An Analysis of the Chinese Communist Party’s Policies and Guidelines on Religious Work during the War of Liberation

Religious work is an important task concerning the mass base of the Chinese Communist Party. During the War of Liberation, the various liberated areas faced a complex situation where multiple religions coexisted and multiple religious forces were intertwined. Lenin pointed out: “For the party of the socialist proletariat, religion is not a private matter.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. During the War of Liberation, under the guidance of Marxism, the Chinese Communist Party formulated a series of practical religious policies, carried out effective religious work, both implemented the policy of freedom of religious belief, advanced the democratic reform of religion, and united the vast majority of religious figures and believers, thereby consolidating consensus and strengthening strength for the establishment of New China. An in-depth study of the Chinese Communist Party’s guidelines and policies for handling religious issues during the War of Liberation holds important theoretical and practical significance for enriching and developing the Party’s religious work theory in the New Era.

宗教工作是关乎中国共产党群众基础的重要工作。解放战争时期，各解放区面临多种宗教共存、多股宗教势力交织的复杂形势。列宁指出:“对于社会主义无产阶级的政党，宗教并不是私人的事情。”解放战争时期，中国共产党在马克思主义的指导下，制定了一系列符合实际的宗教政策，开展了富有成效的宗教工作，既贯彻落实了宗教信仰自由政策，推进了宗教的民主改革，又团结了广大宗教界人士和信教群众，为建立新中国凝聚了共识、增强了力量。深入研究解放战争时期中国共产党处理宗教问题的方针、政策，对于丰富和发展新时代党的宗教工作理论有着重要的理论和现实意义。

I. Actively Forming a People’s Democratic United Front with Religious Circles

一、积极同宗教界结成人民民主统一战线

Religious figures and believers were an important force in the people’s democratic united front led by the Chinese Communist Party to accomplish the revolutionary tasks of opposing imperialism and feudalism. By broadly uniting religious figures and believers, the Chinese Communist Party actively established a united front with religious figures and believers, continuously guided religious circles to coordinate with the revolutionary cause, and powerfully strengthened the forces for establishing New China.

宗教界人士和信教群众是中国共产党领导建立人民民主统一战线、完成反帝反封建革命任务的重要力量。中国共产党通过广泛团结宗教界人士和信教群众，积极同宗教界人士和信教群众建立统一战线，不断引导宗教界和革命事业相协调，有力地壮大了建立新中国的力量。

(A) Condemning the Kuomintang Authorities’ Suppression of Religious Figures and Believers

(一)谴责国民党当局打压宗教界人士和信教群众的行为

After the end of the War of Resistance Against Japan, China’s people’s livelihood was in ruins, the economy was depressed, and society was riddled with problems. The reactionary Kuomintang clique, in order to maintain its autocratic rule, disregarded the needs of the people’s livelihood and used bloody and violent methods to suppress social organizations, including religious groups, in an attempt to delay its “downfall.” Some religious figures and believers were oppressed by the reactionary Kuomintang clique, living in dire straits.

抗日战争结束以后，中国民生凋敝、经济萧条、社会千疮百孔，而国民党反动派为维护其专制统治，不顾民生需求，采取血腥暴力的方式大肆打压包括宗教团体在内的社会组织，企图达到延缓“倒台”的目的。部分宗教界人士和信教群众备受国民党反动派的压迫，生活水深火热。

Facing the reactionary Kuomintang clique’s suppression of religious circles, the Chinese Communist Party did not stand idly by. Instead, it promptly responded to the calls from religious circles, actively fought to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of religious circles, and continuously criticized and condemned the Kuomintang through newspapers and public statements. In March 1948, the security regiment of Xintang Town, Liangcheng County, Suiyuan, extorted and robbed local religious figures and believers under the pretext of “checking for the Eighth Route Army.” “Believer Xu Shijiu and others committed suicide because they could not hand over grain,” “the church was used as a meeting room for the bandit army,” “the nuns had been driven away by the bandit army to Jining, leaving only over twenty dying, lonely, old, weak, and sick.” In November of the same year, the Chinese Communist Party published a detailed report on this incident in the *People’s Daily*, disclosing and condemning the shameless acts of the Kuomintang army in looting religious figures and believers.

面对国民党反动派对宗教界的打压，中国共产党没有袖手旁观，而是及时回应宗教界呼声，积极为维护宗教界的合法权益而斗争，不断通过新闻报纸、公开发表言论对国民党进行批判谴责。1948年3月，绥远凉城县新堂镇保安团以“清查八路”的名义勒索抢劫当地的宗教界人士和信教群众，“教民许世久等因缴不出粮食而自杀”，“礼拜堂作了匪军会议室”，“修女已被匪军赶往集宁，现仅余二十多个奄奄一息的孤寡老弱”。同年11月，中国共产党在《人民日报》上对此事件进行了详细报道，披露和谴责国民党军队抢掠宗教界人士和信教群众的无耻行为。

It must be pointed out that during this process, the Chinese Communist Party did not blindly adopt a “one-size-fits-all” “supportive attitude” towards all religious groups. Instead, it implemented precise policies based on the actual situation. For religious forces that colluded with the reactionary Kuomintang clique, imperialism, and feudalism, it adopted a strategy of direct attack; for religious groups that consistently stood with the people and maintained close cooperation with the Chinese Communist Party, it adopted a strategy of active guidance and broad unity; for religious figures and believers who adopted a wait-and-see attitude, it adopted a strategy of policy guidance and propaganda education. This work not only enabled religious figures and believers to recognize the true nature of the reactionary Kuomintang clique but also continuously enhanced the feelings of religious figures and believers towards the Chinese Communist Party, creating favorable conditions for the Chinese Communist Party to form a people’s democratic united front with religious circles.

需要指出的是，在这个过程中中国共产党并没有对所有宗教团体盲目采取“一刀切”式的“支持态度”，而是结合实际情况精准施策。对于与国民党反动派、帝国主义、封建主义相勾结的宗教势力，采取直接打击的策略;对于始终站在人民立场上、与中国共产党保持紧密合作的宗教团体，采取积极引导、广泛团结的策略;对于持观望态度的宗教界人士和信教群众，则采取政策引导和宣传教育的策略。这些工作不仅使宗教界人士和信教群众认清了国民党反动派的本质，而且不断增进宗教界人士和信教群众对中国共产党的感情，为中国共产党同宗教界结成人民民主统一战线创造了良好的条件。

(B) Allowing Religious Figures and Believers to Join Trade Unions and Peasant Associations

(二)允许宗教界人士和信教群众加入工会和农会

Religious figures and believers were an important force for the Chinese Communist Party in forming trade unions and peasant associations. However, due to inaccurate understanding of religion and lack of experience in dealing with religious issues, some localities expelled religious figures and believers from trade unions and peasant associations. For example, in Wangzhuang, Feixiang County, Handan, Hebei, Wang Qingdeng and others were “expelled from the peasant association because they believed in Catholicism. Two similar worker families were also expelled.” The Chinese Communist Party criticized this situation, emphasizing that “having believed in Catholicism in the past cannot be a condition for expulsion from the peasant association… They should be guided through education to raise their consciousness and gradually free them from superstition and ignorance, rather than using coercive orders to stop them from participating in mass activities.”

宗教界人士和信教群众是中国共产党组建工会和农会的重要力量。但由于对宗教的认识不准确、对待宗教问题的经验不足，有的地方出现了把宗教界人士和信教群众开除出工会、农会的现象。如河北邯郸肥乡王庄王清登等人因为“信天主教被开除出农会。类似的工属有两户也都开除了”。中国共产党对这种情况进行了批评，强调“过去信过天主教，不能做为开除出农会的条件……应以启发教育的方式提高他们的觉悟、逐步地把他们从迷信与无知中解脱出来，而不是强迫命令地停止他们参加群众活动”。

At the same time, the Chinese Communist Party continuously issued documents and policies allowing religious figures and believers to join trade unions and peasant associations, and promoted the implementation and enforcement of these policies in specific work. In August 1948, Article 4, Chapter 2 of the *Constitution of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions* adopted by the Sixth National Labor Congress stipulated: “All manual and mental workers working in various enterprises, organs, and schools… who have legally obtained worker status, regardless of ethnicity, gender, religion, or belief, who endorse this Constitution and voluntarily join, may become members of the various trade unions affiliated with this Federation.” In 1949, in response to the issue of teachers and doctors participating in trade unions, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions emphasized: “Regardless of ethnicity, gender, religion, or belief, as long as they endorse the purpose of the trade union, are willing to abide by the discipline and resolutions of the trade union, and fulfill the membership procedures according to the trade union’s constitution, they can be admitted as trade union members.” The right of religious figures and believers to join organizations such as trade unions and peasant associations was clearly guaranteed.

同时，中国共产党不断出台允许宗教界人士和信教群众加入工会和农会的文件政策，并在具体工作中推动这些政策的落地和实施。1948年8月，第六次全国劳动大会通过的《中华全国总工会章程》第2章第4条规定:“凡在各种企业各机关学校中工作……并依法取得职工成份之体力劳动者与脑力劳动者，不分民族、性别、宗教、信仰，赞成本会章程自愿入会者，均得加入本会所属之各种工会为会员。”1949年，中华全国总工会在回应关于教师医生参与职工会问题时强调:“不分民族、性别、宗教、信仰，只要赞成职工会的宗旨，愿意遵守职工会的纪律和决议，并依照职工会的章程履行入会手续者，均可吸收为职工会会员。”宗教界人士和信教群众加入工会、农会等组织的权利得到了明确的保障。

Absorbing religious figures and believers into organizations such as trade unions and peasant associations could both effectively strengthen the power of mass organizations and effectively narrow the distance between the Party and religious circles, deepen the understanding and comprehension of the Party’s religious policies among religious figures and believers, and lay an important political foundation for the Party to form a united front with religious circles.

吸纳宗教界人士和信教群众参加工会、农会等组织，既能有力地增强群众组织的力量，也可以有效拉近党和宗教界的距离，加深宗教界人士和信教群众对党的宗教政策的认识和理解，为党同宗教界结成统一战线奠定重要的政治基础。

(C) Guaranteeing the Right to Vote and Stand for Election for Religious Figures and Believers

(三)保障宗教界人士和信教群众的选举权和被选举权

In the view of the Chinese Communist Party, although religious figures and believers were diverse in composition and complex in structure, the patriotic and pro-democracy elements were still in the majority, and their right to vote and stand for election should be fully guaranteed. The Chinese Communist Party took this into account during the policy formulation process. On February 1, 1947, Mao Zedong pointed out in the article “Welcome the New High Tide of the Chinese Revolution”: Except for traitors and reactionary elements, “all citizens, regardless of class, gender, or belief, have the right to vote and stand for election.” In April 1947, Article 7 of the *Program of Government of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government* emphasized: “All Mongolian people over the age of eighteen, regardless of class, gender, ethnicity, belief, or educational level, except those deprived of civil rights and the mentally ill, have the right to vote and stand for election.” In early 1949, when electing representatives for the First National Women’s Congress, it was stated: “Women over the age of eighteen who support the New Democracy, endorse national independence and land reform, advocate women’s liberation and equality between men and women, regardless of class, ethnicity, occupation, seniority, or religion, may be elected as representatives.” The right to vote and stand for election for religious figures and believers was established through government laws, decrees, programmatic documents, and directives.

在中国共产党看来，宗教界人士和信教群众虽然成分不一、构成复杂，但爱国的、拥护民主的还是占多数，这些人的选举权和被选举权应得到充分的保障。在政策制定的过程中，中国共产党考虑到了这一点。1947年2月1日，毛泽东在《迎接中国革命的新高潮》一文中指出:除汉奸分子和反动分子外，“一切公民不分阶级、男女、信仰，都有选举权和被选举权”。1947年4月，《内蒙古自治政府施政纲领》第7条强调:“凡属蒙古人民年在十八岁以上，不分阶级、性别、民族、信仰、文化程度，除褫夺公民权及精神病者外，均有选举权与被选举权。”1949年初，全国第一次妇女代表大会选举代表时指出:“拥护新民主主义，赞成民族独立和土地改革，主张妇女解放，男女平等的，年在十八岁以上的妇女，不分阶级、民族、职业、资历、宗教，均得当选为代表。”宗教界人士和信教群众的选举权与被选举权通过政府法律法令、纲领指示等形式确立下来。

In practical work, these policies were implemented. Whether it was general meetings like the Youth Congress and Women’s Congress, or important conferences like the New Political Consultative Conference, religious figures and believers participated. The First Women’s Congress, convened on March 24, 1949, included “representatives from democratic women’s groups and religious women’s groups from Kunming, Chongqing, Guilin, Nanjing, Chengdu, and other places, totaling sixty-three.” Among the over 600 representatives at the First Youth Congress convened on May 4, 1949, were patriotic youth from various religious groups nationwide. The Preparatory Committee of the New Political Consultative Conference, convened on June 19, 1949, selected 510 representatives to participate in the New Political Consultative Conference, including “seven democratic personages from religious circles.” Allowing religious figures and believers to participate in discussions and offer suggestions could not only mobilize the initiative of religious circles in participating in and discussing politics, fully utilize the wisdom of religious circles, and improve the effectiveness and pertinence of policy formulation, but also strengthen the connection between the Party and religious circles, promoting the development of the Party’s united front with religious circles.

在实际工作中，这些政策得到了贯彻执行，不论是青年代表大会、妇女代表大会等一般性的会议，还是新政治协商会议等重要大会，均有宗教界人士和信教群众参加。在1949年3月24日召开的第一次妇女代表大会有来自“昆明、重庆、桂林、南京、成都等处的民主妇女团体及宗教性的妇女团体代表，共六十三名”。在1949年5月4日召开的第一次青年代表大会的600余名代表中包括了各地宗教团体的爱国青年。在1949年6月19日召开的新政治协商会议筹备会选出参加新政治协商会议的代表510名，其中包括“宗教界民主人士七人”。允许宗教界人士和信教群众参会讨论、建言献策，不仅可以调动宗教界参政议政的主动性，充分运用宗教界的智慧，提高政策制定的有效性和针对性，而且能够加强党和宗教界的联系，推动党同宗教界统一战线的发展。

(D) Uniting Religious Figures and Believers to Resist the Reactionary Kuomintang Clique

(四)团结宗教界人士和信教群众反抗国民党反动派

The Chinese Communist Party held that, although religious belief differs from communism and Marxism in terms of worldview, the important role of religious groups in the revolutionary cause could not be ignored or negated on this account. Fu Lianzhang, then Vice Minister of Health of the Military Commission of the People’s Liberation Army, pointed out that in the common action against imperialism, feudalism and bureaucratic capitalism, “Communists, regardless of religious belief, sincerely cooperate with all non-Party personages.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. The Chinese Communist Party actively united religious figures and believers, continuously guiding them to join the united front that overthrew feudal rule and established a new China.

中国共产党认为，虽然宗教信仰在世界观上与共产主义、马克思主义不同，但不能就此忽视和否定宗教团体对革命事业的重要作用。时任解放军军委卫生部副部长的傅连暲就指出，在反帝反封建反官僚的共同行动上，“共产党人则不分宗教信仰诚恳地与一切党外人士合作”。中国共产党积极团结宗教界人士和信教群众，不断引导他们加入推翻封建统治、建立新中国的统一战线中。

First, uniting religious figures and believers to jointly issue the call for a cessation of the civil war. As military friction intensified, the verbal struggle between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party also grew increasingly fierce. On April 16, 1946, Zhang Xueyan of the Christian church, in an article titled “On the Mutual Recriminations of the Two Parties,” pointed out: “The Communist Party’s official newspaper… refutes Chairman Chiang’s methods by strenuously enumerating concrete evidence and using Chairman Chiang’s own statements as basic examples, with the aim of convincing people through ‘reason.’ The methods used by the Kuomintang’s official newspaper are precisely the opposite; it does not refute the facts enumerated by the Liberation Daily, but merely uses angry emotions to curse the Communist Party.” [2]2 “Instructions on the Policy towards Foreigners in China,” Central Committee of the CPC, 1948. [Internal Party directive.] In August 1946, patriotic figures such as the Christian Diao Xinde, when expressing their opposition to the civil war, appealed: “Immediately stop the civil war and conduct peaceful negotiations; also restore communications, reorganize the military, convene a National Assembly, draft a constitution, implement popular elections, and reorganize the government.” With the support of religious figures and believers, the Chinese Communist Party’s capacity to wage an offensive in public opinion against the enemy was greatly strengthened.

其一，团结宗教界人士和信教群众共同提出停止内战的号召。随着军事摩擦的不断加剧，国共两党在言论上的斗争也日趋激烈。1946年4月16日，基督教会张雪岩在文章《论两党对骂》中指出:“共产党机关报……驳斥蒋主席的方法，是竭力列举实证，并以蒋主席自家的言论作基本证例，目的是在以‘理’服人，国民党的机关报所用的反驳方法，就恰恰相反，对解放日报所列举的事实没有驳辩，只是用愤怒的情感责骂共产党。”1946年8月，基督教刁信德等爱国人士在发表反对内战的意见时呼吁:“立即停止内战，进行和平协商;并恢复交通，整编军队，召开国民大会，制定宪法，实行民选，改组政府。”在宗教界人士和信教群众的支持下，中国共产党开展对敌舆论攻势的力量大大增强。

Second, calling on religious figures and believers to resist the retrogressive actions of the Kuomintang reactionaries. On February 7, 1947, the Chinese Communist Party called for: “We hope that workers’ organizations of all political beliefs and religious sects will quickly and closely unite for the independent liberation of the motherland and for the common interests of the working class.” [3]3 “Statement on the Treatment of Missionary Personnel,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [The official newspaper of the CPC Central Committee.] Through the Chinese Communist Party’s efforts at unity, an increasing number of religious figures and believers participated in the War of Liberation by forming armed groups, enlisting in the army, transporting grain and ammunition, and carrying the wounded. In 1947, in Dongtai, Jiangsu, the Christian Zhong Yantang not only vigorously refuted the Kuomintang’s rumors that the Chinese Communist Party persecuted Christians, thereby breaking the reactionaries’ scheme to sabotage the relationship between the democratic government and Christianity, but also captured several members of the “Home-Returning Corps” [4]4 “Puppet army commander” (伪军队长) refers to a commander of military forces raised by the Japanese puppet regime during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). near Kuomintang military strongholds and, together with the armed work team, burned down enemy pillboxes. The participation of religious figures and believers accelerated the development of the Chinese Communist Party’s military forces and promoted the consolidation of the united front against dictatorship and autocracy.

其二，号召宗教界人士和信教群众反抗国民党反动派的倒行逆施。1947年2月7日，中国共产党号召:“我们希望所有各种政治信仰及宗教帮派的工人组织，为着祖国的独立解放，为着工人阶级的共同利益，迅速和亲密地联合起来。”在中国共产党的联合下，越来越多的宗教界人士和信教群众以成立武装团体、参军入伍、运输军粮弹药、运送伤员等方式参加到解放战争中。1947年，江苏东台基督教仲延堂不仅极力驳斥国民党关于中国共产党残害基督教众的谣言，打破反动派妄想破坏民主政府与基督教关系的离间计，而且在国民党军据点附近擒获“还乡团”成员数名，和武工队一起烧毁敌方的碉堡。宗教界人士和信教群众的加入，加快了中国共产党军事武装的发展，推动着反独裁反专制统一战线的巩固。

The Chinese Communist Party’s political propositions and appeals for establishing a people’s democratic united front not only gained widespread recognition and enthusiastic support from religious figures and believers, enhancing their goodwill towards and identification with the Party, and raising the Party’s political prestige and appeal within religious circles, but also effectively guided religious figures and believers to actively adapt to the Chinese revolutionary cause, continuously strengthening the revolutionary forces and advancing the process of revolutionary victory.

中国共产党建立人民民主统一战线的政治主张和呼吁，不仅得到了宗教界人士和信教群众的普遍认可和热情拥护，增强了宗教界人士和信教群众对党的好感与认同，提升了党在宗教界的政治威信和号召力，而且有效引导了宗教界人士和信教群众主动同中国革命事业相适应，不断充实了革命的力量，推动了革命胜利的进程。

II. Gradually Deepening the Democratic Reform of the Old Religious System

二、逐步深化对旧宗教制度的民主改革

Within the framework of the old religious system, there existed a relatively strict and rigid hierarchical structure within religious circles. Religious chieftains represented the will of the “gods,” possessed supreme authority, and could intervene in and decide the appointment and removal of clergy, the conduct of religious activities, and the production and daily life of believers. The feudal privileged stratum within religion held the vast majority of power to control the distribution of religious property, the use of temple donations, and the formulation of monastic rules and religious precepts. The phenomenon of upper-level religious figures oppressing ordinary religious figures, and of religious clergy oppressing believers, existed to varying degrees. Under the constraints of the old system, some religious figures and believers lost their freedom of action and life. Marx pointed out: “The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness.” [5]5 “Northeast Supreme Court Sentences Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the trial.] The Chinese Communist Party strongly criticized the old religious system that artificially created disparities and inequality and restricted personal freedom. It held that the status of all religious figures and believers was completely equal, opposed actions that discriminated between religious figures and believers, and advocated gradually deepening the democratic reform of the old religious system, abolishing religious feudal privileges and religious oppression and exploitation, and fostering healthy and harmonious religious relations.

在旧宗教制度的框架里，宗教界内部存在着比较严苛森严的等级制度，宗教头目代表着“神”的意志，拥有至高无上的权威，能够干预和决定教职人员的任免、宗教活动的开展和信教群众的生产生活。宗教封建特权阶层掌握着支配和控制宗教财产分配、寺庙善款使用、寺戒寺律制定的绝大多数权力。上层宗教界人士压迫普通宗教界人士、宗教教职人员压迫信教群众的现象不同程度地存在。部分宗教界人士和信教群众在旧制度的约束下丧失了行动和生活的自由。马克思指出:“废除作为人民的虚幻幸福的宗教，就是要求人民的现实幸福。”中国共产党大力批判人为制造差距和不平等、限制人身自由的旧宗教制度，认为全体宗教界人士和信教群众的地位是完全平等的，反对区别对待宗教界人士和信教群众的行为，主张逐步深化对旧宗教制度的民主改革，废除宗教封建特权和宗教压迫剥削，营造健康和谐的宗教关系。

(1) Abolishing the System of Oppression and Exploitation in the Old Religion

(一)废除旧宗教的压迫剥削制度

In the old society, religious exploitation and religious oppression were widespread. Some believers suffered from the dual oppression of religious feudal forces and the religious feudal patriarchal system. Not only were their freedoms of thought, speech, and daily life restricted, and activities such as divorce, marriage, and childbirth dominated and interfered with by old religious forces, but they were also exploited materially, either being forced to participate without compensation in the construction of religious sites or being compelled to hand over part of their production to the religious feudal privileged stratum. Under the rule of the religious feudal system, many religious figures and believers suffered unfair treatment.

在旧社会中，宗教剥削和宗教压迫现象广泛存在。部分信教群众受到宗教封建势力、宗教封建家长制的双重压迫，不仅思想言论生活上的自由受到限制，离婚、结婚、生育等活动被旧宗教势力主宰和干涉，物质经济上也受到剥削，或被强迫无偿性地参与宗教场所的建设，或被强制上交部分的生产所得给宗教封建特权阶层。在宗教封建制度的统治下，很多宗教界人士和信教群众遭受着不公平待遇。

The Chinese Communist Party continuously advanced the abolition of the old system of religious oppression and exploitation, striving to help religious figures and believers break free from the oppression of religious feudal forces. In response to the severe oppression and exploitation suffered by some Muslim believers under the old “ahong” [6]6 “Central Hebei Public Security Organs Arrest Espionage Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the arrests and sentences.] and “shetou,” [7]7 “Luoyang Public Security Bureau Executes Missionary Leader Xu Hongyuan,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [Report on the execution.] the Chinese Communist Party specifically launched a series of liquidation campaigns to help Muslim masses break free from the religious feudal system. In December 1945, the democratic government of Changzhi, Shanxi, organized Muslim masses to carry out a liquidation campaign lasting over 20 days, targeting feudal exploitation and the rule of despotic landlords. “The liquidation was victorious; the Hui people [8]8 “On the Reactionary Nature of Sects and Cults,” *Liberation Daily*, 1948. [CPC newspaper published in Yan’an.] broke free from feudal oppression and exploitation. They democratically elected a property management committee to manage the public property of the mosque, abolishing the old ‘shetou’; as for the ‘ahong,’ it was decided that he could only manage matters within the mosque and could not rule over everything.” [9]9 “On the Struggle against Reactionary Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [CPC editorial.] In August 1946, the democratic government of Bo’ai, Henan, led Muslim masses to break the shackles of the old society and the old religious system, striving to become masters of their own affairs and achieve equality and freedom. These activities promoted the democratic reform of religion, advanced the abolition of religious feudal privileges and the religious exploitation system, and prevented the infringement of believers’ personal freedom and property.

中国共产党不断推进旧宗教压迫剥削制度的废除，着力帮助宗教界人士和信教群众摆脱宗教封建势力的压迫。针对部分伊斯兰教信众受旧“阿訇”“社头”的压迫剥削深重的现实情况，中国共产党特别开展了一系列帮助穆斯林群众摆脱宗教封建制度的清算运动。1945年12月，山西长治民主政府组织穆斯林群众开展为期20多天的以反对封建剥削和恶霸地主统治的清算运动。“清算胜利了，回民摆脱了封建的压迫与剥削，他们以民主方式选举了社产管理委员会来管理清真寺的公产，取消了旧‘社头’;对于‘阿訇’，大家决定他只能管教里的事，不能统治一切。”1946年8月，河南博爱民主政府带领穆斯林群众打破旧社会和旧宗教制度的枷锁，争取实现当家作主和平等自由。这些活动促进了宗教的民主改革，推动了宗教封建特权和宗教剥削制度的废除，避免了信教群众的人身自由和财产受到侵害。

(2) Reforming the Feudal Land Ownership System of the Old Religion

(二)改革旧宗教的封建土地所有制

In traditional society, religious organizations, by catering to and serving feudal rule, obtained permission from feudal dynasties and enjoyed the privilege of possessing land, collecting land rent, and exploiting tenant farmers. In modern times, Western churches, relying on the strong military power of the imperialist powers, acquired large tracts of land in China through donations from believers, occupation, and lease-purchase for building churches, schools, and charitable institutions, thereby possessing a large amount of private real estate. Under the oppression of the old religious feudal land ownership system, many religious figures and believers suffered severe exploitation and extortion.

在传统社会，宗教组织因迎合和效命于封建统治而得到了封建王朝的许可，享有占有土地、收取地租、剥削佃农的特权。在近代，西方教会凭借列强强大的军事实力，在中国以教徒捐献、占用租买等形式获得了大批建造教堂、学校、慈善机构的土地，拥有了大量私有的房产地产。在旧宗教封建土地所有制的压迫下，很多宗教界人士和信教群众遭受着严重的盘剥和压榨。

The Chinese Communist Party strove to promote the reform of the old religious feudal land ownership system, continuously adjusting the land ownership of religious groups, and handling the land occupied by religious sites such as monasteries, temples, and churches appropriately according to the opinions of the people and the churches. Article 23 of the “Draft Regulations of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region on the Requisition and Purchase of Land,” issued in December 1946, emphasized: “The land occupied by religious groups and temples shall be decided by local public opinion as to whether it is to be requisitioned and purchased or not.” [10]10 “Order on Banning the Activities of Sects and Cults,” North China People’s Government, January 1949. [Administrative decree of the provisional government in the liberated areas of North China.] Article 3 of the “Outline Land Law of China,” issued in October 1947, stipulated: “Abolish the land ownership of all ancestral halls, temples, monasteries, schools, institutions, and organizations.” [11]11 “Wutai Mountain Puji Buddhist Association Uncovered in Laizhuo County,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [News report on the suppression of a sectarian group.] The following year, the “Outline for Rent Reduction and Interest Reduction” promulgated by the Central Plains Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party clearly stated: “The land belonging to religious groups shall remain unchanged. If there is no one to manage it, it may be handled according to the method for handling the land of absentee landlords.” [12]12 “Qingyuan County Bans 13 Types of Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local anti-sect campaign results.] It is noteworthy that in this process, the Chinese Communist Party did not completely confiscate the land occupied by religious groups, but flexibly handled the land belonging to religious groups, and always paid attention to reserving a certain amount of land for religious organizations, so that monastic clergy would have the means of production—land—for engaging in agricultural production and self-reliance.

中国共产党着力推动旧宗教封建土地所有制的改革，不断对宗教团体的土地所有权进行调整，根据民众及教会的意见妥善处理寺院、庙宇、教堂等宗教场所占有的土地。1946年12月，《陕甘宁边区征购土地条例草案》第23条强调:“宗教团体及庙院所占有之土地以当地人民公意决定征购或不征购。”1947年10月，《中国土地法大纲》第3条规定:“废除一切祠堂、庙宇、寺院、学校、机关及团体的土地所有权。”翌年，中共中原中央局颁布的《减租减息纲领》明确指出:“宗教团体所属土地，均不变动。如无人经营时，可按逃亡地主土地处理办法处理。”值得注意的是，在这个过程中，中国共产党并没有完全没收宗教团体占有的土地，而是灵活地处理宗教团体所属的土地，并始终注重给宗教组织留有一定数量的土地，使寺院教职人员具有从事农业生产、自食其力的土地生产资料。

Through the reform of the old religious feudal land ownership system, the Party strove to realize the goal of “land to the tiller” within religious circles, gradually satisfying the land needs of religious figures and believers, thereby laying a solid foundation for promoting the development of production and the improvement of production and living conditions. In March 1948, the Italian bishop of Luoyang, Henan, B. A. [Bishop] said to the People’s Liberation Army: “You have come, and the people are saved.” The support of religious figures and believers for the Chinese Communist Party is evident from this. Consequently, an increasing number of religious figures and believers consciously accepted the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party in both thought and action.

通过对旧宗教封建土地所有制的改革，党着力在宗教界实现“耕者有其田”的目标，逐步满足宗教界人士和信教群众对土地的需求，为促进生产的发展、生产生活条件的改善奠定了坚实的基础。1948年3月，河南洛阳意大利籍主教巴友仁对解放军说:“你们来了，人民就得救了。”宗教界人士和信教群众对中国共产党的拥护可见一斑。由此，愈来愈多的宗教界人士和信教群众在思想和行动上自觉接受中国共产党的领导。

(3) Continuously Promoting the Separation of Religion from Education

(三)不断推进宗教与教育相分离

“In Chinese history, religion was often linked to the feudal political system and economic system,” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. which led to religion penetrating into political, economic, cultural, and social fields, with religious interference in administration, justice, and education occurring frequently. For instance, some followers of Islam and Buddhism combined religion with education, giving education a strong religious character, greatly interfering with and disrupting the normal development of education. To reduce and eliminate the influence of religion on education, while encouraging and guiding religious figures and believers to accept scientific education, the Chinese Communist Party continuously promoted the reform of religious courses and religious schools, driving the separation of education from religion.

“中国历史上，宗教往往同封建政治制度和经济制度联系在一起”,这导致宗教渗透到政治、经济、文化、社会等领域，宗教干预行政、司法、教育的现象经常发生。如部分伊斯兰教和佛教的信众就将宗教与教育相结合，使教育具有浓郁的宗教色彩，极大干涉和扰乱了教育的正常发展。为减轻和消除宗教对教育的影响，中国共产党在鼓励引导宗教界人士和信教群众接受科学教育的同时，不断推进宗教课程、宗教院校的改革，推动教育与宗教相脱离。

In specific work, the Chinese Communist Party successively introduced and implemented numerous policy measures to promote the separation of religion and education. In April 1947, Article 13 of the “Program of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government” emphasized: “Implement freedom of religious belief and the separation of politics and religion… Encourage lamas to voluntarily enroll in schools, participate in labor, and practice medicine.” [2]2 “Instructions on the Policy towards Foreigners in China,” Central Committee of the CPC, 1948. [Internal Party directive.] In August 1949, the work report of the Shanghai Municipal People’s Government required church schools to abolish the system of making religion a compulsory course. In the same month, the “Provisional Management Measures for Private Schools in Beiping” stipulated: “Private primary and secondary schools run by religious groups shall not include religious subjects in the curriculum, nor conduct religious propaganda in class, and shall not force students to participate in religious ceremonies… The principal of a school established by a church shall not be held by a foreign national.” [3]3 “Statement on the Treatment of Missionary Personnel,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [The official newspaper of the CPC Central Committee.] Furthermore, by reforming the old educational system and old schools, the Chinese Communist Party accelerated the training of educational talent, formed a teaching staff, launched mass literacy and anti-illiteracy campaigns, widely promoted various newspapers and books, developed cultural education specifically for religious figures and believers, and continuously replaced religious education with new-style education. This further promoted the abolition of religious courses, effectively weakened the influence of religion on normal educational activities, and provided favorable conditions for comprehensively improving the cultural quality, scientific literacy, and humanistic spirit of religious circles.

在具体工作中，中国共产党先后出台和实施了诸多推进宗教和教育相分离的政策举措。1947年4月，《内蒙古自治政府施政纲领》第13条强调:“实行信教自由与政教分立……奖励喇嘛自愿入学、参加劳动与行医。”1949年8月，上海市人民政府工作报告要求教会学校取消把宗教作为必修课的制度。同月，《北平市私立学校临时管理办法》规定:“宗教团体办理之私立中、小学校，均不得以宗教科目列入课程内，及在课内作宗教宣传，并不得强迫学生参加宗教仪式……教会设立之学校，其校长不得由外国人充任。”此外，中国共产党通过改造旧的教育制度和旧学校，加快培养教育人才，组建教师队伍，开展群众性的识字扫盲运动，广泛推广各类报纸和书籍，发展专门针对宗教界人士和信教群众的文化教育，不断以新式教育取代宗教教育。进而推动宗教课程的废除，有效减弱了宗教对正常教育活动的影响，为全面提升宗教界的文化素质、科学素养、人文精神提供了有利的条件。

(4) Effectively Safeguarding the Legitimate Rights and Interests of Religious Circles

(四)切实维护宗教界的合法权益

The Chinese Communist Party did not “specialize” religious figures and believers because of their faith choices, but treated them equally, issuing regulations to protect the legitimate rights and interests of religious groups and believers.

中国共产党并不因宗教界人士和信教群众的信仰选择将其“特殊化”，而是一视同仁地对待，出台保护宗教团体和信教群众合法权益的规定。

First, protecting the life and property safety of religious figures and believers. In January 1947, Mao Zedong pointed out that “the private property rights of the people in the Liberated Areas,” including religious figures and believers, “will still be guaranteed.” [4]4 “Puppet army commander” (伪军队长) refers to a commander of military forces raised by the Japanese puppet regime during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In April 1947, Article 3 of the “Declaration of the Inner Mongolia People’s Congress” stated: “The human rights and property rights of all Inner Mongolian people, including… lamas and former princes, are guaranteed by the Autonomous Government.” [5]5 “Northeast Supreme Court Sentences Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the trial.] In 1948, the “Code of Conduct for Entering Cities” of the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei People’s Liberation Army emphasized: “All churches, monasteries, temples, and other religious groups that abide by the law shall not be interfered with or violated.” [6]6 “Central Hebei Public Security Organs Arrest Espionage Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the arrests and sentences.] In May of the same year, the Linfen Democratic Government pointed out: “Protect the life and property safety of urban residents, workers, students, foreign nationals, and various religious groups.” [7]7 “Luoyang Public Security Bureau Executes Missionary Leader Xu Hongyuan,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [Report on the execution.] At the same time, the Chinese Communist Party also emphasized that institutions established by religious organizations, such as hospitals, orphanages, schools, and nursing homes, should not be confiscated or destroyed. The implementation of these policies not only ensured the normal conduct of religious activities and the normal production and life of religious figures and believers, but also alleviated the anxiety of religious figures and believers who feared the Chinese Communist Party would confiscate church property, and overcame the panic of religious figures and believers towards the Chinese Communist Party, which adheres to atheism. In 1947, when the Xingtai Democratic Government in Hebei cracked down on a spy case involving the Catholic Church, the personal clothing, property, and utensils inside the church were left untouched, the Bible and religious sacrificial items were all returned, and all altars, incense burners, and hanging portraits remained intact. All Chinese and foreign priests and pastors unanimously praised the Democratic Government for its “utmost care and attention to our church.” [8]8 “On the Reactionary Nature of Sects and Cults,” *Liberation Daily*, 1948. [CPC newspaper published in Yan’an.] In 1948, Zhang Mingde, a Protestant preacher in Fengzhen, Suiyuan, said: “The People’s Liberation Army truly means what it says! You announced… protecting the church, not only not staying in the chapel, but also not occupying the empty rooms of the church.” [9]9 “On the Struggle against Reactionary Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [CPC editorial.] The Chinese Communist Party gained the heartfelt support of more religious figures and believers.

一是保护宗教界人士和信教群众的生命财产安全。1947年1月，毛泽东指出，包括宗教界人士和信教群众在内的“解放区人民的私有财产权仍将受到保障”。1947年4月，《内蒙古人民代表会议宣言》第3条指出:“所有内蒙古人民，包括……喇嘛以及以前的王公等的人权、财权，均受到自治政府的保障。”1948年，晋察冀解放军《入城纪律守则》强调:“所有遵守法令的教堂、寺院、庙宇及其他宗教团体不准干涉和侵犯。”同年5月，临汾民主政府指出:“保护城市居民、工人、学生、外侨和各宗教团体财产生命安全。”同时，中国共产党还强调不得没收和破坏宗教组织设立的医院、育婴堂、学校、养老院等机构。这些政策的实施不仅保障了宗教活动的正常开展以及宗教界人士和信教群众生产生活的正常进行，而且纾解了宗教界人士和信教群众担心中国共产党会没收教会财产的焦虑情绪，克服了宗教界人士和信教群众对坚持无神论的中国共产党的恐慌心理。1947年，河北邢台民主政府在破获天主教堂特务案件的过程中，该堂内的个人服装、财物和用具分毫未动，圣经、宗教祭仪悉数归还，所有供桌、香炉、挂像完好如故。全体中外籍神甫、教士一致称赞，民主政府“对我们教会的爱护关照备至”。1948年绥远丰镇的耶稣教传道师张明德说:“解放军真是说到做到!你们宣布……保护教堂，不但不住礼拜堂，教堂的空房也没住。”中国共产党获得了更多宗教界人士和信教群众的衷心拥护。

Second, carrying out disaster relief work within religious circles, providing assistance to religious figures and believers in difficulty. At that time, frequent and easily occurring natural disasters, coupled with continuous and endless warfare, made disasters in various places extremely severe, with famine occurring repeatedly. Many religious figures and believers were displaced and lacked food and clothing. The Chinese Communist Party actively provided them with relief. On September 24, 1945, the Xingtai Democratic Government in Hebei provided relief to the Catholic Church, “giving the orphanage attached to the church 4,000 jin of wheat, 5,000 jin of coal, and the Yide Middle School 3,000 jin of wheat and a large amount of firewood.” [10]10 “Order on Banning the Activities of Sects and Cults,” North China People’s Government, January 1949. [Administrative decree of the provisional government in the liberated areas of North China.] In 1946, the Shanxi Democratic Government successively distributed over 50 dan of grain to provide relief to more than 270 Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhists on Mount Wutai, lifting them all out of poverty. [11]11 “Wutai Mountain Puji Buddhist Association Uncovered in Laizhuo County,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [News report on the suppression of a sectarian group.] In 1948, in various parts of Suiyuan, “the starving believers had all received equal food relief from the People’s Liberation Army, and believers who had fled were returning in an endless stream.” [12]12 “Qingyuan County Bans 13 Types of Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local anti-sect campaign results.] With the help of the Chinese Communist Party, the production and living difficulties of the affected religious figures and believers were resolved, and they gradually recovered from the disaster and engaged in agricultural production.

二是在宗教界开展灾荒治理工作，救助有困难的宗教界人士和信教群众。在当时，频发易发的自然灾害加上连年无止无休的战火，使得各地灾害异常严重，饥荒现象屡屡发生。不少宗教界人士和信教群众流离失所、温饱无望，中国共产党积极对他们救助。1945年9月24日，河北邢台民主政府对天主教堂进行救助，“发给该堂附设之孤儿院麦子四千斤，煤炭五千斤，义德中学麦子三千斤及大批木柴”。1946年，山西民主政府相继发放50余石粮食对五台山270余名蒙藏佛教徒进行救济，使他们全部脱离了贫苦的生活。1948年，绥远各地“饥寒交迫的教民都已获得了解放军一视同仁的粮食救济，逃亡在外的教民也络绎归来”。在中国共产党的帮助下，受灾宗教界人士和信教群众生产生活的困难得以解决，并逐渐从灾荒中恢复过来，投入到农业生产之中。

3. Implementing the Policy of Freedom of Religious Belief

三、实行宗教信仰自由政策

Respecting and protecting freedom of religious belief is an important viewpoint for Marxist political parties in understanding and handling religious issues, and is a basic policy long upheld by the Chinese Communist Party. Lenin pointed out: “Everyone should have complete freedom not only to believe in any religion they choose, but also to propagate any religion and to change their religion.” [13]13 “Qingyuan County Exposes and Criticizes Sect Ringleaders,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local propaganda and education work.] The Chinese Communist Party advocates freedom of religious belief, believing that believing in religion, not believing in religion, or which religion to believe in is an individual’s freedom, and no one may impose obstacles or interference. By implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief, the right of the masses to freely choose their faith was guaranteed, the customs and habits of minority nationality believers were protected and respected, and at the same time, the separation of religion and nationality was promoted, changing the situation of entire minority nationalities believing in a single religion, and fostering unity between believers and non-believers.

尊重和保护宗教信仰自由是马克思主义政党认识和处理宗教问题的重要观点，是中国共产党长期坚持的基本政策。列宁指出:“每个人不仅应该有随便信仰哪种宗教的完全自由，而且应该有传布任何一种宗教和改信宗教的完全自由。”中国共产党主张宗教信仰自由，认为信仰宗教或不信仰宗教亦或信仰哪种宗教都是个体的自由，任何人都不得强加阻拦和干涉。通过贯彻执行宗教信仰自由的政策，群众自由选择信仰的权利得到保障，少数民族信教群众的风俗习惯得到保护和尊重，同时推动了宗教和民族的分离，改变了部分少数民族全民信教的状况，促进了信教群众和不信教群众间的团结。

(1) Fully Protecting Freedom of Religious Belief

(一)充分保护宗教信仰自由

In modern China, the lack of freedom of religious belief was still widespread, with phenomena such as forced belief and not being allowed to leave a religion after joining occurring from time to time. Some people, under the oppression of feudal religious power, had no choice in whether to believe or not, and were forced from childhood to participate in religious rituals such as studying scriptures, attending services, and fasting. If they did not believe, they would be attacked and punished. The Chinese Communist Party resolutely opposed all acts of forcing non-believers to believe or forcing believers to abandon their faith. Through actively propagating and popularizing the ideology and concept of freedom of religious belief, and vigorously carrying out work to protect freedom of religious belief, it safeguarded the people’s right to freedom of religious belief.

在近代中国，宗教信仰不自由的情况还普遍存在，强迫信教、入教后不许还俗等现象时有发生。有的民众在宗教封建强权的压迫下对是否信教没有选择权，从小就被迫参与学经文、做礼拜、做斋戒等宗教仪式，如果不信教就会受到攻击和惩罚。中国共产党坚决反对一切强迫不信教群众信教或强迫信教群众放弃信教的行为，通过积极宣传和普及宗教信仰自由的思想观念，大力开展保护宗教信仰自由的工作，维护民众宗教信仰自由的权利。

First, granting law-abiding missionaries the right to freedom of movement and supporting the conduct of lawful religious activities. The Chinese Communist Party affirmed and supported missionaries who submitted to the management of the democratic government and abided by laws and regulations, as well as religious activities that conformed to the established rules. In September and October 1945, the democratic government of Xingtai, Hebei, issued missionary certificates to Catholic missionaries and “provided them with various long-term passes and curfew passes, guaranteeing their freedom of movement and freedom to preach.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. In January 1949, the Central Committee of the CPC instructed: “Foreign missionaries. Those already in our liberated areas are permitted to continue residing and carrying out their duties.” [2]2 “Instructions on the Policy towards Foreigners in China,” Central Committee of the CPC, 1948. [Internal Party directive.] Law-abiding and rule-complying missionaries not only obtained the right to live and reside in China but also gained the right to believe in and propagate their religion. Second, stipulating that law-abiding individuals have the right to freedom of religious belief. The Chinese Communist Party held that freedom of religious belief has principles and norms, takes law-abiding and rule-complying conduct as its basic prerequisite, and must guarantee the freedom of religious belief for law-abiding people. On August 11, 1946, Article 7 of the “Common Program of Government for the Democratic Governments of the Provinces and Cities (Special Cities) of the Northeast” stipulated: “Guarantee the freedoms of person, speech, publication, assembly, association, thought, religion, belief, election, migration, and occupation for the people of the Northeast.” [3]3 “Statement on the Treatment of Missionary Personnel,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [The official newspaper of the CPC Central Committee.] On April 27, 1947, Article 3 of the “Declaration of the People’s Congress of Inner Mongolia” pointed out: “Ensure the people’s various freedoms, including those of person, religion, belief, assembly, and association.” [4]4 “Puppet army commander” (伪军队长) refers to a commander of military forces raised by the Japanese puppet regime during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). On October 10, 1947, the Headquarters of the People’s Liberation Army issued an order concerning freedom of religious belief. [5]5 “Northeast Supreme Court Sentences Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the trial.] In September 1949, Article 5 of the “Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference” stipulated: “The people have the freedom of … religious belief and the freedom to hold demonstrations and processions.” [6]6 “Central Hebei Public Security Organs Arrest Espionage Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the arrests and sentences.] From then on, the freedom of religious belief for the broad masses of the people obtained solid institutional support and clear policy basis.

第一，赋予守法的传教士自由行动的权利，支持合法宗教活动的开展。对于服从民主政府管理、遵守法律法规的传教士和符合规章制度的宗教活动，中国共产党给予了肯定和支持。1945年9、10月，河北邢台民主政府为天主教堂传教士授予传教证明书，并“发给他们各种长期通行证及戒严证，保证他们自由行动与自由传教”。1949年1月，中共中央指示:“外国传教士。已在我解放地区者，容许其继续居住，执行业务。”合规合法的传教士不仅获得了在中国生活居住的权利，而且具有了信教和传教的权利。第二，规定守法个体具有宗教信仰自由的权利。中国共产党认为，宗教信仰自由是有原则、有规范的，是以守法合规为基本前提的，必须保障守法民众的宗教信仰自由。1946年8月11日，《东北各省市(特别市)民主政府共同施政纲领》第7条规定:“保障东北人民的人身、言论、出版、集会、结社、思想、宗教、信仰、选举、迁移与职业的自由。”1947年4月27日，《内蒙古人民代表会议宣言》第3条指出:“确保人民身体、宗教、信仰、集会、结社等各项自由。”1947年10月10日，解放军总部颁布宗教信仰自由的训令。1949年9月，《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》第5条规定:“人民有……宗教信仰及示威游行的自由权。”从此，广大群众宗教信仰的自由获得了扎实的制度支撑、具有了明确的政策依据。

Implementing the policy of protecting freedom of religious belief enabled the Party to win the trust and support of religious figures and believers, consolidating and strengthening the Party’s mass base for governance. On June 23, 1949, a forum for religious circles was held in Xi’an, Shaanxi. After the responsible person introduced the democratic government’s policy on freedom of belief, the attending religious figures and believers “unanimously praised the Chinese Communist Party and the People’s Liberation Army for protecting religious freedom.” [7]7 “Luoyang Public Security Bureau Executes Missionary Leader Xu Hongyuan,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [Report on the execution.] Within religious circles, the popular support and strength of the people that the Chinese Communist Party relied on to win the War of Liberation were further consolidated.

落实保护宗教信仰自由的政策，使党赢得宗教界人士和信教群众的信任和支持，巩固和加强了党执政的群众基础。1949年6月23日，陕西西安召开宗教界座谈会，负责人介绍了民主政府信教自由的政策后，出席的宗教界人士和信教群众“一致盛赞中国共产党、人民解放军保护宗教自由”。在宗教界，中国共产党取得解放战争胜利的人心民力得到了进一步的凝聚。

(2) Respecting the customs and habits of ethnic minority religious believers

(二)尊重少数民族信教群众的风俗习惯

For China, where multiple religions and multiple ethnic groups coexist, and religious issues are intertwined with ethnic issues, differences exist in language, customs, and other aspects between non-believers and religious believers, and among adherents of different religions. Some religions have formed unique doctrinal norms and codes of conduct; for example, Muslims have strict prohibitions regarding pork, alcohol, smoking, and the like.

对于多宗教和多民族并存、宗教问题和民族问题交织的中国而言，不信仰宗教者和宗教信仰者之间、不同的宗教信仰者之间在语言、习俗等方面存在差异。有的宗教形成了独具特色的教义规范和行为准则，如穆斯林在猪肉、饮酒、抽烟等方面禁忌颇深。

The Chinese Communist Party emphasized respecting the customs and habits of ethnic minority religious believers, stipulating that no one may deliberately violate or provoke them. First, formulating programmatic regulations that respect the customs and habits of ethnic minority religious believers. On August 11, 1946, Article 8 of the “Common Program of Government for the Democratic Governments of the Provinces and Cities (Special Cities) of the Northeast” stressed: “Respect the languages, cultures, religions, beliefs, and customs and habits of ethnic minorities such as the Mongols and Hui.” [8]8 “On the Reactionary Nature of Sects and Cults,” *Liberation Daily*, 1948. [CPC newspaper published in Yan’an.] In April 1947, Article 5 of the “Program of Government of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government” stressed: “All ethnic groups shall respect each other’s customs, habits, history, culture, religion, and beliefs.” [9]9 “On the Struggle against Reactionary Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [CPC editorial.] In September 1949, Article 53 of the “Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference” stipulated: “All ethnic minorities have the freedom to develop their own languages and scripts, and to maintain or reform their own customs, habits, and religious beliefs.” [10]10 “Order on Banning the Activities of Sects and Cults,” North China People’s Government, January 1949. [Administrative decree of the provisional government in the liberated areas of North China.] The customs and habits of ethnic minority religious believers received formal official recognition and protection from the government.

中国共产党强调尊重少数民族信教群众的风俗习惯，规定任何人不得故意侵犯和挑衅。首先，制定尊重少数民族信教群众风俗习惯的纲领条例。1946年8月11日，《东北各省市(特别市)民主政府共同施政纲领》第8条强调:“尊重蒙、回等少数民族语言、文化、宗教、信仰与风俗习惯。”1947年4月，《内蒙古自治政府施政纲领》第5条强调:“各民族互相尊重风俗、习惯、历史、文化、宗教、信仰。”1949年9月，《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》第53条规定:“各少数民族均有发展其语言文字、保持或改革其风俗习惯及宗教信仰的自由。”少数民族信教群众的风俗习惯得到了政府官方层面的正式许可和保护。

Second, implementing the policy of respecting the customs and habits of ethnic minority religious believers in mass work and army work. On July 9, 1948, when the People’s Liberation Army was stationed in Xuandi Temple Village, it fully respected Muslim customs. Local Muslim masses reported: “The Eighth Route Army is truly polite and reasonable. When they (referring to the PLA) came to our village, they didn’t use the food of the ‘Great Religion’ [Han Chinese], giving us great face. It really made them suffer some inconvenience.” [11]11 “Wutai Mountain Puji Buddhist Association Uncovered in Laizhuo County,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [News report on the suppression of a sectarian group.] In 1948, the People’s Liberation Army advancing into Suiyuan and Mongolia “won the support of various religious groups and their followers in various parts of Suiyuan.” [12]12 “Qingyuan County Bans 13 Types of Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local anti-sect campaign results.] “In Fengzhen, various religious groups expressed nothing but gratitude for our army’s protection.” [13]13 “Qingyuan County Exposes and Criticizes Sect Ringleaders,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local propaganda and education work.] These efforts not only enabled ethnic minority religious believers to continue preserving their own cultural traditions and customs but also refuted and shattered the rumor that the Chinese Communist Party, because of its belief in materialism, would “kill monks and destroy Buddhism,” [14]14 “Sectarian Activities Rampant in Southern Hebei,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on the situation in the region.] thereby establishing a positive image of the Chinese Communist Party as diligent in governing and caring for the people, putting the people first. More ethnic minority religious believers threw themselves into the revolutionary movement against oppression and dictatorship initiated by the Chinese Communist Party, greatly accelerating the pace of establishing a new China.

其次，在群众工作、军队工作中落实尊重少数民族信教群众风俗习惯的政策。1948年7月9日，解放军驻扎玄帝庙村时充分尊重穆斯林的风俗。当地穆斯林群众纷纷反映:“八路真客气，讲道理。一人家(指解放军)上咱村来，不用‘大教’的菜，给咱多大面子，真叫他们受委曲。”1948年，进军绥蒙的解放军“获得了绥远各地各宗教团体与教民的拥护”，“在丰镇，各宗教团体对我军保护无不表示感谢”。这些工作不仅使少数民族信教群众能够继续保留自身的文化传统和习俗习惯，而且戳穿和粉碎了中国共产党因信仰唯物主义而“杀教灭佛”的谣言，树立了中国共产党勤政爱民、以民为本的良好形象。更多的少数民族信教群众投身于中国共产党发起的反压迫反独裁的革命运动中，极大加快了建立新中国的步伐。

(3) Carrying out atheist propaganda and education work

(三)开展无神论宣传教育工作

In traditional society, some of the populace held simple primitive religious and ancestral beliefs, as well as nature and spirit worship, with their thinking more or less containing tendencies towards theism. Against the backdrop of raging war and widespread anxiety at the time, some people whose lives were increasingly difficult and impoverished attempted to use the illusion of religion to numb themselves and escape reality, which led to the doctrines of ghosts, souls, and religious theism flourishing to varying degrees. This resulted in a prevalent atmosphere of superstition regarding ghosts and gods in society; those who superstitiously believed in ghosts, gods, fate, and the like were everywhere; phenomena such as common people discussing ghosts and gods, burning incense and worshipping Buddha, and seeking fortune-telling and divination were common occurrences. As firm believers in Marxist atheism, the Chinese Communist Party opposed all cultures of ghosts, gods, and superstitious concepts, advocated replacing theological education with natural science education, actively carried out atheist propaganda and education work, enabling the people to recognize the illusory nature of theories about ghosts and gods, and gradually eliminating ideas about spirits, ghosts, and deities.

在传统社会，部分民众有着淳朴的原始宗教和祖先信仰、自然与神灵崇拜，思想中或多或少存在一些有神论的倾向。在当时战火肆虐、人心惶惶的背景下，部分生活举步维艰、日益贫苦的民众企图借助宗教幻境来麻痹自我、逃避现实，更使灵魂鬼魅学说和宗教有神理念不同程度地兴盛起来。导致社会上鬼神迷信之风盛行，迷信神鬼、上帝、宿命者比比皆是，民间谈鬼论神、烧香拜佛、求神算卦的现象屡见不鲜。作为马克思主义无神论的坚定信仰者，中国共产党反对一切鬼神文化和迷信观念，提倡以自然科学教育替代神学教育，积极开展无神宣传教育工作，使民众认清鬼神之说的虚幻本质、逐步消除神灵鬼魅思想。

First, strengthening the effectiveness of anti-superstition and atheist propaganda and education through forms such as mobilizing youth to lecture on atheist knowledge and convening atheist propaganda and education meetings. On April 17, 1949, the “Work Program of the Chinese New Democratic Youth League” stressed: “The New Democratic Youth League shall propagate various kinds of natural science knowledge, patiently explain to young men and women the harms of superstition and religion, and use all means and methods to expose the hypocrisy and poisonous effects of superstition and religion.” [15]15 “Southern Hebei Democratic Government Announces Cessation of Sectarian Activities,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on government action.] In the spring of 1949, many areas in southern Hebei held anti-superstition conferences, guiding local people to abandon superstitious beliefs in ghosts and gods. In July 1949, the Chengzi Village Coal Mine guided workers to discuss questions such as “Why do the reactionaries use religion to deceive people?” enabling workers to gain a more accurate and in-depth understanding of the falsity and deceptiveness of religion. [16]16 “Chengzi Village Coal Mine Workers Discuss the Deceptiveness of Religion,” People’s Daily, July 15, 1949. (Original note from the author’s text, retained as a citation.)

一是通过动员青少年宣讲无神论知识、召开无神论宣传教育会议等形式，强化反迷信和无神论宣传教育的效果。1949年4月17日，《中国新民主主义青年团工作纲领》强调:“新民主主义青年团，应当宣传各种自然科学知识，并耐心地向男女青年解释迷信和宗教的害处，并用一切方式和方法，去揭露迷信与宗教的虚伪和毒害的事实。”1949年春，冀南不少地区召开反迷信大会，引导当地民众摒弃鬼神迷信观念。1949年7月，城子村煤厂引导工人讨论“反动派为什么用宗教来骗人”等问题，使工人对宗教的虚假性欺骗性有了更准确深入的认识。

Second, disseminating and popularizing knowledge of the natural and social sciences, and carrying out popular and diverse anti-superstition propaganda and education activities. Courses in zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, physiology, sociology, philosophy, and other subjects were offered in schools to vigorously propagate and popularize scientific knowledge and theory. Among the people, campaigns such as the Confession Movement of Spirit Mediums and the Movement to Break Superstition and Oppose Feudalism were widely launched; [17]17 The “Confession Movement of Spirit Mediums” (wushen tanbai yundong) and the “Movement to Break Superstition and Oppose Feudalism” (po xin fan feng yundong) were local mass campaigns in the liberated areas during the late 1940s aimed at exposing fraudulent religious practices and eliminating feudal and superstitious beliefs. songs and dramas with anti-superstition themes were created and performed; speeches and articles promoting the spirit of scientific atheism were delivered and published; books and newspapers propagating atheism were published and distributed, “pushing atheist propaganda and education into the daily lives of the people.” [18]18 “Strengthen Atheist Propaganda and Education,” People’s Daily, August 1, 1949. (Original note from the author’s text, retained as a citation.) This guided the people to establish the ideological concepts of Marxist materialism and atheism, avoiding the influence and interference of doctrines about ghosts and spirits. The successful practice of this atheist propaganda and education provided a good starting point for the Chinese Communist Party to carry out atheist propaganda and education work in its new historical position.

二是传播普及自然科学和社会科学知识，开展大众化、多样化的反迷信宣传教育活动。在学校开设动植物、化学、物理、生理、社会学、哲学等课程，大力宣传普及科学知识和理论。在民间广泛展开巫神坦白运动、破信反封运动，创作表演反迷信题材的歌曲戏剧，发表弘扬科学无神论精神的演讲和文章，出版和发布传播无神论的书籍报刊，“推动无神论宣传教育进入人民群众的日常生活”。引导民众树立马克思主义唯物论和无神论的思想观念，避免鬼魅学说的影响和干扰。这些无神论宣传教育的成功实践为中国共产党在新的历史方位下开展无神论宣传教育工作提供了良好的开端。

IV. Resolutely cracking down on illegal and reactionary religious forces

四、坚决打击非法反动的宗教势力

As an important part of the superstructure and ideology, religion is an inverted and fantastical reflection of social existence and real life. Marx pointed out: “Religion has no content of its own; its roots are not in heaven, but on earth.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. On the eve of the victory of the Chinese revolution, a clear tendency toward differentiation emerged within religious circles. Some religious organizations actively joined the revolutionary ranks, while other religious groups, represented by folk sects, rapidly degenerated and became increasingly reactionary. The reactionary Kuomintang clique not only made extensive use of religion to deceive the people and numb the masses, but also tricked religious groups with unstable loyalties or problems into serving as its minions, using religion as a gimmick to engage in counterrevolutionary and anti-people activities. The Chinese Communist Party set about striking at missionaries who colluded with enemy agents, reforming and banning reactionary sectarian organizations, curbing the spread and growth of reactionary religious forces, and advancing the process of law-based governance in religious work.

作为上层建筑和意识形态的重要部分，宗教是对社会存在和现实生活颠倒的、幻想的反映。马克思指出:“宗教本身是没有内容的，它的根源不是在天上，而是在人间。”在中国革命即将胜利之际，宗教界发生了明显的分化倾向，有些宗教组织积极加入革命队伍，而部分以民间教门为代表的宗教团体则迅速腐化堕落、变得愈加反动。国民党反动派不仅大肆利用宗教来蛊惑人心、麻痹大众，而且诱骗立场不坚定或有问题的宗教团体为其充当爪牙，使之以宗教为噱头从事反革命反人民的活动。中国共产党着手打击与敌特相勾结的传教士，改造和取缔反动会道门组织，遏制反动宗教势力的滋生蔓延，推进宗教工作法治化进程。

(I) Striking at Missionaries Who Colluded with Enemy Agents

(一)打击与敌特相勾结的传教士

Some religious organizations were introduced and developed on a large scale during the process of modern imperialist aggression against China, and they possessed a certain aggressive and predatory character. Some missionaries not only served as accomplices and tools of imperialism in its political interference, economic plunder, cultural aggression, and ideological control of China, but also, by virtue of the extraterritoriality they enjoyed, acted lawlessly in China, cruelly oppressing the Chinese people and wantonly plundering China’s wealth and resources.

有的宗教组织是在近代列强侵华过程中大规模传入和发展起来的，具有一定的侵略性和掠夺性。部分传教士不仅充当着帝国主义对中国进行政治干涉、经济掠夺、文化侵略、思想控制的帮凶和工具，而且借助其享有的治外法权，在中国胡作非为、残忍压榨中国人民、肆意盗取中国的财富和资源。

During the War of Liberation, some missionaries willingly degenerated and became spies and secret agents for the reactionary Kuomintang clique and imperialism. Under the manipulation of enemy agents, they openly or secretly spread rumors, false prophecies, and superstitious sayings, attempting to subvert popular understanding and undermine the new people’s political power. In 1948, the Central Committee of the CPC, in its policy on the treatment of foreigners in China, stressed: “When certain foreign missionaries engage in espionage and sabotage activities, we must, in addition to detaining and punishing them, gather sufficient evidence and publish it both at home and abroad to make their crimes clear.” [2]2 “Instructions on the Policy towards Foreigners in China,” Central Committee of the CPC, 1948. [Internal Party directive.] At the same time, the *People’s Daily* also issued a statement on the treatment of missionary personnel: “With regard to clergymen and believers, regardless of their nationality, as long as they abide by the laws and decrees of our democratic government and do not engage in illegal sabotage activities, they shall all be protected. However, if anyone uses religion as a disguise and cover to collude with the Chiang Kai-shek gang and foreign imperialism in engaging in espionage and secret agent activities… they must be punished according to the severity of their crimes under the laws of the democratic government.” [3]3 “Statement on the Treatment of Missionary Personnel,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [The official newspaper of the CPC Central Committee.] Nevertheless, some missionaries refused to obey the laws and regulations of the democratic government, insisted on doing the opposite, and continued to oppose the Chinese Communist Party and undermine the revolution.

解放战争时期，一些传教士自甘堕落、甘愿沦为国民党反动派、帝国主义的间谍和特务，在敌特的操纵下公开或秘密地散布妖风谣言、箴言谶语，妄图颠覆大众认知，破坏新生的人民政权。1948年，中共中央在关于对待在华外国人的政策中强调:“当某些外国传教士进行特务破坏活动时，我们除将其扣留治罪外，应搜集充分证据，公布中外，以明其罪。”同时，《人民日报》也发布对待传教人员的声明:“对于教士教徒，不论其国籍如何，只要他们遵守我民主政府法令，不作非法破坏活动，一律予以保护，但如有利用宗教伪装掩护，勾结蒋介石匪帮与外国帝国主义从事间谍特务活动……必须依照民主政府法律对其犯罪分子分别轻重治罪。”然则有的传教士却不服从民主政府的法令和规定，执意反其道而行之，继续对抗中国共产党和破坏革命。

The Chinese Communist Party carried out the work of legally punishing reactionary and degenerate missionaries, severely cracking down on reactionary religious organizations, and continuously purging religious extremist forces. In September 1945, the Catholic Church in Xingtai, Hebei, secretly released 43 traitors and hid over 60 firearms. By October of the same year, the democratic government executed by firing squad the puppet army commander [4]4 “Puppet army commander” (伪军队长) refers to a commander of military forces raised by the Japanese puppet regime during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). who had been hiding in the church. Missionaries guilty of major crimes were detained and punished, while those with lesser offenses were given warnings and education. In the spring of 1947, the Catholic Church in Qiqihar, Northeast China, spread rumors that “the Eighth Route Army cannot win; the Central Army will be victorious,” slandered land reform, and defied the laws and decrees of the people’s government. The Northeast Supreme Court sentenced the principal offenders, Bo Shide and Hu Ganpu, to 12 years’ imprisonment, and the accomplices, Lu Huaxing, Wei Youmin, and others, to fixed-term imprisonment of between 3 and 5 years. [5]5 “Northeast Supreme Court Sentences Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the trial.] In October 1947, the public security organs of Central Hebei arrested missionaries who had engaged in espionage, set up secret radio stations, and spied on the designations and organization of the People’s Liberation Army. The foreign missionaries Shang Jianxun, Pan Rulin, and Mu Qihua were deported, while the Chinese missionary Jia Shushan was “sentenced to one year’s imprisonment and deprived of civil rights for two years.” [6]6 “Central Hebei Public Security Organs Arrest Espionage Missionaries,” *People’s Daily*, 1947. [Report on the arrests and sentences.] On August 23, 1948, the Luoyang Public Security Bureau arrested Xu Hongyuan, a missionary leader who had bribed bandits and hooligans, organized reactionary armed forces, and attacked district and town government organs. Due to the gravity of his crimes, he was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on September 24. [7]7 “Luoyang Public Security Bureau Executes Missionary Leader Xu Hongyuan,” *People’s Daily*, 1948. [Report on the execution.] Through severely punishing missionaries who were in league with enemy agents, cracking down on illegal religious groups, curbing the spread of reactionary religious forces, and severing the control of imperialism and the reactionary Kuomintang clique over religious groups, the Chinese Communist Party maintained the stability and authority of its political power, eliminated the malignant tumors in the religious sphere that endangered the revolutionary cause, and reduced the resistance and obstacles to the revolution.

中国共产党开展了依法惩处反动腐化的传教士的工作，严厉打击反动宗教组织，不断肃清宗教极端势力。1945年9月，河北邢台天主教堂秘密放走汉奸43人，隐藏枪支60余支，到同年10月，民主政府枪决窝藏在该教堂内的伪军队长。并对罪恶重大的传教士进行拘留处罚，对罪责稍轻的传教人员进行警告教育。1947年春，东北齐齐哈尔天主教堂散布“八路军胜不了，中央军要胜利”的谣言，诬蔑土地改革，抗拒人民政府法令，东北最高法院判处主犯博施德、胡干普12年有期徒刑，从犯陆化行、魏佑民等3年以上5年以下有期徒刑。1947年10月，冀中公安机关把从事间谍活动、建立秘密电台、侦探解放军番号编制的传教士逮捕，将外国籍传教士尚建勋、潘汝霖、穆启华驱逐出境，中国籍传教士贾书善“判处徒刑一年，褫夺公民权二年”。1948年8月23日，洛阳公安局将收买土匪流氓、组织反动武装、袭击区镇机关的传教士头目徐宏元逮捕，因罪行重大判处其死刑，9月24日执行枪决。通过严惩与敌特狼狈为奸、沆瀣一气的传教士，打击非法宗教团体，抑制反动宗教势力的扩散，切断帝国主义和国民党反动派对宗教团体的操控，维护了中国共产党政权的稳定性和权威性，清除了宗教领域危害革命事业的毒瘤，减少了革命的阻力和障碍。

(II) Reforming and Banning Reactionary Sectarian Organizations

(二)改造和取缔反动会道门组织

During the War of Liberation, as the economy in the Kuomintang-controlled areas increasingly collapsed and social turmoil intensified, various religious forces began to resurface, constantly deceiving the people and defrauding the laboring masses, “wantonly spreading religious theism.” [8]8 “On the Reactionary Nature of Sects and Cults,” *Liberation Daily*, 1948. [CPC newspaper published in Yan’an.] The folk assertions of the existence of ghosts and gods and the ideas of praying for blessings and avoiding calamities spread widely, creating opportunities for the emergence of cult organizations. Sectarian organizations of various names became increasingly prevalent and wreaked havoc in the countryside. These sectarian organizations not only possessed a strong character of concealment, deception, and superstition, but were also reactionary, “hostile to the new political power where the people are the masters.” [9]9 “On the Struggle against Reactionary Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [CPC editorial.] They often used the banner and slogan of “saving the world and helping the people” and aiding the distressed and the poor to trick many people who were suffering hardship and whose morale had collapsed into joining them. The reactionary Kuomintang clique, in a desperate last-ditch attempt, openly and covertly wooed and directed sectarian organizations to oppose the political power of the Chinese Communist Party. In response, the Central Committee of the CPC repeatedly issued directives to disband sectarian organizations and cease their activities, but some sectarian organizations still refused to repent or restrain themselves, continuing to spread rumors, deceive people, and stir up trouble everywhere. The Chinese Communist Party began to vigorously carry out the work of reforming and banning reactionary sectarian organizations, gradually striking at and dismantling the forces of reactionary sects.

解放战争时期，随着国统区经济的日益崩溃、社会动荡的加剧，各种宗教势力开始沉渣泛起，不断蛊惑人心、欺诈劳苦民众，“肆意传播宗教有神论”。民间有鬼有神的论断、祈福免灾的思想广泛传播，为邪教组织的滋生带来了可乘之机，不同名目的会道门越发大行其道为祸乡野。会道门组织不仅存在极强的隐蔽性、迷惑性和迷信色彩，而且具有反动性，“敌视人民当家作主的新政权”。它们往往打着“济世救民”扶危济困的幌子和旗号，诱骗许多遭受困难、心态崩溃的民众加入其中。而国民党反动派企图做困兽之举，明里暗里地拉拢指使会道门组织反对中国共产党的政权。对此，中共中央反复发布解散会道门、停止会道门活动的指令，但部分会道门依旧不知悔改和收敛，继续在各地造谣欺骗、惹是生非。中国共产党开始大力开展改造取缔反动会道门组织的工作，逐步打击和瓦解反动会道门势力。

First, severely punish the leaders of sectarian organizations that had a bad influence, promptly destroy sectarian organizations, and crack down on and ban sectarian activities. In January 1949, the North China People’s Government issued an “Order on Banning the Activities of Sects and Cults, requiring public security departments in various localities to strengthen the rectification of sect and cult activities.” [10]10 “Order on Banning the Activities of Sects and Cults,” North China People’s Government, January 1949. [Administrative decree of the provisional government in the liberated areas of North China.] The grassroots governments and public security organs in North China actively organized special campaigns to rectify and ban sectarian organizations, and most of the local sects were continuously destroyed. On March 28, 1949, the “Wutai Mountain Puji Buddhist Association” in Laizhuo County, Hebei, which had incited the masses and plotted an uprising, was uncovered. The principal offenders, Zhang Yaoxi, Guo Tinglan, and others, were arrested and handed over to the local public security bureau for interrogation and handling. [11]11 “Wutai Mountain Puji Buddhist Association Uncovered in Laizhuo County,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [News report on the suppression of a sectarian group.] In the same year, Qingyuan County, Hebei, banned 13 types of sects and cults, including the Yiguandao and Chahua Dao, and punished 561 individuals, including preachers, altar masters, and masters. [12]12 “Qingyuan County Bans 13 Types of Sects and Cults,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local anti-sect campaign results.] The forces of reactionary sects and cults suffered a heavy blow, and many sectarian organizations were eliminated and dismantled.

首先，严惩影响恶劣的会道门头目，及时摧毁会道门组织，打击取缔会道门活动。1949年1月，华北人民政府发出“关于取缔会门道门活动的命令，要求各地公安部门加强对会、道门活动的整治”。华北各基层政府和公安机关积极组织整治取缔会道门组织的专项行动，当地的多数会道门不断被摧毁。1949年3月28日，河北涞涿县破获煽惑群众、阴谋暴动的“五台山普济佛教会”，主犯张耀西、郭廷岚等被逮捕，送交当地公安局审讯处理。同年，河北清苑县取缔一贯道、茶华道等会道门13种，处罚点传师、坛主、师父等561名。反动会道门势力受到了沉重的打击，很多会道门组织被消灭和瓦解。

Second, carry out propaganda work against sects and cults, enabling the masses to recognize their reactionary nature and harmfulness, and voluntarily stay away from them. In early 1949, Qingyuan County, Hebei, exposed and criticized the ringleaders of sects and cults manipulated by Chiang Kai-shek’s agents, used policy education to make those who were coerced withdraw from the sects, and imposed administrative sanctions on those who refused to repent. [13]13 “Qingyuan County Exposes and Criticizes Sect Ringleaders,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on local propaganda and education work.] In the spring of 1949, sectarian activities were rampant in the Southern Hebei region. Many people in Zaoqiang County and Jing County were deceived by the Yiguandao and Shengxian Dao, delaying production. In Yongnian County, the Liuhequan even tried to win over dismissed village cadres in an attempt to seize control of the militia and create chaos. [14]14 “Sectarian Activities Rampant in Southern Hebei,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on the situation in the region.] The democratic government of the Southern Hebei region announced the cessation of sectarian activities, disbanded all sectarian groups, and actively “enlightened the peasants to recognize the dangers of being in sects and cults.” [15]15 “Southern Hebei Democratic Government Announces Cessation of Sectarian Activities,” *People’s Daily*, 1949. [Report on government action.] These actions effectively eliminated the social foundation for the spread of sects and cults, eradicated the ideological soil for their growth, and promoted the orderly progress and in-depth development of the work of reforming and banning sects and cults. The Chinese Communist Party took an extremely important step in its exploration of managing religious affairs according to law and advancing the law-based governance of religious work.

其次，开展反对会道门的宣传工作，使民众认清会道门的反动性和危害性，主动远离会道门组织。1949年初，河北清苑县对受蒋特操纵的会道门首要分子进行揭发批评，对胁从者通过政策教育使之退出会道门，对不愿悔过者则予以行政处分。1949年春，冀南地区会道门活动猖獗，枣强县、景县的很多群众受一贯道、圣贤道的愚弄而贻误生产，永年县的六合拳甚至拉拢被撤职的村干部，企图掌握民兵制造混乱。冀南地区民主政府宣布停止会道门活动，遣散所有会道门团体，并积极“启发农民认识到在道、会门的危险性”。这些行动有力地消除了会道门蔓延的社会基础，铲除了会道门滋生的思想土壤，推动了会道门改造和取缔工作的有序进行和深入开展。中国共产党对依法管理宗教事务、推进宗教工作法治化的探索迈出极重要的一步。

V. Conclusion

五、结语

Religion is a product of human society’s development to a specific historical stage; its formation and development have profound and complex historical and cultural roots as well as a deep social foundation. Marx pointed out: “With the disappearance of the distorted reality for which religion is the theory, religion will also disappear of itself.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “The Leading Article in No. 179 of the *Kölnische Zeitung*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 191. The Communist Party of China clearly understood that religion will certainly not exist forever; as the roots and conditions for religion’s existence gradually diminish, religion will ultimately move toward extinction, although this will be a very long process. Under the conditions of that time, the phenomenon of religious belief would persist for a long time, and religion might continue to develop and even flourish. Therefore, one can neither use administrative force to prohibit a certain religion nor use administrative force to promote a certain religion. During the War of Liberation, the CPC accelerated the legalization and democratization of religious work, enhanced the Party’s prestige and influence within religious circles, continuously deepened its understanding of religion and religious issues, and advanced the Sinicization of the Marxist view on religion. In today’s increasingly open society with highly developed internet networks, doing religious work well and handling religious issues properly is more difficult, the task more arduous, and its significance even more pronounced. Only by fully implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief, strengthening the governance of online religious issues, deepening the propaganda and education of Marxist atheism, and perfecting the laws, regulations, and policy systems for religious management can we actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society, better promote the high-quality development of religious work in the New Era, and more properly handle religious issues and religious relations.

宗教是人类社会发展到特定历史阶段的产物，其形成和发展具有深刻复杂的历史文化根源和深厚的社会基础。马克思指出:“随着以宗教为理论的被歪曲了的现实的消失，宗教也将自行消亡。”中国共产党清楚地意识到宗教必然不会永久存在下去，随着宗教存在的根源和条件逐渐减少，宗教最终是要走向消亡的，不过这将是一个十分漫长的过程。在当时的条件下，信仰宗教的现象还会长期存在，宗教有可能还会继续发展和兴盛。因此，既不能用行政的力量去禁止某种宗教，也不能用行政的力量去推行某种宗教。解放战争时期中国共产党加快了宗教工作法治化、民主化的进程，提高了党在宗教界的威信和影响力，不断深化对宗教和宗教问题的认识，推进了马克思主义宗教观的中国化。在社会日趋开放、网络高度发达的当今社会，做好宗教工作、处理好宗教问题的难度更大、任务更艰巨、意义更彰显。必须通过充分贯彻宗教信仰自由的政策，加强对网络宗教问题的治理，深化马克思主义无神论的宣传教育，完善宗教管理的法律法规和政策体制，才能积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应，更好地推动新时代宗教工作的高质量发展，更加妥善地处理好宗教问题和宗教关系。

(Author’s brief introduction: Zhou Wei, doctoral student at the School of Marxism, Northwestern Polytechnical University)

（作者简介：周伟，西北工业大学马克思主义学院博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心