驱。他运用马克思主义无神论，对宗教神学和封建迷信展开比较全方位的揭露与批判，不断深化无神论的内涵，形成了具有他自身特色的相对科学完整的无神论思想。

I. The Developmental Thread of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

一、恽代英无神论思想的发展脉络

Yun Daiying was a proletarian revolutionary in China and a representative figure in spreading new ideas, new culture, and atheism in modern China. In his long-term theoretical creation and revolutionary practice, he creatively inherited and developed Marxist atheism in light of China’s actual conditions, forming a series of views on atheism. The formation of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought had a deep theoretical foundation and a profound social background, undergoing a long-term, gradual process from emergence and development to maturity.

恽代英是中国无产阶级革命家，是近代中国传播新思想、新文化及无神论的代表人物。在长期理论创造和革命实践中，他结合中国实际创造性地继承和发展了马克思主义无神论，形成了一系列关于无神论的观点。恽代英无神论思想的形成具有深厚的理论基础、深刻的社会背景，从产生、发展到臻于成熟经历了长期的循序渐进的过程。

(I) Materialism and the Theory of Knowability Laid the Theoretical Cornerstone for Yun Daiying’s Development of Atheism

(一)唯物论、可知论为恽代英发展无神论奠定了理论基石

First, materialism was the theoretical foundation for Yun Daiying’s development of atheism. In modern China, social transformation was exceptionally slow, while ideological metabolism was extraordinarily rapid; various viewpoints and doctrines, such as materialism and idealism, took turns appearing and clashed with one another. Yun Daiying firmly believed in materialism, holding that the world is material rather than mental, and that ghosts and gods are false rather than real. In his work “On the Reality of Matter,” he pointed out: “Matter must be existence.” [2]2 Yun Daiying, “On the Reality of Matter,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 44. Especially after accepting Marxism, his materialist stance became even more resolute, and his atheist attitude more determined. Yun Daiying vigorously criticized idealism and theism, noting that “the words of idealist scholars cannot but be excessive and divorced from reality.” [3]3 Yun Daiying, “On the Reality of Matter,” p. 44. In his view, matter is an objective reality independent of subjective feelings such as sight and hearing; the blind cannot see colors, and the deaf cannot hear sounds, but colors and sounds do not disappear because of this. Theists are thoroughgoing idealists; the ghosts and gods they imagine are entirely products of subjective spirit, characterized by existence if believed and non-existence if not, being idealist rather than materialist. Materialism was the theoretical core of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought, leading him to firmly believe that ghosts and gods are products of consciousness rather than objective existence.

首先，唯物论是恽代英发展无神论的理论基础。近代中国社会转型异常迟缓，而思想代谢超乎神速，唯物论、唯心论等各种观点学说在中国轮番登场、相互激荡。恽代英笃信唯物论，认为世界是物质的而非意识的，鬼神是虚假的而非真实的。他在《物质实在论》中指出：“物质必为存在而已。”2尤其是接受马克思主义之后，其唯物主义的立场更加坚定，无神论的态度更加坚决。恽代英大力批判唯心论及有神论，指出“唯心派学者之言，不免过于情实”3。在他看来，物质是不以视觉、听觉等主观感受为转移的客观实在，盲者看不到颜色，聋者听不见声音，但颜色、声音不会由此消失，而有神论者是彻头彻尾的唯心论者，其假想的鬼神完全是主观精神的产物，具有信则有、不信则无的特征，是唯心的而非唯物的。唯物论是恽代英无神论思想的理论内核，促使他坚信鬼神是意识的产物而非客观存在。

Second, the theory of knowability was the theoretical tool for Yun Daiying’s development of atheism. Yun Daiying believed that all things can be known by humans, and that understanding things involves a process of transformation from the unknowable to the knowable. There are no things that humans cannot know; the unknowable is temporary rather than permanent, and the same applies to the understanding of the illusory nature of theism. Although the doctrine of ghosts and gods is shrouded in mist and highly deceptive, one day people will surely be able to fully verify its falsity and deceptiveness. He pointed out: “What is called the inconceivable is not something presided over by God, forever beyond the scope of human cognition, but merely governed by scientific principles not yet discovered, and thus temporarily unknown to people today. It is not absolutely impossible for humans to know all things in the world.” [4]4 Yun Daiying, “On the Reality of Matter,” p. 46. With the continuous development of science, the doctrine of theism will collapse on its own. He asserted: “What was once believed to have gods can now be partly explained by science; how can we know that what is now believed to have no gods will not, in the future, be partly explained by science, or even entirely explained by science?” [5]5 Yun Daiying, “On the Reality of Matter,” p. 46. In Yun Daiying’s view, with the vigorous development of science, human cognitive ability will improve and the scope of cognition will expand; the mystery and unknowability of ghost and god phenomena and supernatural events will gradually be broken by human science, atheism will be universally accepted and widely recognized, and theism will be completely eliminated. The theory of knowability helped Yun Daiying deeply analyze the illusory essence of theism, pointing out that there are no supernatural or non-material forces in the world, and that gods and demons simply cannot exist.

其次，可知论是恽代英发展无神论的理论工具。恽代英认为，万事万物都能被人所认知，认识事物都有从不可知到可知的转变过程。不存在人不能认识的事物，不可知是暂时的而非永久的，对有神论虚幻性的认识也是如此。鬼神之说虽迷雾重重、极具迷惑性，但终有一天人们一定能够充分佐证其虚假性及欺骗性。他指出：“凡所谓不可思议者，非谓为上帝之所主持，永远超越人类认识范围之外，不过为一般尚未发明之科学原理所支配，因暂不为今人之所知耳。人欲全知天下事事物物，实非绝对不可能之事。”4随着科学的不断发展，有神之论将不攻自破。他断言：“昔之以为有神者，在今日已有一部分可以科学解释之，又安知今之所以为不有神者，在他日不更有一部分亦可以科学解释之，或竟全部分尽可以科学解释之乎。”5在恽代英眼中，伴随科学的蓬勃发展，人类的认知能力会提高、认知范围会扩大，鬼神现象与灵异事件的神秘性和不可知性将逐步被人类用科学所打破，无神论将被人们普遍接受并广泛认可，有神论也将被彻底清除。可知论帮助恽代英深刻剖析有神论虚幻的本质，指明世上不存在超自然或非物质的力量，上帝鬼怪根本不可能存在。

(II) The Prevailing State of Feudal Superstitious Activities Prompted Yun Daiying to Deeply Reflect on Atheism

(二)封建迷信活动盛行的现状促使恽代英对无神论进行深入思考

In late Qing and Republican China, internal troubles and external threats coexisted: internally, there were conflicts and wars among warlords; externally, there was harassment by imperialists, and the state’s ruling apparatus grew increasingly corrupt. The ideological sphere accordingly saw waves of filth and mire, and “for a time, all sectors of society suddenly began to talk about ghosts, gods, and spiritual cultivation.” [6]6 Li Yu, “The ‘Ghost-God Debate’ in the Early Years of the Republic of China,” *Modern Chinese History Studies*, no. 3 (2002), p. 43. The domestic feudal landlord class, reactionary warlords, and foreign colonialist and imperialist forces took the opportunity to use religious theology to numb the masses, attempting to use feudal decadent ideas and superstitious doctrines of ghosts and gods to deceive people’s hearts in order to maintain their reactionary rule or seize maximum profits, causing various religious forces to resurface and spread religious theism wantonly. People lacking scientific knowledge were easily deceived by theism, mistakenly believing in the existence of gods, immortals, and demons, which further caused the worship of spirits and feudal superstitious ideas to run rampant and spread everywhere. Superstitious phenomena such as praying to gods and Buddhas, kowtowing and burning incense, and divination and fortune-telling flourished among the people. As Yun Daiying said: “Now, whether in the marketplace or the countryside, among the people one meets, whether they are loyal gentlemen or petty traders chasing profit, if you force them to talk about ghosts, they can, based on what they have heard and seen, speak glibly in response.” [7]7 Yun Daiying, “On the Reality of Matter,” p. 43. At that time, the poison of theism spread widely; superstitious activities occurred commonly everywhere, and the superstitious population was extremely large. Mao Zedong pointed out: “Of China’s four hundred million people, nearly three hundred and ninety million are superstitious.” [8]8 Mao Zedong, “Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan,” in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1991), p. 33. Feudal superstitious ideas were deeply entrenched and difficult to eradicate; some were superstitious about ghosts and gods, some about God, some about fate, and some about power. Yun Daiying deeply detested this phenomenon and continuously engaged in deep reflection on atheism, hoping to break this chaos by criticizing religious theism and developing, spreading, and popularizing atheism.

晚清民国时期的中国内忧与外患并存，内有军阀的纷争混战，外有帝国主义的侵扰，国家统治机器日益腐朽。思想界随之泛起一股股污泥浊水，“一时间，社会各界忽然大谈鬼神、修行”6。国内封建地主阶级、反动军阀和外国殖民主义、帝国主义势力，趁机借助宗教神学麻痹民众，企图以封建腐朽观念、鬼神迷信学说蛊惑人心以维护其反动统治或窃取最大利益，导致多种宗教势力沉渣泛起，肆意传播宗教有神论。而科学知识匮乏的人们极易被有神论所迷惑，误信上帝、神仙和妖魔的存在，更使神灵膜拜思想、封建迷信观念甚嚣尘上、四散弥漫，民间求神拜佛、磕头烧香、占卜算卦等迷信现象盛极一时。正如恽代英所言：“今无论市井草野，所遇之人，无论为忠诚君子，或负贩逐利之夫，强之说鬼，类能就其耳之所闻，目之所见，信口滔滔以相答。”7当时有神论流毒甚广，各地迷信活动普遍发生，迷信群体异常庞大。毛泽东指出：“中国的四万万人，差不多有三万九千万是迷信家。”8封建迷信观念根深蒂固、尾大难除，迷信神鬼者有之，迷信上帝者有之，迷信宿命者有之，迷信强权者有之。恽代英对此现象深恶痛绝，不断对无神论进行深入思考，希望通过批判宗教有神论、发展传播普及无神论来打破这种乱象。

(III) The Formation of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought Underwent a Gradual Evolution from Shallow to Deep, from Surface to Core

(三)恽代英无神论思想的形成历经由浅入深、由表及里的渐进演变

The formation of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought from its emergence to relative maturity did not happen overnight but underwent a long and slow process of development. From his birth in 1895 to his joining the Chinese Communist Party in 1921, and then to his martyrdom in Nanjing in 1931, [9]9 Yun Daiying was executed by the Kuomintang regime in Nanjing in 1931. in his brief but brilliant life, his atheist thought underwent a thorough and remarkable transformation.

恽代英无神论思想从产生至相对成熟并非一朝一夕，而是经过了长期而缓慢的发展过程。从1895年出生到1921年加入中国共产党，再到1931年在南京就义9,在其短暂辉煌的一生中，无神论思想却发生了彻底而显著的蜕变。

As a youth and adolescent, Yun Daiying was already an atheist. In May 1915, he published “New Atheism” in the *Guanghua Journal*, clearly stating, “I advocate atheism.” [10]10 Yun Daiying, “New Atheism,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1, p. 12. However, at this stage, some of his atheist ideas were not yet fully developed. On the one hand, Yun Daiying opposed Christian concepts such as the unknowability of the world and God’s dominion over it; missionaries and Christian youth tried to persuade him to convert, but he refused. On the other hand, he admired the personality and self-cultivation model of Christians and certain Christian ideas. In June 1918, he stated, “Christ, as a commoner, influenced the world,” [11]11 Yun Daiying, “Letter to Liu Renjing,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1, p. 78. and in January 1921, he even bluntly said, “I worship the personal character of Jesus.” [12]12 Yun Daiying, “Letter to Liu Renjing,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1, p. 112. Therefore, at this time, some of his atheist views were not yet complete or deep, and even had the drawback of being interwoven with love and hate, ambiguous and equivocal.

青少年时期的恽代英便是无神论者。1915年5月，他就在《光华学报》发表《新无神论》,明确表示“吾究主张无神者也”10,但是这一阶段他的有些无神论思想还不够完备。恽代英一方面反对基督教世界不可知、上帝主宰世界等理念，传教士、基督教青年曾劝其入教均被他拒绝；另一方面却赞赏基督教徒的人格、修身模式及基督教的某些理念。1918年6月，他表示“基督以一平民，感化天下”11,于1921年1月甚至直言“崇拜耶稣个人人格”12。因此，此时他的某些无神论观点还不够完善和深入，甚至存在爱恨交织、模棱两可的弊端。

In August 1921, after Yun Daiying joined the Chinese Communist Party and became a Marxist, his atheist views were continuously updated, gradually becoming more complete and mature. He began to expound on the issue of religious theism from the standpoint of the nation and the people, deeply dissecting the roots and influence of the proliferation of religious theology from within the political and economic systems, no longer superficially discussing superstition for its own sake or religion for its own sake. He believed that the root of religious theism’s narcotic effect on the people lay in the cruel system of exploitation and oppression, and that the widespread dissemination of religious theism was closely linked to the machinations of reactionary forces such as feudalism and imperialism. In April 1924, in “Christianity and Social Service,” he pointed out: “What the Christian church relies on entirely is the money sent by foreigners to spread the faith; the life of the Christian church is tied to this money.”[13]13 Yun Daiying, “Christianity and Social Service,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 413. He realized multiple transformations: from worshipping Jesus to seeing Jesus in depth, from admiring the personality of Christians to criticizing the Christian “personality saves the nation” idea, from wanting to use Christianity to reform society to recognizing that Christianity was a tool of cultural aggression. He began to oppose religious education and advocated the separation of religion from politics and education. In May 1926, he pointed out: “The more developed the schools run by foreigners, the fewer people there will be who oppose imperialism, and the more our Chinese people’s national spirit will be damaged.”[14]14 Yun Daiying, “The Question of Missionary Schools,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 7, p. 109. At this time, Yun Daiying had transformed into a Marxist atheist, beginning to gradually apply the viewpoint of Marxist atheism to understand and analyze the issue of religious theism; his atheist thought was thus sublimated.

1921年8月，恽代英加入中国共产党成为马克思主义者之后，其无神论观点不断更新，逐步趋于完善成熟。他开始站在国家民族的立场来阐述宗教有神论问题，从政治、经济制度中深入解剖宗教神学泛滥的根源及影响，不再浮于表面就迷信谈迷信、就宗教说宗教。他认为，宗教有神论麻醉人民的根源在于残酷的剥削压迫制度，宗教有神论的广泛流传与封建主义、帝国主义等反动势力作祟有密切关联。1924年4月，他在《基督教与社会服务》中指出：“耶教所仰赖的完全是外国人送来传教的金钱，耶教的生命便系在这种金钱的上面。”13他实现了从崇拜耶稣到深入看待耶稣、从赞赏基督教徒人格到批判基督教“人格救国”、从想借基督教改造社会到认识到基督教是文化侵略工具的多重转变，开始反对宗教教育，倡导宗教与政治、教育相分离。1926年5月，他指出：“外国人办的学校越发达，便会使反对帝国主义的人越少，便会使我们中国人的民族精神，越受损失。”14这时的恽代英转变为马克思主义无神论者，开始逐步运用马克思主义无神论的观点来认识分析宗教有神论问题，其无神论思想得到了升华。

II. The Main Connotations of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

二、恽代英无神论思想的主要内涵

“God” is an illusory concept created by human society at a specific stage of development; “believing in gods and believing in religion are often the result of the combined action of natural, social, and cognitive roots.”[15]15 Reference omitted in original. Marx pointed out: “It is only by explaining the origin and development of religion from the historical conditions under which it arose and achieved dominance that the problem can be solved.”[16]16 Karl Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right: Introduction,” *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, Vol. 1, p. 425. Guided by Marxist atheism, Yun Daiying conducted in-depth theoretical discussions on issues such as the basic questions of religion and the concept of freedom of religious belief, and put forward unique insights.

“神”是人类社会发展到特定阶段所创造出来的虚幻观念，“信神、信教往往是自然根源、社会根源和认识根源共同作用的结果”15。马克思指出：“只有根据宗教借以产生和取得统治地位的历史条件，去说明它的起源和发展，才能解决问题。”16在马克思主义无神论的指引下，恽代英对宗教的基本问题、宗教信仰自由的理念等方面的议题进行了深入的理论探讨，并提出了独到的见解。

(I) Analyzing the Basic Questions of Religion

(一)分析宗教的基本问题

First, Yun Daiying believed that religion is essentially a reflection of human subjective consciousness, a correction and compensation for reality at the conceptual level. He pointed out that religion is an inevitable product of the development of human society: “The rituals, dogmas, and myths of religion are also naturally occurring products of human evolution.”[17]17 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 174. Fetishism and pantheism are both forms of religious expression. In his view, religion is the conscious mapping of external forces by humans; God is nothing more than a human fiction about the real world, lacking a scientific basis. He pointed out: “What religion calls the heavenly god is certainly not the heavenly god itself, but merely the imagination of one or two people. Since those one or two people are not omniscient, the heavenly god they imagine can by no means be omniscient.”[18]18 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 175. In essence, religion is a simplified version of the ideal world that humans create for themselves, or a spiritual refuge. Yun Daiying denied the existence of God, firmly believing that religious theism is superstitious and dogmatic—it is humans creating gods, not gods creating humans.

首先，恽代英认为，宗教本质上是人主观意识的反映，是人在观念层面对现实存在的修正和弥补。他指出，宗教是人类社会发展的必然产物，“宗教的仪式信条神话，亦是人类进化自然应有的生产品”17,拜物教、泛神教都是宗教的表现形式。在他看来，宗教是人对外部力量的意识映射，上帝不过是人对现实世界的虚构，没有科学依据。他指出：“宗教之所谓天神必非天神之本体，不过出于一二人之想象而已。彼一二人者，既非全知，则所想象之天神，决无由而全知。”18质言之，宗教是人自我营造的理想世界的简化版或精神的避难所。恽代英否定了上帝的存在，坚信宗教有神论是迷信的、武断的，是人造神而非神造人。

Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that the formation and evolution of religion have profound and complex historical and cultural roots. He summarized the causes of religion into six aspects. First, arising from fear. When people encounter natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis, they are shocked by the cosmic power, submit to the unknowable divine authority, and attempt to use the power of religious deities to resist calamities, “in the hope of perhaps avoiding sin and disaster.” Second, arising from hope. People in hardship and difficulty easily fantasize about receiving divine protection. Third, arising from misrecognition. People are easily disturbed by metaphysics and mistakenly believe in theories of ghosts and gods. Fourth, arising from misunderstanding. When science is backward, “whenever encountering something slightly extraordinary… unable to find an explanation, they therefore believe there must be ghosts and gods.” Fifth, arising from a sense of beauty. Wonderful natural phenomena such as beautiful landscapes and the movement of the sun and moon “arouse in humans the idea of an omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent God.” Sixth, arising from imagination. People “conceive a complete ideal, and therefore name this ideal God.”[19]19 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, pp. 174-175. In his eyes, religion and theism are born together and interwoven; religion has not always existed, but emerged only when human thinking developed to a certain level. To extend this, religion originated in the nature worship or spirit worship of primitive society; it is a spiritual product of people suffering under the heavy oppression of disaster and hardship when their productive forces and knowledge levels were extremely low.

其次，恽代英指出宗教的形成和演化具有深刻而复杂的历史文化根源。他把宗教产生的原因归纳为六个方面。一是起于恐惧。人在遭遇地震、海啸等自然灾害时，震惊于宇宙的神威，屈服于不可知的神权，企图借宗教神灵之力抵御灾难，“以求庶几免于罪祸”;二是起于希望，人在艰难困苦时易幻想得到神灵的庇佑；三是起于误认。人易被玄学干扰，误信鬼神学说；四是起于误解。科学落后时“每遇稍有非常的事……求不得其解说，因以为必有鬼神”;五是起于美感。山水明秀、日月运行等奇妙的自然现象“引起人类想得有个全知全能无所不在的上帝”;六是起于想象，人们“拟想出一个完全的理想。因而名这个理想为神”19。在他眼中，宗教与有神论是相伴而生、相互交织的，宗教不是从来就有的，而是人类思维发展到一定水平才产生的。拓展而言，宗教发端于原始社会的自然崇拜或神灵崇拜，是人在生产力和知识水平极其低下时受苦难灾害深重压迫的精神产物。

Finally, Yun Daiying predicted that religion would eventually disappear along with the disappearance of its function. He did not completely negate the value of religion, pointing out that religion actually has both positive and negative functions, although the negative function is more prominent. He believed that as an objective, long-standing social phenomenon, religion must have certain functions of psychological comfort and social integration, and even folk sects like the White Lotus Sect and the Red Lantern Sect were no exception. “Using religion as an expedient means naturally has its practical utility,”[20]20 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 176. and “there are no lack of good people in the church.”[21]21 Yun Daiying, “Christianity and Social Service,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 413. Some believers had even made great contributions to social development. However, the positive and negative functions of religion are relative, not fixed, but variable and transferable. From a developmental perspective, the positive functions of religion will gradually weaken and eventually disappear with the evolution of human civilization; religion will inevitably die out. Therefore, retaining religion brings more harm than benefit. He pointed out: “The utility of religion is so small, so very small, that it is utterly insignificant.”[22]22 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 176. Along with the increasing dilution of religious belief, the day will come when no one believes in religion anymore; the decline and disappearance of religion is the general trend.

最后，恽代英预言宗教终将随其作用的消失而消亡。他并未全盘否定宗教的价值，指出宗教实际上具有积极和消极的双重作用，只是消极作用更突出。他认为，宗教作为一种客观的长期存在的社会现象，必然具有一定的心理慰藉、社会整合功能，甚至连白莲教、红灯教这样的民间教门也不例外。“以宗教为方便法门，自然亦有他的实际效用”20,“教会不乏好人”21,有的教民也为社会发展做出过巨大贡献。但宗教的积极作用和消极作用是相对的，不是固定不变的，而是可变可转移的。以发展的眼光来看，宗教的积极作用会随人类文明演化而逐步减弱直至消失，宗教不可避免会消亡，因此保留宗教利小弊大。他指出：“宗教为用，则又微小之微小，直无足轻重也。”22伴随宗教信仰的日益淡化，终有一天不会再有人信教，宗教衰退、消亡乃大势所趋。

(II) Elaborating the Concept of Freedom of Religious Belief

(二)阐释宗教信仰自由的理念

First, Yun Daiying believed that the act of believing in religion has its inevitability and rationality; the reasons for believing in religion are complex. He said: “The human mind often needs something to hold onto, and is unwilling to rest in a state of doubt… it easily falls into the rut of religion. Naturally, this also involves the lure of one’s own emotions and the suggestive effect of social habits.”[23]23 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 175. Believing in religion is the result of the interaction of multiple factors, including believers’ lack of rational thinking and the inducement of the social environment. Under normal circumstances, people with weaker willpower are more prone to spirit worship or religious belief: “Religious believers do not use their own minds, but submit their minds to the heavenly god.”[24]24 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 175. Thus, in their minds, they distort and fabricate an image of an omniscient and omnipotent heavenly god, and then attempt to gain divine protection or achieve communication with the divine through religious belief. Therefore, the poorer the material economy and the more impoverished the cultural education in a place, the more prevalent religious belief becomes, and the more people believe in religion.

首先，恽代英认为，信教行为有其必然性和合理性，信教的原因是复杂的。他说：“人类的心灵，每须有所执着，不肯安于怀疑之境……易堕入宗教的窠臼。自然这中间又有自己情感的诱引，与社会习惯的暗示的作用。”23信教是教民缺乏理智思维及社会环境诱导等多因素交互作用的结果。通常情况下，意志力偏弱的人更易产生神灵崇拜或宗教信仰，“宗教徒之不自用其心，而以其心循天神”24。于是在脑海中歪曲虚构出一个全智全能的天神形象，进而试图通过信教得到神灵的庇护或实现与神灵的交流。因此，越是物质经济贫困、文化教育贫乏的地方，宗教信仰就越盛行，信教的人就越多。

Second, Yun Daiying advocated for freedom of religious belief with bottom lines, principles, and preconditions. He pointed out that religion is universal, and believing in religion is a personal freedom that should be understood and accepted. “Religion is universal; it can almost be said to be innate.”[25]25 Yun Daiying, “On Religion,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 6, p. 175. Even some scientists and philosophers find it difficult to escape the confines of religion. He frankly stated: “We do not interfere with people’s freedom of religious belief.”[26]26 Yun Daiying, “The Question of Missionary Schools,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 7, p. 109. In his eyes, whether to believe or not, and which religion to believe in, are personal choices that should not be forcibly interfered with. People who believe in religion should be given sufficient respect and should not be prejudiced. However, freedom of religious belief is by no means without bottom lines or disregard for rules; freedom of religious belief can only be realized under normal state control and good moral constraints. Religious activities must be carried out on the premise of abiding by laws and regulations. If anyone uses the name of freedom of religious belief to engage in illegal activities that harm society and others, or conducts illegal religious activities, they must be severely sanctioned and resolutely banned. Yun Daiying believed that Christians are easily controlled by foreign missionaries and easily infused with Western culture and ideas of enslavement, so “for those with Christian faith, it is naturally best to advise them to renounce their religion.”[27]27 Yun Daiying, “The Question of Missionary Schools,” *Yun Daiying Collected Works*, Vol. 7, p. 109.

其次，恽代英主张有底线、有原则、有前提的信教自由。他指出，宗教具有普遍性，信教是个人的自由，应被理解和接受。“宗教是普遍的，亦几于可以说是先天的。”25甚至连有的科学家哲学家也难以跳出宗教藩篱。他坦言：“我们并不干涉人家的信教自由。”26在他眼中，信教或不信教以及信哪种宗教都是个人的选择，不宜强加干涉。对信教人群要给予足够的尊重，不应怀有偏见。但信教自由绝不是毫无底线、不守章法的，信教自由必须要在正常的国家管控和良好的道德约束下才能够实现，宗教活动必须在遵守法律法规的前提下才能开展。若借信教自由之名，行危害社会和他人的不法勾当之实，开展非法宗教活动者，则须予以严厉制裁和坚决取缔。恽代英认为，基督教徒易被外国传教士所控制，易被灌输西方文化和奴化思想，所以“对于有基督教信仰的人，自然最好是劝他脱教”27。

(III) Clarifying the Distinction between Religious Belief and Scientific Belief

(三)厘清宗教信仰和科学信仰的区别

Yun Daiying believed that religious belief and scientific belief have clear and essential differences and cannot be equated. First, the inclusiveness of religious belief and scientific belief differs. He emphasized: “The authority of religion over people begins with the initiation of faith and persists in steadfast faith. Religion is belief; without belief there is no religion.”[28]28 Yun Daiying, “On Belief” (论信仰), *Collected Works of Yun Daiying* (恽代英全集), Vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 296. In his view, religious belief is absolutely dogmatic, possessing severe exclusivity and unable to accept any doubt or criticism, whereas scientific belief is inclusive, allowing itself to be questioned and willing to accept criticism. That is to say, scientific belief possesses a breadth of mind and a powerful force that religious belief cannot attain.

恽代英认为，宗教信仰和科学信仰有着明显的本质的区别，不能把宗教信仰与科学信仰等同。第一，宗教信仰和科学信仰的包容性不同。他强调：“宗教权威之及于人，其始事在起信，其居常在笃信。宗教者信仰也，舍信仰即无宗教。”28在他看来，宗教信仰是绝对的独断派，具有严重的排他性，不能接受任何怀疑与批评，而科学信仰是包容的，是允许被质疑、愿意接受批评的。也就是说，科学信仰具有宗教信仰所无法企及的宽广胸襟和强大魄力。

Second, the scientific nature of religious belief and scientific belief differs. Yun Daiying pointed out that religious belief and scientific belief have strict boundaries in their basic connotations and categories. Scientific belief contains scientific truth and scientific laws and is credible, whereas religious belief transfers fear and reverence to specific things, placing them in imaginary deities, and is subjectively fabricated. He said: “All the legendary miracles, since they are proven day by day to be misunderstandings and forced interpretations, religion is at least partly untrustworthy, and indeed largely untrustworthy.”[29]29 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion” (我的宗教观), *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 59. Therefore, there is no need to believe in religious fictions that lack objective factual basis.

第二，宗教信仰和科学信仰的科学性不同。恽代英指出，宗教信仰和科学信仰在基本内涵范畴上具有严格的分界，科学信仰蕴涵科学真理、科学规律，是可信的，而宗教信仰将恐惧和敬畏转移到特定事物中，寄托于假想的神灵之上，是主观臆造的。他说：“一切传说的神迹，既然一天天证明是误解是附会；宗教至少有一部分不可信，而且是一大部分不可信。”29因此，没有必要去相信缺乏客观事实依据的宗教虚拟物。

Third, the function of religious belief and scientific belief differs. Yun Daiying believed that scientific belief has an unquestionably positive effect, enabling people to strive upward, making the timid brave, the weak strong, the undisciplined diligent, and the agitated calm, whereas religious belief does not do this. In “On Belief,” he pointed out: “To say that belief cannot be abandoned is already not the highest view. And because belief cannot be abandoned, to say that religion therefore cannot be abandoned either is even more debatable.”[30]30 Yun Daiying, “On Belief,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 1, p. 296. He believed that religious belief and scientific belief are nearly opposite and antagonistic existences, and the two absolutely cannot be confused. Scientific belief must be had, but religious belief is better absent than present.

第三，宗教信仰和科学信仰的作用不同。恽代英认为，科学信仰具有不容置疑的积极作用，能使人奋发向上，让怯者勇、弱者强、散漫者精进、躁乱者恬静，而宗教信仰并不如此。他在《论信仰》中指出：“谓信仰不可抛弃，其说已非上乘。又因信仰不可抛弃，而谓宗教即亦不可抛弃，其说尤可议矣。”30他认为，宗教信仰和科学信仰是近乎相反和对立的存在，二者万万不能混为一谈，科学信仰一定要有，但宗教信仰有不如无。

(4) Evaluating the Relationship between Theism and Scientific Development

(四)评析有神论和科学发展的关系

Early Chinese Marxists generally believed that theism and science were in conflict with each other, just as Li Dazhao pointed out: “We firmly believe that religion is something that hinders human progress.”[31]31 Li Dazhao, “The Freedom of the Individual and the Freedom of the Collective” (个人自由与集体自由), *Collected Works of Li Dazhao* (李大钊全集), Vol. 4 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), p. 253. Yun Daiying also sneered at theism, believing that theism is the antithesis of science.

中国早期马克思主义者普遍认为有神论和科学是互相冲突的，正如李大钊所指出的：“我们坚信宗教是妨碍人类进步的东西。”31恽代英也对有神论嗤之以鼻，认为有神论是科学的对立面。

First, Yun Daiying believed that theism is detrimental to scientific research. In February 1921, in “My View of Religion,” he pointed out: “The worst problem with believing in miracles is that it slackens and hinders the progress of scientific research.”[32]32 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4, p. 58. He believed that science appeals to reason, its foothold being objective realities such as empirical evidence, whereas theism appeals to emotion, relying on illusory fantasies. The two are, in terms of their essential connotations and fundamental principles, mutually incompatible and irreconcilable. “Religion is something that absolutely cannot exist in the world of science.”[33]33 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4, p. 58. The imprisonment of Copernicus and Galileo by Christianity and its obstruction of the spread of Darwin’s theory are irrefutable proof that theism hinders scientific progress. Even if some scientists believe in God or religion, superstitious belief in theism will ultimately become an obstacle to scientific research.

首先，恽代英认为有神论不利于科学研究。1921年2月，他在《我的宗教观》中指出：“信神迹最坏的毛病，是松懈而且阻碍科学研究的进步。”32他认为，科学诉诸于理性，立足点是经验证据等客观实在，而有神论诉诸于感性，依托于虚无的幻想，二者在内涵实质和宗旨理念上可谓背道而驰、不可兼容。“宗教是科学的世界中间绝对不能存在的东西”33,基督教囚辱哥白尼、伽利略，阻止达尔文学说的流行就是有神论阻碍科学进步无可辩驳的铁证。纵然有科学家信神信教，但迷信有神论终将会成为科学研究的障碍。

Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that theism is of no benefit to rational thought. Theists superstitiously believe that the world was created by an omnipotent deity, that deities dominate all things and control the operation of all natural and social laws. He pointed out: “If people truly believe it is objective reality, it will always hinder the progress of our intellect.”[34]34 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4, p. 59. In his view, once one superstitiously believes in the theism that gods created humans and the world, one easily loses the motivation for deep rational reflection, leading to rigid and ossified thinking and stagnant thought. “If it has already been affirmed that gods created it, what is there left to study?”[35]35 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4, p. 59. He asserted that theism “uses various deities as explanations, truly hindering human evolution.”[36]36 Yun Daiying, “My View of Religion,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 4, p. 59. Therefore, scientific workers should be thoroughgoing atheists and cannot allow superstitious belief in gods or ghosts to affect the degree of rational thinking or the depth of problem analysis.

其次，恽代英指出有神论无益于理性思考。有神论者迷信世界是由无所不能的神灵所创造的，神灵主宰着万事万物，支配着一切自然和社会规律的运行。他指出：“人若真信他是客观的真实，总有妨碍于我们理智的进步。”34在他看来，一旦迷信神造人、神造世界的有神论，就容易丧失深度理性思索的动力，进而导致思维僵硬固化、思想停滞不前。“若既已肯定是神造的了，还有什么可以研究?”35他断言，有神论以“各种神灵以作解说，实在障碍人类进化”36。因此，科学工作者应是彻底的无神论者，不能因为迷信上帝和鬼神而影响思维理性的程度及问题思考的深度。

(5) Proposing Methods and Approaches for Dealing with Religious Theism

(五)提出对待宗教有神论的方式方法

Engels pointed out: “With the advance of science… the boundless fields of nature have all been conquered by science, leaving no foothold left for the Creator.”[37]37 Friedrich Engels, “Dialectics of Nature,” *Collected Works of Marx and Engels* (马克思恩格斯全集), Vol. 26 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 478. Based on reality, Yun Daiying proposed correct methods and approaches for dealing with religious theism, continuously promoting the spread and development of atheism and effectively advancing the eradication of feudal superstition.

恩格斯指出：“在科学的推进下……自然界无穷无尽的领域全都被科学征服，不再给造物主留下一点立足之地。”37恽代英根据现实提出正确对待宗教有神论的方式方法，不断推动无神论的传播与发展，有力促进封建迷信的破除。

First, guide religion to adapt to social development.

第一，引导宗教与社会发展相适应。

The rise and flourishing of religion has gone through a long process, and its disappearance will also be a long process. As Marx said: “The religious reflection of the real world can disappear only when the relations of practical everyday life present themselves to people in a transparent and rational form in their relations with each other and with nature.”[38]38 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 1, *Collected Works of Marx and Engels*, Vol. 44 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2001), p. 97. Yun Daiying believed that although the disappearance of religion has objective historical inevitability, it will by no means be as rapid as a violent storm; for a long time, religion will continue to exist and even develop. Therefore, only by actively guiding religion to adapt to social development, effectively leveraging its positive role and curbing its negative role, can we foster strengths and avoid weaknesses and promote its benign development. First, guide Western religions to achieve self-reliance and break free from imperialist control. He frankly stated: “As for the self-reliance movement of the churches, we are more inclined to advocate and support it than to oppose it.”[39]39 Yun Daiying, “The Christian Self-Reliance Movement” (基督教的自立运动), *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 5 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 268. He believed that Western religions were introduced on a large scale during the invasions of the great powers, carrying a strong colonial color, easily manipulated by imperialism and reduced to appendages of Western religious orders and missions. Therefore, a church self-reliance movement must be carried out, implementing a religious policy of self-governance, self-propagation, and self-support. Yun Daiying especially supported the self-reliance movement of Christianity, stating, “If Christianity could avoid having relations with imperialism… there would be no need to specially exclude it.”[40]40 Yun Daiying, “The Christian Self-Reliance Movement,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 5, p. 269. Christian churches and church schools should achieve political, economic, and religious independence, just like Buddhism, Daoism, and Islam, shedding the labels of “foreign religion” and “rice-bowl religion.” Second, guide believers to treat religion rationally. In his view, whether one believes or not is closely related to the level of knowledge; shallow knowledge, impoverished thought, and spiritual emptiness were important reasons why the Chinese people believed in religion. He said: “People without knowledge or with simple knowledge, whose knowledge is insufficient to recognize morality, rely on faith and even religion to support them.”[41]41 Yun Daiying, “On Belief,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 1, p. 295. In other words, only people with wisdom and thought can consciously fulfill moral obligations, thereby avoiding falling into the quagmire of religion. Therefore, it is necessary to “enlighten them with education to make them wise, and train them to make them loving, so that wisdom guides their behavior.”[42]42 Yun Daiying, “On Belief,” *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 1, p. 296. This would enable believers to believe rationally, putting an end to excessive religious fanaticism or blind worship of deities. In summary, by guiding Western religions to achieve self-reliance and guiding believers to treat religion rationally, a healthy and harmonious religious atmosphere can be created, effectively promoting religion to coordinate and adapt with social development.

宗教的兴起与兴盛历经长期的过程，消亡也将是个漫长的过程。正如马克思所言：“只有当实际日常生活的关系，在人们面前表现为人与人之间和人与自然之间极明白而合理的关系的时候，现实世界的宗教反映才会消失。”38恽代英认为，宗教消亡虽具有客观的历史必然性，但绝非暴风骤雨般迅速，在很长时间内宗教还将继续存在乃至发展。所以只有积极引导宗教与社会发展相适应，有效发挥其积极作用，遏制其消极作用，才能趋利避害，推动其良性发展。首先，引导西方宗教实现自立，脱离帝国主义的控制。他坦言：“我们对于教会的自立运动，与其说是反对，毋宁说是提倡赞助。”39他认为，西方宗教是在列强侵华中大规模传入的，带有浓厚的殖民色彩，易受帝国主义的操控，沦为西方修会差会的附庸。因此必须开展教会自立运动，实行自治自传自养的宗教政策。恽代英尤其支持基督教的自立运动，表示“若是基督教可以不与帝国主义发生关系……用不着特别的排斥它”40。要使基督教会和教会学校与佛道回教一样实现政治、经济、宗教上的独立，甩掉“洋教”“吃教”的名号。其次，引导教民理性对待宗教。在他看来，信教与否和知识水平的高低息息相关，见识浅薄、思想贫瘠、精神空虚是中国民众信教的重要原因。他说：“无智识或智识简单之人，其智识既不足以认识道德，则假信仰乃至宗教以扶掖之。”41换而言之，有智慧有思想的人才能自觉履行道德义务，从而避免陷入宗教泥潭，所以要“以教育启发之使其智，训练之使其爱之为愈，有智以指导其行为”42。进而使教民理性信教，杜绝宗教过分狂热或神灵盲目崇拜。总而言之，通过引导西方宗教实现自立和引导教民理性对待宗教，营造健康和谐的宗教氛围，有效推动宗教与社会发展相协调、相适应。

Second, carry out propaganda and education on atheism.

第二，开展无神论宣传教育。

In modern China, where the study of gods and ghosts was prevalent, rumors of evil spirits were rife, and people were anxious and unsettled, propaganda and education on atheism had great practical value for opposing religious theology, breaking down religious superstition, stabilizing society, and calming the people. Yun Daiying firmly believed that there were no gods, spirits, or ghosts in the world, that theism was absurd nonsense, and that the replacement of theism by atheism was an inevitable trend of historical development. He pointed out: “All scholars in the world who have even a little thought desire to advocate atheism… and what the world is astonished to regard as gods are all fabrications.”[43]43 Yun Daiying, “A Refutation of the Theory of Ghosts” (驳鬼论), *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, Vol. 5, p. 107. He vigorously refuted the false arguments of theists, advocated strengthening propaganda and education on atheism, and promoted the widespread dissemination and deep popularization of atheist concepts. Through publishing a series of articles and speeches criticizing and opposing religious theism, he deeply analyzed the reasons for the emergence of theism, exposed the false nature and serious harm of theism, and forcefully criticized idealist doctrines such as gods and ghosts, continuously deepening and expanding the work of atheist propaganda and education. In his view, only by actively promoting atheism, comprehensively awakening, fostering, and shaping the people’s atheist consciousness, so that even a three-foot-tall child knows that there are no gods in the world, can the social soil for the breeding of theism be thoroughly cleared, achieving the goal of gradually eliminating evil doctrines of ghosts and gods and breaking the shackles of divine power.

在神鬼之学盛行、妖风谣言四起、人心惶惶难安的中国近代，无神论宣传教育对于反对宗教神学、破除宗教迷信、稳定社会及安定民心具有重大的现实价值。恽代英坚信，世上并无神灵鬼怪，有神论乃荒诞无稽之谈，无神论取代有神论是历史发展的必然趋势。他指出：“凡天下略有思想之学者，莫不欲倡无神论……而为天下之人所惊以为神者，皆向壁虚造也。”43他极力驳斥有神论者的不实论调，主张强化无神论宣传教育，推动无神观念广泛传播并深入人心。他通过发表系列批判、反对宗教有神论的文章和演说，深刻剖析有神论出现的原因，揭露有神论虚假的本质及严重危害，有力批判神灵鬼怪等唯心学说，不断深化拓展无神论宣传教育工作。在他看来，只有积极宣扬无神论，全面唤醒、催生和塑造民众的无神观念，使三尺童子皆知世上本无神，才能彻底清除有神论滋生的社会土壤，达到逐步消除鬼神邪说、打破神权枷锁的目的。

Third, disseminate and popularize scientific knowledge.

第三，传播普及科学知识。

Spreading and popularizing scientific knowledge is an effective way to resist religious theism. As Engels pointed out: “The history of science is the history of the gradual elimination of this ignorance.” [44]44 Friedrich Engels, “The History of Science,” in *Collected Works of Marx and Engels*, vol. 26 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 568. Faced with the spread and proliferation of modern theistic doctrines and religious ideas that harmed the people, intellectuals such as Yun Daiying launched an atheist movement, regarding the popularization of scientific truth as an important means of破除 superstition. He believed that ignorance of science was the main cause of belief in ghosts and gods, and that as long as the dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge were strengthened and strange phenomena were explained clearly through science, the interference of theism could be effectively avoided. He pointed out: “In the past, when we first saw lightning strike a person, we thought it was the work of a god. Now, those who have a little knowledge of physics all clearly understand that there is no god. In the past, when we first saw solar and lunar eclipses, we also thought they were the work of a god. Now, those who have a little knowledge of astronomy also clearly understand that there is no god.” [45]45 Yun Daiying, “Atheism,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 4. In his view, the assertions of the existence of gods and ghosts would be broken by science; the so-called phenomena of ghosts and gods could all be scientifically explained in the future, and the correctness of atheism would ultimately be confirmed. He said: “Since we have learned a little about the evolution of the universe, we naturally cannot believe in religious legends about the creation of the world; since we have learned a little about biological evolution, we naturally cannot believe in religious legends about the creation of humanity.” [46]46 Yun Daiying, “The Relationship Between Socialism and Science,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 5 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 278. Therefore, he advocated widely disseminating and popularizing scientific knowledge among the people, mobilizing the masses to actively learn science, speak of science, and believe in science, using science to arm their minds against religious superstition. He practiced what he preached, spreading scientific concepts and popularizing knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences by writing articles, founding magazines, and teaching courses, introducing the theoretical achievements of scientists such as Newton, Darwin, and Einstein, guiding people to establish scientific thinking and oppose superstition and blind obedience.

传播普及科学知识是抵制宗教有神论的有效方式。正如恩格斯所指出的：“科学的历史，就是逐渐消除这种愚昧的历史。”44面对近代有神学说、宗教理念弥漫扩散、祸害民众的状况，恽代英等知识分子掀起无神论运动，将普及科学真理视作破除迷信的重要手段。他认为，不懂科学是迷信鬼神的主要原因，只要加强科学知识的传播普及，将诡异现象用科学解释清楚，就能有效避免有神论的干扰。他指出：“昔者吾人乍见雷电之击人，则以为神主张之。今之略习物理者，则皆晓然以为无神矣。昔者乍见日月之蚀，亦以为神主张之，今之略习天文者，则亦晓然以为无神矣。”45在他看来，有神有鬼的论断将被科学所攻破，所谓的鬼神现象将来都能用科学解谜，无神论的正确终会被证实。他说：“我们既经学了点宇宙的进化，自然不能信宗教创造世界的传说；我们既经学了点生物的进化，自然不能信宗教创造人类的传说。”46因此，他主张在民间广泛传播普及科学知识，动员民众主动学科学、讲科学、信科学，用科学武装头脑反对宗教迷信。他身体力行，以撰写文章、创办杂志、讲授课程等方式传播科学理念，普及物理学、化学、生物学等科学知识，介绍牛顿、达尔文、爱因斯坦等科学家的理论成果，引导人们树立科学思维、反对迷信盲从。

Fourth, breaking free from the shackles of feudal superstitious thought.

第四，冲破封建迷信思想的束缚。

Feudal superstitious thought had eroded people’s souls and corrupted their will for thousands of years. Yun Daiying pointed out: “Customs move people; even the wise cannot escape.” [47]47 Yun Daiying, “Diary Entry, July 3, 1917,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 97. In his view, feudal superstitious thought was deeply rooted and extremely harmful; once one fell into the rut of feudal superstitious thought, they would be swept along, unable to extricate themselves, becoming increasingly superstitious and paranoid. The depth of the Chinese people’s suffering under feudal superstitious thought had reached an extreme degree. Just as he proposed that “without breaking the current economic system of society, women can never reach an independent and free position,” [48]48 Yun Daiying, “The Question of Women’s Liberation,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 5 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 301. without realizing the transformation of the social system, it would be difficult to completely eradicate feudal superstitious thought. Therefore, he advocated, on the one hand, developing new culture, spreading new ideas, promoting new morality, and carrying out a thorough ideological liberation movement to continuously abandon feudal superstitious concepts; on the other hand, transforming the political and economic system to tear apart the talisman of feudal superstitious thought. Because in Yun Daiying’s view, reactionary forces such as feudal warlords and imperialism were essentially birds of a feather with feudal superstition, and their reactionary rule was the root cause of the prevalence of feudal superstitious thought. Only by launching a revolution to overthrow them and break the腐朽 superstructure could the shackles of feudal superstitious thought be broken, the spread of feudal superstitious thought be effectively prevented, and people achieve spiritual liberation and ideological freedom.

封建迷信思想千百年来一直侵蚀着人们的灵魂，腐化着人们的意志。恽代英指出：“习俗移人，贤者不免。”47在他看来，封建迷信思想树大根深、危害尤烈，一旦落入封建迷信思想的窠臼就会被裹挟得无法自拔、变得越发迷信偏执，国人受封建迷信思想迫害之深已到了无以复加的程度。正如他所提出的“不打破现在社会的经济制度，妇女永远是不能到独立自由的地位”48的那样，不实现社会制度的变革就难以完全扫除封建迷信思想。因此，他主张一方面通过发展新文化，传播新思想，弘扬新道德，开展彻底的思想解放运动，不断摒弃封建迷信观念；另一方面通过变革政治经济体制，撕碎封建迷信思想的护身符。因为在恽代英看来，封建军阀、帝国主义等反动势力本质上与封建迷信是一丘之貉，其反动统治才是导致封建迷信思想大行其道的根源，只有发动革命将其推翻，打破腐朽的上层建筑，才能破除封建迷信思想的桎梏，有效阻止封建迷信思想传播扩散，使人们获得精神的解放和思想上的自由。

III. Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

三、恽代英无神论思想的历史评价

Yun Daiying’s atheist thought expounded theoretical viewpoints on atheism, proposed methods for dealing with religious theism, effectively lifted the veil of religious mysticism, promoted the spread and development of atheism, and greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought. However, due to the limitations of the era and historical background, his atheist thought inevitably had certain limitations, containing some immature views that require further discussion.

恽代英无神论思想阐述了关于无神论的理论观点，提出了对待宗教有神论的方式方法，有力揭开了宗教神秘主义的面纱，推动了无神论的传播与发展，极大丰富了马克思主义无神论思想。但由于时代环境和历史背景的限制，其无神论思想难免具有一定的局限性，存在一些未成熟、有待进一步商榷的观点。

(I) The Value of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

(一)恽代英无神论思想的价值

First, theoretically, it effectively lifted the veil of religious mysticism and deepened people’s theoretical understanding of religion. Because religion is shrouded in a strong mystical color and possesses powerful penetrative power and allure, it can easily cause some people to become excessively immersed in it, placing all their hopes on religious belief to obtain spiritual comfort or supernatural power. Especially in modern China, when the nation was weak, the country was broken, society was in turmoil, and people’s livelihoods were distressed, various forms of religious theism proliferated even more wantonly. Many religions frantically spread their ideas by labeling themselves as “science,” “stirring up a trend in the ideological circles of beautifying religion and reviving religion.” [49]49 Reference to the trend of religious revival and beautification in Chinese intellectual circles during the Republican period. Some cult organizations used religion as a gimmick to vigorously propagate the theory of the immortality of the soul and the existence of ghosts and gods, secretly organizing illegal religious activities. In addition, many people dissatisfied with social reality used religious theology to numb themselves, causing the religious believer population to grow increasingly large and its composition to become increasingly complex. Yun Daiying not only published incisive insights on issues such as the essence, causes, functions, and disappearance of religion, directly exposing the hypocritical face of religious theology and revealing the complex process of the formation, development, and evolution of religious theology and its social roots, but also, using Marxist atheism as an ideological fulcrum, fundamentally negated the existence of God and spirits, greatly deepening people’s understanding of religion, effectively striking at the arrogance of stubborn religious forces, and providing an important theoretical reference for breaking religious狂热 and resolving religious issues.

首先，在理论上有力揭开了宗教神秘主义的面纱，深化了人们对宗教的理论认知。宗教由于笼罩着浓重的神秘色彩，具有强大的渗透力和诱惑力，因而容易让有的人过度沉迷其中，一味寄希望于信教来获得心灵的慰藉或超自然的力量。尤其是近代中国国势衰弱，山河破碎，社会动荡，民生困顿，各种宗教有神论更加肆意泛起。很多宗教通过标榜“科学”疯狂传播其理念，“在思想界掀起了美化宗教、复兴宗教的热潮”49。一些邪教组织以宗教为噱头，大肆传播灵魂不灭论和鬼神存在说，秘密组织非法宗教活动。加之诸多对社会现实不满的人，借宗教神学麻痹自我，使信教群体日渐庞大、组成成分日益复杂。恽代英不仅就宗教本质、起因、作用、消亡等问题发表精辟的见解，直接揭露宗教神学虚伪的面孔，揭示了宗教神学形成、发展、演化的复杂过程及其社会根源，而且以马克思主义无神论为思想支点从根本上否定了上帝、神灵的存在，极大加深了人们对宗教的认识，有力打击了顽固宗教势力的嚣张气焰，为破除宗教狂热、化解宗教问题提供重要的理论参照。

Second, practically, it effectively promoted the spread of scientific truth and curbed the breeding and spread of theism. As an atheist, Yun Daiying repeatedly emphasized that ghosts and gods were subjective fabrications of humans. He opposed ghost and god culture and the practice of witchcraft, constantly refuting the absurd argument that “there are gods three feet above your head,” severely criticizing feudal ghost and god culture and the concept of deity worship, and profoundly revealing their true nature of imprisoning thought and distorting concepts. He said: “When I look at past history, I would rather believe there is no god.” [50]50 Yun Daiying, “Atheism,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 5. On the one hand, Yun Daiying vigorously promoted natural science knowledge such as cell theory, biological evolution, and the law of universal gravitation, introduced the working principles and advanced features of machines such as elevators and steam engines, guiding people to spread scientific knowledge, practice scientific concepts, and establish atheist ideas; on the other hand, by proposing methods for dealing with religious theism, such as guiding religion to adapt to social development, carrying out atheist propaganda and education, and breaking free from the shackles of feudal superstitious thought, he called on people to actively struggle against the concepts of ghosts and gods and superstitious phenomena, constantly breaking the spiritual shackles of theism. His series of ideological viewpoints analyzing feudal superstition can be described as penetrating and incisive, profoundly analyzing the illusory nature and harmfulness of feudal superstition, effectively stripping away the false veil covering theism, allowing people to see the ugly face of theism poisoning the people and deceiving the public, thereby playing an important role in guiding social trends, popularizing scientific truth, and breaking feudal superstitious thought, pointing out the practical direction and providing practical guidance for curbing the breeding and spread of theism.

其次，在实践上有效推动了科学真理的传播，遏制了有神论的滋生蔓延。作为一名无神论者，恽代英多次强调鬼神是人主观杜撰出来的。他反对鬼神文化和巫觋之风，不断驳斥“举头三尺有神明”的荒诞论调，严厉批判封建鬼神文化、神灵膜拜理念，深刻揭示其禁锢思想、扭曲观念的本来面目。他说：“吾观于已往之历史，则宁以为无神。”50恽代英一方面大力宣传细胞学说、生物进化论、万有引力定律等自然科学知识，介绍升降机、蒸汽机等机器的工作原理及先进之处，引导人们传播科学知识，践行科学理念，树立无神观念；另一方面通过提出引导宗教与社会发展相适应、开展无神论宣传教育、冲破封建迷信思想的束缚等对待宗教有神论的方式方法，号召人们积极和鬼神观念、迷信现象做斗争，不断打破有神论的精神枷锁。他的系列解析封建迷信的思想观点可谓之精辟入里、入木三分，深刻剖析了封建迷信的虚幻性与危害性，有力剥离了掩盖在有神论上的虚假面纱，让人们看清有神论荼毒人民、蛊惑人心的丑恶嘴脸，进而起到了引领社会思潮、普及科学真理、破除封建迷信思想的重要作用，为遏制有神论滋生蔓延指明实践方向、提供实践遵循。

Third, ideologically, it promoted the development of atheism and enriched Marxist atheist theory. After the May Fourth Movement, various social trends such as socialism,新村主义 [n], and liberalism came thick and fast, spreading widely among the Chinese intelligentsia. Yun Daiying chose to believe in socialism and firmly supported and believed in Marxist atheism. In 1920, in his “On Socialism,” he pointed out: “The future of the world… should belong to a socialism of coexistence and mutual aid.” [51]51 Yun Daiying, “On Socialism,” in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 5 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 287. Yun Daiying not only actively propagated the ideological viewpoints of Marxist atheism, accelerating the dissemination and popularization of Marxist atheism, but also continuously studied the ideological essence of Marxist atheism, actively applied Marxist atheism to explain issues related to Chinese religious theology and feudal superstition, and formed an atheist thought with distinctive characteristics and clear themes based on the national conditions. By analyzing the basic issues of religion, explaining the concept of freedom of religious belief, clarifying the difference between religious belief and scientific belief, and evaluating the relationship between theism and scientific development, he effectively promoted the development of atheism, effectively promoted the Sinicization of Marxist atheism, greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought, and significantly enhanced the influence of Marxist atheist theory at the time.

再次，在思想上促进了无神论的发展，丰富了马克思主义无神论学说。五四运动以后，社会主义、新村主义、自由主义等各种社会思潮纷至沓来，在中国知识界广为流传。恽代英选择信仰社会主义，坚定支持和信仰马克思主义无神论。1920年，他在《论社会主义》中指出：“世界的未来……应归于共存互助的社会主义。”51恽代英不仅积极宣介马克思主义无神论的思想观点，加快推动马克思主义无神论的传播普及，而且不断学习马克思主义无神论的思想精华，积极运用马克思主义无神论来阐释中国的宗教神学和封建迷信的相关问题，在立足国情的基础上形成特色鲜明、主旨明晰的无神论思想。通过分析宗教的基本问题、阐释宗教信仰自由的理念、厘清宗教信仰和科学信仰的区别、评析有神论和科学发展的关系，有力促进了无神论的发展，有效推动了马克思主义无神论的中国化，极大丰富了马克思主义无神论思想，显著提升了马克思主义无神论学说在当时的影响力。

(II) The Limitations of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought

(二)恽代英无神论思想的局限

First, the developmental process of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought lacked theoretical consistency and coherence.

第一，恽代英无神论思想的发展过程缺乏理论的一致性和融通性。

Modern China suffered the trampling of the iron heel of the Western powers and faced the danger of national subjugation and racial extinction. In their search for a path to national salvation, advanced intellectuals introduced various Western doctrines one after another, and the ideological realm was for a time a mix of the good and the bad. To a certain extent, he was negatively influenced by empiricism, positivism, Kantian idealism, and other currents of thought; he did not fully absorb and digest Marxist atheism, and his understanding of atheism lacked consistency and coherence, resulting in his atheist views being inconsistent or even self-contradictory. On the one hand, he declared that he advocated and believed in atheism; on the other hand, he also stated, “As for the existence of gods and heaven, it is certainly not something that shallow-minded people dare to speak of rashly.” [52]52 Yun Daiying, “On the Existence of Gods and Heaven” (论鬼神之有无), in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying* (恽代英全集), vol. 1 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 3. It is not difficult to see that he may have harbored subjective illusions about theism, leaving room for maneuver in his critiques, and his defense of atheism still needed strengthening. This led to his atheist views not only being evasive and containing sophistry, but also mixing in idealist elements such as “Heaven” (天) and “the Way” (道). As he said: “Only those who understand principle know that the world has gods; only those who understand principle know that the world has no gods.” [53]53 Yun Daiying, “On the Existence of Gods and Heaven,” p. 3. “The Way is the Way, and gods are gods; if gods accord with the Way, I believe in the Way and I also believe in gods. If gods depart from the Way, I believe in the Way and I do not believe in gods.” [54]54 Yun Daiying, “On the Existence of Gods and Heaven,” p. 3. This reflects from the side that when understanding the issue of atheism, Yun Daiying was never able to completely break free from the influence of traditional thought such as Daoism and Confucianism. Although he strove to use Marxist atheism to explain theistic religious issues, at times he still found it difficult to leap out of the preset framework of traditional thought such as Daoism and Confucianism, and even more difficult to integrate traditional thought with Marxist atheism to analyze theistic religious issues, resulting in flaws and contradictions in his atheist thought.

近代中国饱受西方列强的铁蹄践踏，面临亡国灭种的危险，先进知识分子为寻求救国之路，纷纷引介各种西方学说，思想领域一时泥沙俱下。他在一定程度上受到经验主义、实证主义、康德唯心主义等思想的消极影响，对马克思主义无神论没有完全吸收消化，对无神论的认识缺乏一致性、融通性，致使其无神论观点前后不一甚至自相矛盾。一方面，他声言自己主张和信仰无神论，另一方面，又表示“夫天神之有无，固非浅识者之所敢妄言”52。不难看出他对有神论或许存有主观幻想，批判时留有回旋的余地，对无神论的捍卫还有待加强，导致其无神论观点不仅闪烁其词，存在诡辩的情况，还混入了“天”“道”等唯心元素。如他所说：“惟烛理之人，知天下为有神，亦惟烛理之人，知天下为无神。”53“夫道自道，神之自神也，神而合于道，吾信道吾亦信神。神而离于道，吾信道吾不信神。”54从侧面反映出恽代英在认识无神论问题时始终无法完全脱离道家、儒家等传统思想的影响，虽极力用马克思主义无神论来阐释宗教有神论议题，但有的时候还是难以跳出道家、儒家等传统思想的预设框架，更难以很好地将传统思想与马克思主义无神论融合贯通起来分析宗教有神论问题，导致其无神论思想存有纰漏和矛盾之处。

Second, Yun Daiying’s view of the Christian issue was insufficiently rational and dialectical.

第二，恽代英看待基督教问题不够理性和辩证。

Yun Daiying engaged in metaphysical judgments of Western religion, especially Christianity, lacking a comprehensive and fair understanding, which caused his atheist ideological system to be not yet pure and mature enough. Although in the colonial expansion of the great powers, “religion often served as a tool of ‘cultural aggression,’” [55]55 Zhou Wei, “The Historical Evolution, Realistic Logic, and Practical Path of the Sinicization of Marxist Atheism,” *Studies in Atheism* (无神论研究), no. 1 (2023), p. 53. playing a highly inglorious role in serving capitalist colonial expansion, this does not mean that Christianity and its believers should be completely negated or even hated. He repeatedly emphasized that Christianity was a tool used by imperialism to invade China and soften the Chinese people, that Christianity and the great powers were birds of a feather flocking together and colluding in evil, that Christians relied on foreigners to gain promotion and wealth, and that foreigners relied on Christians to seize China’s rights. In December 1923, in his article “Why Do We Oppose Christianity?” he stated bluntly: “One more Christian means one more foreign lackey.” [56]56 Yun Daiying, “Why Do We Oppose Christianity?” (我们为甚么反对基督教?), in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 5 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 169. In May 1926, in a speech at Lingnan University, he pointed out: “Christians have prayed for over two thousand years, and we have not seen the world prayed into good shape; on the contrary, they have prayed up so many imperialists and warlords.” [57]57 Yun Daiying, “Speech at Lingnan University” (在岭南大学的演讲), in *Collected Works of Yun Daiying*, vol. 8 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 69. Admittedly, his understanding of Christianity was a critique based on objective reality and had a certain factual basis, but it is undeniable that it also contained emotional, absolutized radical evaluations triggered by the grief and indignation of nationalism. To a certain extent, he demonized Christianity, magnified its dark side, and even indiscriminately lumped Chinese people who believed in Christianity into the enemy camp, one-sidedly shifting the contradiction between the Chinese nation and imperialism onto Christianity and even Christians. It can be seen that he understood the issue of Christianity more within the context of revolution, even attributing the reason for opposing Christianity to its lack of revolutionary character, and thus its inability to save China from its predicament at the time. All of this was biased.

恽代英对西方宗教特别是基督教存在形而上的评判，缺乏全面公正的认识，致使其无神论思想体系还不够纯粹和成熟。虽然在列强殖民扩张中，“宗教往往充当‘文化侵略’的工具”55,扮演极不光彩的为资本殖民扩张服务的角色，但并不意味要全盘否定甚至仇视基督教及其教徒。他反复强调基督教是帝国主义侵略中国、软化国人的工具，基督教和列强蛇鼠一窝、狼狈为奸，基督教徒靠外国人升官发财，外国人靠基督教徒夺取中国的权利。1923年12月，他在《我们为甚么反对基督教?》中直言：“多一个基督教徒，便是多一个洋奴。”561926年5月，他在岭南大学演讲时指出：“基督教徒祷告了两千多年，不看见将世界祷告好了；反祷告出这多帝国主义、军阀出来。”57诚然，他对基督教的认识是基于客观现实情况的批判，具有一定的事实根据，但也不可否认带有民族主义悲愤情感所引发的情绪化、绝对化的激进评价。在一定程度上将基督教恶魔化了，放大了基督教的阴暗面，甚至把信基督教的国人也不加区分而归入敌人行列，片面地将中华民族与帝国主义的矛盾转移到了针对基督教乃至基督教徒。可见，他更多的是在革命语境下来认识基督教问题，甚至把反对基督教的原因归结为它没有革命性，因而无法挽救当时中国的困局。这都是失之偏颇的。

IV. Conclusion

四、结语

Yun Daiying was a famous early revolutionary leader of the Communist Party of China and also a pioneer in the development of atheism in modern China. He systematically expounded highly innovative atheist views, provided a theoretical reference for the development of atheism, pointed out the practical direction for breaking superstition and disenchanting religion, effectively promoted the deepening and expansion of atheism in China, powerfully advanced the Sinicization of Marxist atheist thought, and greatly enriched and developed Marxist atheist doctrine. Engels pointed out: “The theoretical thought of each age … is a historical product.” [58]58 Engels, “Dialectics of Nature,” in *Collected Works of Marx and Engels*, vol. 26 (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), p. 499. Constrained by many factors such as the era and history, Yun Daiying’s atheist thought could hardly be perfect, and it contained some flaws and shortcomings. However, people today cannot examine and demand perfection of him from today’s perspective; his atheist thought already contained many insights that transcended his time and remain inspiring today. A deep understanding of the developmental thread and main connotations of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought, and an accurate assessment of its value and limitations, will not only benefit the research and development of Marxist atheist thought today but also provide certain references for handling religious issues and breaking superstition.

恽代英是中国共产党著名的早期革命领袖，也是近代中国发展无神论的先锋。他系统阐述了颇有创新性的无神论观点，提供了发展无神论的理论参照，指明了迷信破除、宗教祛魅的实践方向，有效推动了中国无神论的深化拓展，有力推进了马克思主义无神论思想的中国化，大大丰富和发展了马克思主义无神论学说。恩格斯指出：“每一个时代的理论思维……都是一种历史的产物。”58囿于时代、历史等多方面原因，恽代英无神论思想难以尽善尽美，存在一些瑕疵和缺憾。但今人不能站在今天的视角审视与苛求他，其无神论思想已蕴涵了诸多超越那个时代且对今天仍有启发的真知灼见。深入理解恽代英无神论思想的发展脉络、主要内涵，准确研判其价值及局限，不仅有利于今日马克思主义无神论思想的研究和发展，而且能为宗教问题的处理、迷信的破除提供一定的参考。

(Author’s bio: Zhou Wei, doctoral student at the School of Marxism, Northwestern Polytechnical University)

（作者简介：周伟，西北工业大学马克思主义学院博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心