On Zhang Zai’s Transformation of the “Naturalist” View of Ghosts and Spirits since the Qin and Han Dynasties

Zhang Zai’s view of ghosts and spirits contains many “naturalist” elements, and it was once regarded as a representative of ancient Chinese “materialism” and “atheism.” In Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, “ghosts and spirits” are a matter concerning the “substance of the Way.” Proceeding solely from “naturalism” makes it difficult to glimpse the full picture of Zhang Zai’s view of ghosts and spirits, nor can it provide an objective assessment of Zhang Zai’s position in the history of the development of atheism. From the perspective of intellectual history, the naturalist view of ghosts and spirits that emerged after the Qin and Han dynasties was a narrow form of atheism. Its primary significance lay in criticizing the primitive notion that ghosts and spirits were specific mental entities or souls, injecting a rational element into the superstitious psychology of the people of that time, and representing a correction of the primitive religious form of the view of ghosts and spirits. However, while correcting this deviation, it went to the other extreme, dissolving the transcendent dimension inherent in Chinese culture and proving inadequate in responding to the challenges posed by Buddhism. Zhang Zai’s view of ghosts and spirits was precisely a response to the limitations of this naturalist view of ghosts and spirits since the Qin and Han dynasties, representing another turn in the conception of ghosts and spirits.

张载鬼神观具有很多“自然主义”的成份，其一度被认为是中国古代“唯物主义”和“无神论”的代表。在宋明理学中，“鬼神”是关乎“道体”的问题,仅仅从“自然主义”出发难以窥探张载鬼神观的全貌，也难以对张载在无神论发展史上的地位作出客观评价。从思想史的角度来看，秦汉以降的自然主义鬼神观是一种狭义的无神论,其最主要的意义在于批判了以具体精神或灵魂为鬼神的原始观念，为当时人们迷信的心理注入了理性色彩，是对原始宗教形态鬼神观的一次纠偏。但其在纠偏的同时却走向了另一极端，消解了中国文化固有的超越维度，在回应佛教的诘难上，也显得力不从心。而张载的鬼神观便是针对秦汉以降自然主义鬼神观的这些局限而发，是鬼神观的又一次转向。

I. The “Naturalist” View of Ghosts and Spirits and Its Limitations

一、“自然主义”鬼神观及其局限

The concept of ghosts and spirits is extremely ancient, originally originating from the primitive worship of the ancient people, born of fear towards unknown phenomena such as life and death. The ancient people believed that natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, and stars in the sky, and the mountains, rivers, and streams on earth, all had their rulers behind them. Those in the sky were called “spirits,” those on earth were called “earthly spirits,” while “ghosts” referred specifically to humans, meaning the spirit or soul after a person’s death, a form of ancestor worship. The people of the Shang dynasty believed that after death, the souls of ancestors could ascend to heaven and join the ranks of the spirits, and that descendants could obtain the blessings of their ancestors through sacrifice. Ghosts and spirits therefore possessed a supernatural meaning. This primitive supernatural meaning was gradually dissolved with the continuous development of the idea of qi-transformation. The idea of qi-transformation can be traced back to the pre-Qin philosophers; Zhuangzi already used “qi gathering and qi dispersing” to define “life and death.” The idea of qi-transformation truly “played a particularly important role in the Han dynasty,” and gradually formed a naturalist view of ghosts and spirits among the scholar-official class. This naturalist view of ghosts and spirits was also the early form of Chinese atheism. It had two main characteristics.

鬼神观念极为古老，起初盖源于上古先民对生死等未知现象由恐惧而产生的一种原始的崇拜观念。上古先民认为天上的日月星辰，地上的山川江河等自然现象背后皆有其主宰。天上的称“神”,地上的称“祇”,而“鬼”专指人而言，指人死后的精神或灵魂，盖是一种祖先崇拜。殷人认为祖先死后灵魂升天亦可加入神的行列，后人通过祭祀可以得到祖先的庇佑。鬼神因此具有超自然义。这种原始的超自然义后来随着气化思想的不断发展而逐渐消解。气化思想可追溯至先秦诸子，《庄子》就曾以“气聚气散”来界定“生死”。气化思想真正“扮演特别重要的角色则是在汉代”,并逐渐在士大夫阶层形成了一种自然主义的鬼神观。这种自然主义鬼神观也是我国无神论的早期形态。其具有两个主要特点。

First, it regarded ghosts and spirits as qi. This was an answer to the question of the nature of ghosts and spirits. This expression already appeared in texts from the Warring States period and even the early Han dynasty. For example, the “Neiye” chapter of the Guanzi states: “The essence of all things, this gives life. Below it produces the five grains; above it becomes the arrayed stars. Flowing between heaven and earth, it is called ghosts and spirits.” The “Meaning of Sacrifices” chapter of the Book of Rites states: “Following the essence of things, establishing it as the ultimate, clearly naming it ghosts and spirits, to instruct the common people, then the hundred clans will fear, and the myriad people will submit.” The “Appended Remarks, Part I” of the Book of Changes states: “The essential qi forms things; the wandering soul causes change. Therefore, one knows the circumstances of ghosts and spirits.” In the conception of the qi-based cosmology, all things in heaven and earth are transformed from a single qi; there is nothing that transcends qi. Ghosts and spirits are merely a lighter, purer form of qi, hence they were often explained as the “essence of things” or “essential qi.” The supernatural meaning possessed by ghosts and spirits began to be dissolved.

其一，以鬼神为气。此是对鬼神性质问题的回答。在战国时期乃至汉初的文献中就已经出现了这种表达。如《管子·内业》曰：“凡物之精，此则为生。下生五谷，上为列星。流于天地之间，谓之鬼神。”《礼记·祭义》曰：“因物之精，制为之极，明命鬼神，以为黔首，则百众以畏，万民以服。”《易传·系辞上》曰：“精气为物，游魂为变，是故知鬼神之情状。”盖在气化宇宙论的观念中，天地万物皆一气所化，没有超越于气之物。鬼神不过是一种更轻盈、更纯净之气，于是常以“物之精”或“精气”释“鬼神”。鬼神所具有的超自然意义开始被消解。

Second, it held that ghosts and spirits possess the meaning of coming and going, bending and stretching. This was an answer to the question of the function of ghosts and spirits. At that time, people had a highly rational explanation for the character “ghost,” interpreting it through the homophone “return,” taking the meaning of “returning” or “reverting to the root.” The “Meaning of Sacrifices” chapter of the Book of Rites states: “All living things must die; when dead, they must return to the earth. This is called a ghost.” The Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters also holds that “ghost is what people return to, becoming a ghost.” “Spirit is the heavenly spirit, that which draws forth the myriad things. It comes from ‘altar’ and ‘extend.’” Later, Wang Chong provided a relatively complete expression in the Balanced Discourses, saying:

其二，认为鬼神具有往来屈伸之义。此是对鬼神作用问题的回答。当时人们对“鬼”字有一极富理性的解释，即以谐音字“归”来解释“鬼”,盖是取“回归”或“返本”之义。《礼记·祭义》曰：“众生必死，死必归土，此之谓鬼。”《说文》亦认为“鬼，人所归为鬼。”“神，天神，引出万物者也。从示、申。”后来王充在《论衡》中有一相对完整的表达，曰：

Ghost means return; spirit means something vague and formless. Some say: Ghosts and spirits are the names of yin and yang. Yin qi goes against things and returns, therefore it is called ghost; yang qi guides things and gives life, therefore it is called spirit. Spirit means to extend. Extending without end, ending and then beginning again.

鬼者，归也；神者，荒忽无形者也。或说：鬼神，阴阳之名也。阴气逆物而归，故谓之鬼；阳气导物而生，故谓之神。神者，申也。申复无已，终而复始。

It can be seen that ghosts and spirits are not only qi, but also the inherent yin-yang structure of qi. The myriad things in heaven and earth therefore extend without end, ending and then beginning again. Ghosts and spirits accomplish the movement of qi bending, stretching, coming, and going; ghosts and spirits are the internal cause of the movement of qi.

可见鬼神不仅仅是气，更是气内在的阴阳结构，天地万物因此申复无已，终而复始。鬼神成就了气屈伸往来之运动，鬼神即气运动的内因。

At that time, opposed to the naturalist view of ghosts and spirits, there was also a prevalent superstitious view, holding that after death, some kind of spirit or consciousness still existed, i.e., a “ghost.” Wang Chong’s naturalist view of ghosts and spirits powerfully criticized this theory of “people becoming ghosts after death.” He said: “Now I write the chapters ‘On Death’ and ‘On the Falsity of Death,’ to make clear that after death people have no consciousness and cannot become ghosts.” He further attributed human spirit and consciousness to the product of qi and form. He said:

当时与自然主义鬼神观对立，还流行一种迷信的观点，认为人死后尚有某种精神或知觉存在，即“鬼”。王充的自然主义鬼神观有力地批判了这种“人死为鬼”说，其曰：“今著《论死》及《死伪》之篇，明人死无知，不能为鬼。”进而将人的精神、知觉归结为气与形的产物。他说：

Form requires qi to be completed; qi requires form to have consciousness. There is no fire that burns alone in the world; how could there be in the world a consciousness without a body that knows alone?

形须气而成，气须形而知。天下无独燃之火，世间安得有无体独知之精?

Qi is the material; qi gathers to form form; only after form is there consciousness. Thus, a one-dimensional, mutually generative logical relationship of “qi → form → consciousness” is constructed. According to this logic, when a person dies and their form disperses, returning to the primordial qi, there is no longer “consciousness.”

气为质料，气聚成形，形而后有知，如此构建起“气→形→知”的一维相生的逻辑关系，依此逻辑当人死形散返于元气，则不复有“知”。

This relationship between “form and consciousness (spirit)” was further developed into Fan Zhen’s “Theory of the Extinction of the Spirit.” Fan Zhen’s “Theory of the Extinction of the Spirit” is undoubtedly a milestone in the history of the development of atheism in ancient China. But objectively speaking, the “spirit” that Fan Zhen criticized referred to human “consciousness,” taking concrete perception or the soul as “spirit,” which belongs to a narrow form of atheism. His theory of the relationship between form and spirit had certain limitations. Fan Zhen said:

这种“形知(神)”关系，再进一步发展就是范缜的“神灭论”。范缜的“神灭论”无疑是我国古代无神论发展史上的一座里程碑。但客观地讲，范缜所批判的“神”是就人有“知”而言，是以具体知觉或灵魂为“神”,属于狭义的无神论。其形神关系具有一定的局限性。范缜曰：

The spirit is the form; the form is the spirit. Therefore, when the form exists, the spirit exists; when the form decays, the spirit is extinguished.

神即形也，形即神也。是以形存则神存，形谢则神灭也。

First, Fan Zhen’s expression was more dialectical. He did not separate or oppose “form” and “spirit,” but held that “the spirit is the form; the form is the spirit.” Form and spirit are merely two different functions and manifestations of the same existence; the two are “different in name but one in substance.” However, he also held that “form” occupies a fundamental position, i.e., “form is the substance, spirit is the function,” as in “form is the substance of spirit; spirit is the function of form. Thus, form refers to its substance, spirit refers to its function.” Here, Fan Zhen replaced the “substance-function” relationship commonly used in Neo-Daoism and Buddhism with a “substance-function” relationship. The term “substance” has a transcendent meaning, while “substance” refers to essence, the essential attribute at the realistic level that can be grasped to distinguish one thing from another. For example, Fan Zhen believed that the substance of a human is “consciousness,” while the substance of wood is “lack of consciousness.” Having consciousness or lacking consciousness is a realistic difference, and this realistic difference reflects the difference in “substance” between humans and wood. And the difference in “substance” between humans and wood, in the final analysis, is the difference in “form” between humans and wood. In summary, the “form” of a thing determines the “substance” of that thing, and at the same time determines its “spiritual function.”

首先，范缜这一表达更具思辨性，他并没有将“形”和“神”割裂或对立，而认为“神即形也，形即神也”,形、神只是同一存在的两种不同作用和表现，二者是“名殊而体一”。但又认为“形”具有根本地位，即“形质神用”,所谓“形者神之质，神者形之用，是则形称其质，神言其用。”这里范缜用“质—用”关系替换了玄学及佛教中常用的“体一用”关系。盖“体”有超越义，而“质”指本质，是现实层面所能把握到的一物区别于他物的本质属性，如范缜认为人之质为“知”,木之质为“无知”。有知与无知是一种现实差异，而这种现实差异体现了人与木“质”的不同。而人与木“质”的不同，说到底是人与木“形”的不同。总而言之，事物之“形”决定了事物之“质”,与此同时也就决定了其“神用”。

As for Fan Zhen’s concept of “extinguishing the spirit through the form,” its original intention was likely due to the prevalence of Buddhism in the Southern Dynasties; he developed it to defend Confucian thought. He powerfully criticized the theory of the “immortality of the soul” that was widespread in Buddhism and society at the time. However, if one looks from a more professional perspective, Fan Zhen’s refutation of Buddhism was actually not successful. The “spirit” that Fan Zhen criticized referred only to human consciousness (awareness), belonging to a narrow form of atheism. Although the theory of the “immortality of the soul” had a profound influence among the people, it actually had little market within Buddhist philosophy itself. From the perspective of Buddhist doctrine, consciousness or the soul is merely a thinking mind, compounded from the four aggregates (feeling, perception, volition, consciousness), just like “form” compounded from the four great elements (earth, water, fire, wind). It has no self-nature, and therefore can only be a “false self.” The Buddha’s teaching was precisely to make people break their attachment to the “false self.” However, concepts such as the fundamental consciousness, the mind’s true suchness, and Buddha-nature taught in Buddhism belong to the metaphysical, transcendent level. By negating spirit (in a broad sense) through the extinction of concrete, post-metaphysical perception or consciousness, Fan Zhen actually confused the distinction between the two. Therefore, he could not truly achieve the effect of refuting Buddhism, nor could he adequately respond to Buddhist counter-arguments. For example, Zongmi raised such a question, saying: “The qi of heaven and earth is originally without consciousness. Humans, receiving this unconscious qi, how can they suddenly arise and have consciousness? Plants and trees also all receive qi; why do they not have consciousness?” The character “suddenly” here means “suddenly” coming into being from “non-being.” Zongmi used this to launch a challenge, implicitly containing his opposition to the theory of “creating something out of nothing,” i.e., that human “consciousness” could suddenly arise from unconscious qi, from nothing.

范缜这种“以形灭神”的观念就其初衷而言，盖因南朝佛教盛行，他为捍卫儒家思想而发。他有力地批判了当时佛教及社会上普遍存在的“灵魂不灭”说。但如果人们站在更专业的角度来看，范缜的辟佛其实并不成功。范缜所批判的“神”只是就人有知(意识)而言的，属于狭义的无神论。“灵魂不灭”说尽管于民间影响深远，但在佛教哲学内部其实并没有多少市场。从佛学的观点来看，意识或灵魂只是一思虑心，由四蕴(受、想、行、识)复合而成，同由四大(地、水、火、风)复合而成的“色”一样，是无自性的，因此只能是一种“假我”。佛陀宣法就是要人破除对“假我”的执着。而佛教所讲的根本识、心真如、佛性等观念则属于形上的超越层面。范缜以形而后的具体知觉或意识的消亡否定神(广义的),实际上混淆了二者的区别。因此不能真正起到辟佛的效果，也难以回应佛教的反诘。如宗密就有这样的质疑，说：“天地之气本无知也，人禀无知之气，安得欻起而有知乎?草木亦皆禀气，何不知乎?”这里的“欻”是指从“无”忽然而“有”之意。宗密以此发难，暗含了宗密反对“无中生有”之论，即认为人的“知”不可能从无知之气，即无中忽然生起。

In upholding Confucian thought, as Mr. Ding Weixiang has pointed out, “‘spirit’ (shen) was originally a concept inherent to Chinese philosophy,”[1]1 The *Classic of Filial Piety* (*Xiaojing*) is a Confucian classic on filial piety. The phrase “ghostly enjoyment” (*gui xiang*) appears in a different context in that text. and we cannot entirely negate it because of its use by Buddhism. Meanwhile, Fan Zhen, in his assertion that “the form perishes and the spirit perishes with it,”[2]2 The Great Void (*tai xu*) is a central concept in Zhang Zai’s philosophy, referring to the original, undifferentiated state of qi (*qi*) from which all things emerge and to which they return. also negated the transcendent meaning that Confucianism originally could possess. This point is directly expressed in Fan Zhen’s judgment on “the difference between the ordinary and the sage.”[3]3 *Gan tong* (感通) is a key Neo-Confucian term for a sympathetic resonance or communication that transcends physical separation, often between humans and between humans and the cosmos. According to the logic that “form is the substance and spirit is its function,” Fan Zhen believed that the reason ordinary people and sages differ lies fundamentally in the difference in their physical forms, such as “the eight-colored pupils and double-pupiled eyes of Yao and Shun; the dragon-like face and horse-like mouth of the Yellow Emperor and Fu Xi… the seven orifices arranged side by side in Bi Gan’s heart; Jiang Wei’s gall, as large as a fist.”[4]4 “Establishing instruction through the way of the spirits” (*shendao shejiao*) is a classical Confucian phrase referring to the sage’s use of ritual and spiritual concepts to guide the people, often interpreted as a pedagogical or political strategy. Ultimately, this means “one knows that sages are distinguished, each surpassing the common type; not only does their Way differ from the multitude of beings, but their forms also transcend the myriad things.” In this way, sages are merely those born with “forms that transcend the myriad things,” and ordinary people, due to the limitations of their physical form, cannot attain sagehood through “learning.” This is precisely the great failing Zhang Zai criticized in scholars since the Qin-Han period: “they know man but do not know Heaven, they seek to become worthy men but do not seek to become sages.”[5]5 This is a reference to a common folk belief that the spirits of particularly strong-willed or wronged individuals could become vengeful ghosts. In Zhang Zai’s view, ordinary people and sages share the same nature, so sages can certainly be achieved through “learning.” As he said, “The Confucian, through clarity reaches sincerity, and through sincerity reaches clarity; therefore Heaven and man are united as one, and through learning one can become a sage.”[6]6 The First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shihuang, 259–210 BCE) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first to unify China under a single imperial rule.

在维护儒家思想方面，正如丁为祥先生所指出的，“‘神’本来就是中国哲学所固有的概念”,我们不能因佛教的使用而全然否定它。而范缜在“以形灭神”的同时，也否定了儒家原本所可以具有的超越义。这一点直接表现在范缜“凡圣之殊”的论断上。依“形质神用”的逻辑，范缜认为，凡、圣所以有别，根本在于凡、圣形质的不同，如“八采重瞳，勋华之容；龙颜马口，轩峰之状……比干之心，七窍并列；伯约之胆，其大若拳”,最终是“知圣人区分，每绝常品，非惟道革群生，乃亦形超万有”。这样一来，圣人就只是那些天生“形超万有”之人，普通人因形质的局限，便不能致“学”成圣。此正是张载所批判的秦汉以来学者“知人而不知天，求为贤人而不求为圣人”之大蔽。在张载看来，凡圣具有相同的本性，所以圣人完全可以致“学”而成，所谓“儒者则因明致诚，因诚致明，故天人合一，致学而可以成圣”。

II. “The Designation for the Wondrous Responsiveness of the Great Void” and the Ontological Meaning of “Spirit” (shen)

二、“太虚妙应之目”与“神”的本体义

Zhang Zai noted the difference between “spirit” (shen) and the specific “perception and consciousness” that arises after having form. This meant he had to transform the “form-spirit” relationship. In Zhang Zai’s view, “having perception and having consciousness is merely the guest-like sensation from interaction with things.”[7]7 Zhao Gao (d. 207 BCE) was a powerful eunuch official in the Qin court who, after the First Emperor’s death, conspired to place a weak successor on the throne and effectively seized power, contributing to the dynasty’s collapse. What we generally call “having consciousness” “comes from the reception of the ears and eyes,” that is, it is triggered by sensory stimulation. Ultimately, this is “knowledge from interaction with things.” This kind of “knowledge” arises and perishes with the condensation and dispersion of qi, so Zhang Zai called it “guest-like sensation.” On this point, he agrees with Fan Zhen’s theory of spirit extinction: when qi disperses and the form perishes, “perception and consciousness” also disappear. Secondly, having consciousness implies not having consciousness of something. Zhang Zai said, “What has ignorance has knowledge; what has no ignorance has no knowledge.”[8]8 Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649 CE) was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty, often regarded as one of China’s greatest rulers. Therefore, this kind of “knowledge” is a limited “knowledge.” In comparison, “spirit” (shen) possesses constancy; it does not arise and perish with the condensation and dispersion of qi. Zhang Zai stated, “Ghosts and spirits are constantly not dying.”[9]9 Empress Wu Zetian (624–705 CE) was the only female emperor in Chinese history, who rose to power during the Tang dynasty. She was a consort of Emperor Taizong and later became the wife of his son, Emperor Gaozong, eventually seizing the throne herself. Secondly, “spirit” manifests as an infinite “knowledge.” “Having no knowledge is spirit.” “The sage’s position is Heavenly virtue, which cannot be known through knowledge; it is called spirit. Therefore, spirit is the sage, and it cannot be known.”[10]10 This refers to an event recorded in the *Spring and Autumn Annals* (*Chunqiu*), where a meteorite fell in the state of Song in 645 BCE. Thus, the “knowledge” of “spirit” is the “non-knowledge” of the sage who knows everything. In this way, “spirit” transcends “form.” Different from Fan Zhen, who placed spirit in the position of “function,” Zhang Zai endowed spirit with the position of “substance.” Zhang Zai said:

张载注意到了“神”与形而后之具体“知觉”之不同。这也就意味着他必须对“形一神”关系进行改造。在张载看来“有识有知，物交之客感尔”。我们一般所谓“有知”,“由耳目有受也”,即由感官之刺激所引发的，此说到底“乃物交而知”。这种“知”会随着气聚气散而有生灭，故张载称之为“客感”。这一点与范缜神灭论是一致的，即气散形谢“知觉”亦随之消亡。其次，有知即意味有所不知，张载所谓“有不知则有知，无不知则无知”,故这种“知”是一种有限之“知”。与之相比，“神”则具有恒常性，不会随着气聚气散而有生灭，张载称“鬼神常不死”。其次，“神”表现为一种无限之“知”。“无知则神矣”,“圣位天德不可致知谓神。故神也者，圣而不可知”。所以“神”之“知”即圣人无所不知之“无知”。这样“神”就超越了“形”,进而与范缜将神置于“用”的地位不同，张载赋予了神“体”的地位。张载曰：

One thing with two bodies is qi; oneness is spirit (the two are present, therefore it is unfathomable), duality is transformation (it extends and acts through the one); this is how Heaven is triune. Spirit is Heavenly virtue; transformation is the Heavenly Way. Virtue is its substance; the Way is its function; they are unified in qi.[11]11 Yin and yang are the two complementary, interdependent forces or principles that, in Chinese cosmology, constitute all phenomena and govern the processes of change in the universe.

一物两体，气也；一故神(两在故不测),两故化(推行于一),此天之所以参也。神，天德，化，天道。德，其体；道，其用，一于气而已。

Spirit is Heavenly virtue, the substance of Heaven; transformation is the Heavenly Way, the function of Heaven. Therefore, spirit is substance and transformation is function. “Unified in qi” means this spirit is the spirit of qi, and this transformation is also the transformation of qi. Zhang Zai advocated “first recognizing creation and transformation,”[12]12 “Manifesting the substance through its function” (*ji yong jian ti*) is a methodological principle in Chinese philosophy, particularly associated with the Neo-Confucian Cheng-Zhu school, which holds that the underlying substance or principle can be apprehended through its manifested functions or operations. that is, starting from the phenomenal world and grasping the substance through the flowing whole. The “two bodies” of qi refer to the relativity of yin and yang in qi. The phenomenal world has movement because of “duality” (we see this relativity in movement and change, and establish the concept of movement and change based on relativity), and because of movement, it becomes a flowing whole. “Spirit” is the basis behind this “flowing whole”; this is “seeing substance through function.” The substance-function relationship shows that there is no substance outside function, nor any function without substance. Although spirit transcends qi, it is not separate from qi; spirit is manifested in the ceaseless flow of qi-transformation. Zhang Zai said: “The nature of qi is originally empty and spiritual; therefore spirit and nature are inherent in qi.”[13]13 Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) was a late Ming-early Qing dynasty philosopher and a major figure in the “learning of qi” (*qi xue*) tradition, which he developed on the basis of Zhang Zai’s thought. Spirit is therefore also immanent in the myriad things as their nature. In this way, Zhang Zai endowed the “spirit-form” relationship with a new “simultaneously transcendent and immanent” character. Therefore, this ontological “spirit” is different from both the immanent “spirit” of naturalism and the transcendent ruler of supernaturalism.

神即天德，为天之体；化即天道，为天之用，故神体化用。“一于气”即此神为气之神，此化亦为气之化之义。张载主张“先识造化”,即从现象界出发，通过流行之整体来把握本体。气之“两体”即气阴阳之相对性，现象世界因“两”而有运动可言(即我们在运动变化中见此相对性，依相对性建立运动变化之概念),又因运动而成为一流行的整体。“神”即此“流行的整体”背后之根据，此“即用见体”也。而体用关系表明，无用外之体，亦无无体之用。神虽超越于气，但又不离于气，神就表现在气化流行之不息上。张载曰：“气之性本虚而神，则神与性乃气所固有。”神因此又内在于万物而为万物之本性。这样一来，张载就赋予“神—形”一种全新的“即超越即内在”的关系。故而这种本体义的“神”既不同于自然主义的内在义“神”,也不同于超自然的主宰。

The ontological “spirit” (shen) is connected to another important concept in Zhang Zai’s philosophy, the “Great Void” (taixu). The Great Void is formless and imageless, utterly still and without sensation; Zhang Zai used it to express the transcendent meaning of Heaven as soundless and odorless. Spirit refers to the unfathomable wondrous responsiveness of Heaven. “That which makes the myriad things wondrous is called spirit.” “The unfathomable aspect of Heaven is called spirit; the constant aspect of spirit is called Heaven.”[14]14 Zhang Zai is also known as Zhang Hengqu, after his place of origin (Hengqu, in present-day Shaanxi province). Therefore, Zhang Zai believed that “spirit is the designation for the wondrous responsiveness of the Great Void.”[15]15 “Learning of qi of the transcendent type” (*xian tian xing qi xue*) is a term used by the author to characterize Wang Fuzhi’s philosophy, emphasizing its grounding in a primordial, pre-cosmic qi. Spirit and the Great Void are different names for the same substance (Heaven). This unity also shows that Heaven is empty and still, but not empty nothingness; the utmost void is precisely the utmost reality. Therefore, the substance can issue forth as the myriad functions, generating and regenerating without cease. This is the single source of substance and function. This also means drawing a clear line with Buddhism’s stubborn emptiness and extinction, and its separation of substance and function. Zhang Zai criticized:

本体义的“神”,与张载哲学中的另一个重要概念“太虚”相通。太虚无形无象，至静无感，张载借此以表天无声无臭之超越义。神则是就天之妙应不可测度而言，“所以妙万物而谓之神”,“天之不测谓神，神而有常谓天”。故张载认为“神者，太虚妙应之目”。神与太虚即同一本体(天)的不同称谓。而这种的统一性还表明：天，空寂但不空无，至虚即是至实,故本体能发为万用，生生不息，此体用一源。这也就意味和佛氏之顽空寂灭、体用超绝划清了界限。张载批评说：

If one says that the myriad images are things seen within the Great Void, then things and the Void do not mutually support each other; form is form, nature is nature; form and nature, Heaven and man, do not depend on each other for existence. This falls into the Buddhist theory that mountains, rivers, and the great earth are manifestations of a disease of vision.[16]16 *Zhengyou* (诤友) literally means “a friend who admonishes,” referring to a friend who offers frank and critical advice. Here it is used metaphorically to indicate that Zhang Zai’s view, while not identical to later atheism, served as a constructive interlocutor that pushed its development forward. This Way is unclear precisely because the ignorant slightly understand that the substance is empty and is nature, but do not know that the foundation is the Heavenly Way as function. Instead, they use the smallness of human views to condition Heaven and Earth.[17]17 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

若谓万象为太虚中所见之物，则物与虚不相资，形自形，性自性，形性、天人不相待而有，陷于浮屠以山河大地为见病之说。此道不明，正由懵者略知体虚空为性，不知本天道为用，反以人见之小因缘天地。

The “myriad images are things seen within the Great Void” here represents a special Buddhist “cosmology,” namely, “dependent arising from the True Suchness.”[18]18 The doctrine of the Tathāgatagarbha (womb of the Thus-Come One) or Buddha-nature, which posits a pure, transcendent reality as the basis for all phenomena. In the theory of the Mahayana nature school, the mind’s True Suchness is a transcendent and pure substance, unproduced and unperishing. However, the unproduced and unperishing transcendent true mind does not directly generate the phenomenal world of production and extinction. The phenomenal world (the gate of arising and ceasing) and the noumenal world (the gate of non-arising and non-ceasing) are neither identical nor different. “Not identical” means the mind’s True Suchness cannot directly generate the world of production and extinction; production and extinction are not the inherent nature of the Tathāgatagarbha. “Not different” means the world of production and extinction is, after all, an illusory world that exists depending on the mind’s True Suchness. In Zhang Zai’s view, this leads to Buddhism’s separation of substance and function, and the non-correspondence of Heaven and man. The real world can therefore only be established on illusion. In summary, while completing the transformation of the form-spirit relationship, Zhang Zai also completed his critique of Buddhism.

这里的“万象为太虚中所见之物”代表了佛教一种特殊的“宇宙论”,即“真如缘起”。在大乘性宗的理论中，心真如是一超绝清净之体，不生不灭。但不生不灭超越之真心并非直接生成有生有灭之现象世界。现象界(生灭门)与本体界(不生不灭门)非一非异,“非一”是说心真如不能直接生成有生有灭之世界，有生有灭非如来藏之本性；“非异”是说生灭世界毕竟是凭依心真如而有的假有世界。在张载看来这导致了佛教的体用超绝和天人不相待。现实世界因此只能建立在虚幻之上。总之，张载在完成对形、神关系改造的同时，亦完成了对佛教的批判。

III. “Coming and Going, Bending and Stretching” and the Functional Meaning of “Ghosts and Spirits” (guishen)

三、“往来屈伸”与“鬼神”的作用义

Regarding ghosts and spirits as essential qi was the naturalist view of ghosts and spirits since the Qin-Han period. However, Zhang Zai’s understanding of ghosts and spirits had already changed with the reversal of the “form-spirit” relationship. In Zhang Zai’s philosophy, ghosts and spirits cannot be regarded as actual qi. He clearly stated:

以“鬼神”为精气，是秦汉以来自然主义的鬼神观，而张载对鬼神的理解其实已随着“形一神”关系的扭转而改变了。在张载哲学中，鬼神不能视作实然之气。他明确指出：

Ghosts and spirits are the innate capacity (liangneng) of the two qi.[19]19 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*. The sage is one who attains Heaven through utmost sincerity; spirit is the designation for the wondrous responsiveness of the Great Void. All the forms and images of Heaven and Earth are but the dregs of spiritual transformation.[20]20 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

鬼神者，二气之良能也。圣者，至诚得天之谓；神者，太虚妙应之目。凡天地法象，皆神化之糟粕尔。

The term “innate capacity” (liangneng) here comes from Mencius, who said: “What man is able to do without learning is his innate capacity; what he knows without deliberating is his innate knowledge.”[21]21 Mencius, *Mencius*, 7A15. Both innate capacity and innate knowledge are inherent goodness that “originates from Heaven and is not dependent on man.” Zhang Zai further endowed “innate capacity” with an ontological status (later, Wang Yangming endowed “innate knowledge” with ontological status, achieving his theory of “extending innate knowledge”). He said:

这里的“良能”出自孟子，孟子说：“人之所不学而能者，其良能也；所不虑而知者，其良知也。”良能、良知皆是“出于天，不系于人”的本然之善。张载则进一步赋予了“良能”本体的地位(后来王阳明赋予“良知”本体地位，成就了其“致良知”说)。他说：

Spiritual transformation is the innate capacity of Heaven, not of man; therefore, only when one is great and occupies the position of Heavenly virtue can one exhaust spirit and know transformation.[22]22 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

神化者，天之良能，非人能；故大而位天德，然后能穷神知化。

What the sage cannot know is the innate capacity of Heavenly virtue; if one sets one’s mind to seek it, it cannot be known through knowledge.[23]23 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

圣不可知者，乃天德良能，立心求之，则不可得而知之。

Heaven’s innate capacity is originally my innate capacity; it is only lost because of the self (wo). (This clarifies that Heaven and man are originally not two.)[24]24 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

天良能本吾良能，顾为有我所丧耳。(明天人之本无二)

It can be seen that “innate capacity” is the same as “Heavenly virtue,” occupying the position of the “sage.” The third sentence, “Heaven’s innate capacity is originally my innate capacity,” can be mutually interpreted with the preceding sentence in the original text, “Heavenly nature is in man.” Wu Na, in his Correcting the Ignorant: Supplementary Commentary, said: “‘Heavenly nature is in man,’ therefore Heaven’s innate capacity, man possesses it all.” And “it is only lost because of the self” means that man’s innate capacity of Heavenly virtue is obscured by the “small self.” In summary, in Zhang Zai’s view, “innate capacity” is the source of creation and transformation in Heaven, and in man, it is man’s Heavenly virtue or Heavenly nature (the nature of Heaven and Earth). Understanding this clarifies that Heaven and man are originally not two. It can be seen that in Zhang Zai’s thought, “innate capacity” and the “nature of Heaven and Earth” share the same ontological status and function. Therefore, “ghosts and spirits are the innate capacity of the two qi” actually means that ghosts and spirits are the inherent nature of qi. This can also be verified by this sentence:

可见“良能”与“天德”同，处于“圣”位。第三句“天良能本吾良能”与原文前一句“天性在人”可以互释，明吴讷在《正蒙补注》中曰：“‘天性在人’,故天之良能，人皆有之。”而“顾为有我所丧耳”是指人的天德良能为“小我”所遮蔽。总之在张载看来，“良能”在天为造化之源，在人则为人的天德或天性(天地之性),明于此则知天人本无二。可见在张载这里“良能”与“天地之性”具有相同的本体地位和功用。所以，“鬼神者，二气之良能也”实是说鬼神为气的本然之性。此亦可证于此句：

The nature of qi is originally empty and spiritual; therefore spirit and nature are inherent in qi. This is why ghosts and spirits embody things and cannot be discarded.[25]25 Zhang Zai, *Correcting the Ignorant*.

气之性本虚而神，则神与性乃气所固有，此鬼神所以体物而不可遗也。

The reason ghosts and spirits can “embody things and cannot be discarded” is precisely that “ghosts and spirits” are the inherent nature of qi. Moreover, this statement clearly explains that “ghosts and spirits” are “spirit.” Therefore, although the expressions “ghosts and spirits” and “spirit” differ in Zhang Zai’s philosophy, they are by no means a distinction between “qi” and “spirit.” We believe that this difference in expression actually reflects Zhang Zai’s philosophical consideration of two levels: the level of what is inherently so and the level of what is actually so. The level of what is inherently so refers to the transcendence of the substance; the level of what is actually so refers to the indivisibility of “substance and function.” Although “substance and function” are indivisible, the boundary between “substance and function” cannot be obliterated. Therefore, we believe that in Zhang Zai’s philosophy, “spirit” is the substantial meaning of “ghosts and spirits,” while “ghosts and spirits” embody the functional meaning of “spirit.” And the functional meaning of “spirit” is manifested as the contraction and extension, the coming and going of “ghosts and spirits,” which are not qi yet inseparable from qi.

鬼神所以能“体物而不可遗”,正因为“鬼神”乃气所固有之本性。且这句话亦清楚的说明“鬼神”即“神”也。所以张载哲学中“鬼神”与“神”表达虽有所不同，但绝非“气”与“神”的不同。我们认为，这种表达上的不同，其实体现了张载哲学中本然与实然的两层考量。本然层面是就本体的超越性而言的，实然层面是就“体一用”不可分而言的。虽然“体一用”不可分，但“体—用”之界限不可泯。所以我们认为，张载哲学中“神”是“鬼神”的本体义，“鬼神”则体现了“神”的作用义。而“神”的作用义就呈现为“鬼神”屈伸往来，非气又不离气上。

Zhang Zai also inherited much of the naturalist meaning of the contraction and extension of ghosts and spirits. For instance, he said: “That which arrives is called spirit, because of its extension; that which returns is called ghost, because of its return.” He also said: “Ghosts and spirits mean coming and going, contraction and extension.” However, in Zhang Zai’s view, this embodies the functional meaning of “spirit.” “Ghosts and spirits” are not qi yet inseparable from qi, and are not the inherent yin-yang structure of qi. First, ghosts and spirits are not qi. In his commentary on the “Appended Remarks” of the *Yijing* regarding “essential qi forms things, wandering souls cause change,” Zhang Zai provides an explanation distinct from “naturalism”:

对于自然主义中鬼神的屈伸往来之义，张载亦多有继承。如他说：“至之谓神，以其伸也；反之为鬼，以其归也。”又曰：“鬼神，往来、屈伸之意”。不过在张载看来这体现了“神”的作用义。“鬼神”非气亦不离气，而非气内在的阴阳结构。首先，鬼神非气。张载在注《系辞》“精气为物，游魂为变，给出了一种区别于“自然主义”的解释：

Essential qi is that which comes from non-being to being; wandering souls are that which goes from being to non-being. Coming from non-being to being is the condition of spirit; going from being to non-being is the condition of ghost. Coming from non-being to being, therefore it manifests as things; going from being to non-being, therefore it is hidden as change. Manifesting as things is the appearance of spirit; being hidden as change is the appearance of ghost. The general idea does not go beyond being and non-being. Although things are actual, they originally come from the void, therefore they are called spirit; change uses the void, originally obtained from the actual, therefore it is called ghost.

精气者，自无而有；游魂者，自有而无。自无而有，神之情也；自有而无，鬼之情也。自无而有，故显而为物；自有而无，故隐而为变。显而为物者，神之状也；隐而为变者，鬼之状也。大意不越有无而已。物虽是实，本自虚来，故谓之神；变是用虚，本缘实得，故谓之鬼。

Here, being and non-being refer to qi having form and being formless. So-called “coming from non-being to being, therefore it manifests as things” means that things arise from the condensation of qi; “going from being to non-being, therefore it is hidden as change” means that things die from the dissipation of qi. Zhang Zai believes that the beginning and end of the generation and extinction of things never depart from the void of their nature. From the void to the actual (originally coming from the void) is the process of the substance manifesting in function, which Zhang Zai calls “spirit”; from the actual to the void is the process of “form dissolving and returning to the source,” which Zhang Zai calls “ghost.” “Ghosts and spirits” are actually different functions or appellations of the void of the nature of things in the process of their generation and extinction. The void of nature has no generation or extinction, unlike the generation and extinction of qi condensation and dissipation; therefore, ghosts and spirits also do not have generation or extinction following the condensation and dissipation of qi. Regarding ghosts and spirits not being constantly in death, Zhang Zai said: “The valley spirit does not die, therefore it can be subtle and manifest without concealment.” “Ghosts and spirits are constantly not dead, therefore sincerity cannot be concealed.” Here, “valley spirit” and “ghosts and spirits” have similar meanings. The former, objectively speaking, refers to the unceasing transformation of the myriad things; the latter, subjectively speaking, refers to the sincerity of the original goodness of the human mind that cannot be concealed. But whether objective or subjective, both take the eternal existence of ghosts and spirits as the basis for their unceasing transformation. In summary, ghosts and spirits are no longer the “actuality of essential qi,” which differs from the original meaning of the *Yijing* commentary.

这里的有和无指气之有形和无形而言，所谓“自无而有，故显而为物”即物因气聚而生，“自有而无，故隐而为变”即物因气散而死。张载认为，事物生灭之始终皆不离其本性之虚，由虚至实(本自虚来),即本体显露于用的过程，张载称此为“神”;由实至虚，即“形溃反原”的过程，张载称为“鬼”。“鬼神”实际上就是事物本性之虚在事物生灭过程中的不同作用或称谓。本性之虚无生无灭，不同于气聚气散之有生有灭；所以鬼神亦不随气聚气散而有生灭。关于鬼神不常在死，张载曰：“谷神不死，故能微显而不掩。”“鬼神常不死，故诚不可掩。”这里的“谷神”与“鬼神”意思相通。前者于客观而言，指万物变化不息；后者则是于主观而言，指人心本善之诚不可掩。但无论客观还是主观，皆以鬼神的永恒存在为其变化不息之根据。总之，鬼神已非“精气之实然”,此与《易传》的原义不同。

Second, ghosts and spirits are not qi but are inseparable from qi. This can be verified by Zhang Zai’s criticism of what he called “the Buddha’s illumination of ghosts,” yet his “desire to speak directly of the Great Void.” Zhang Zai said:

其二，鬼神非气但不离于气。可证于张载对所谓“浮屠明鬼”,却“欲直语太虚”的批评上，张载说：

…Generally, one who knows day and night, yin and yang can know nature and destiny; one who can know nature and destiny can know the sage and know ghosts and spirits. Those who desire to speak directly of the Great Void, without burdening their minds with day and night, yin and yang, have not yet seen change; not yet seeing change, even if they wish to avoid the burden of yin and yang, day and night, there is no way to do so. If they have not even seen change, how can they speak of the true ultimate! Abandoning the true ultimate and speaking of ghosts and spirits is delusion. What is called the actual ultimate, they can only speak of it, but have never understood it in their minds.

……大率知昼夜阴阳则能[知]性命，能知性命则能知圣人，知鬼神。彼欲直语太虚，不以昼夜、阴阳累其心，则是未始见易，未始见易，则虽欲免阴阳、昼夜之累，末由也已。易且不见，又乌能更语真际!舍真际而谈鬼神，妄也。所谓实际，彼徒能语之而已，未始心解也。

Clearly, Zhang Zai here divides “knowing day and night, yin and yang” and “knowing the sage, knowing ghosts and spirits” into different levels, yet they possess unity, that is, through the effort of exhausting principle and fully realizing one’s nature (“knowing nature and destiny”), “knowing day and night, yin and yang” directly connects to “knowing the sage, knowing ghosts and spirits.” The error of the Buddhists lies in “not burdening their minds with day and night, yin and yang,” ultimately leading to “abandoning the true ultimate and speaking of ghosts and spirits.” In the Buddhist context, “true ultimate” means “actual ultimate”; Buddhism often uses “true” and “actual” to refer to the fundamental meaning. Zhang Zai believes that the Buddhist “actual ultimate” holds the same status as the Confucian “heavenly virtue” and “sincerity,” but when Buddhism speaks of “substance,” it regards human life as illusory, whereas Confucianism “obtains heaven without abandoning humanity,” which is the unity of substance and function. Therefore, Zhang Zai believes that the “true ultimate” should be “one source of substance and function,” that is, “seeing change.” “Abandoning the true ultimate and speaking of ghosts and spirits” means discarding the principle of “one source of substance and function,” and “desiring to speak directly of the Great Void” means obtaining “ghosts and spirits” while discarding “yin and yang,” leading to the separation of ghosts and spirits from yin and yang. It can be seen that while insisting that ghosts and spirits are not qi, Zhang Zai also opposes separating ghosts and spirits from the qi of yin and yang. This also echoes his proposition that “the Great Void is qi.” It can be seen that Zhang Zai consistently maintained this harmonious relationship of substance and function. This also makes it easy to understand why Zhang Zai also said that ghosts and spirits “do not go beyond being and non-being in general idea,” and “the actuality of ghosts and spirits does not go beyond the two ends.” Because there are no ghosts and spirits without yin and yang; as soon as we speak of “ghosts and spirits,” it means we are speaking from the level of what is actually so.

显然张载在这里将“知昼夜阴阳”与“知圣人、知鬼神”划分为不同层次，但又具有统一性，即通过穷理尽性的工夫(“知性命”)使“知昼夜阴阳”直通于“知圣人、知鬼神”。而释氏的错误在于“不以昼夜、阴阳累其心”最终导致“舍真际而谈鬼神”。在佛教语境中“真际”即“实际”,佛教常以“真”与“实”来指根本义。张载认为，佛教的“实际”与儒家所讲的“天德”“诚”具有同等的地位，但佛教一讲“本体”就以人生为虚幻，儒家则“得天而未始遗人”,是即体即用。所以张载认为，“真际”当是“体用一源”,即“见易”。“舍真际而谈鬼神”即舍弃了“体用一源”的原则，而“欲直语太虚”,是得“鬼神”而遗“阴阳”,导致鬼神与阴阳割裂。可见，张载在坚持鬼神非气的同时，亦反对将鬼神与阴阳之气割裂。此亦与其“太虚即气”命题相呼应，可见，对于这种体用圆融关系张载始终一以贯之。这也就不难理解张载为何又说鬼神“大意不越有无而已”,“鬼神之实，不越二端而已矣”。因为没有无阴阳之鬼神，我们一说到“鬼神”就意味着从实然层面上讲了。

4. “Establishing Teachings Through the Way of Spirits” and the Dispelling of “Spirit Monsters and Strange Things”

四、“神道设教”与对“神奸物怪”的破除

The concept of ghosts and spirits in the practical realm is “sacrificial rites,” a major tradition preserved since the inception of the concept of ghosts and spirits. The “Record of Sacrificial Meaning” chapter of the *Book of Rites*, using Confucius’s tone, explains the purpose and significance of sacrifice: “Combining ghosts and spirits is the ultimate of teaching. … Following the essence of things, establishing the ultimate for them, clearly naming ghosts and spirits, for the common people, then the hundred clans will be in awe, and the myriad people will submit. The sage considered this insufficient, so he built palaces and chambers, established ancestral temples, to distinguish closeness and distance, near and far, teaching the people to return to the ancient and recover the beginning, not forgetting from what they were born. The people’s submission came from this, therefore they listened and were quick…” This is to endow “ghosts and spirits” with a teaching significance through sacrifice. Zhang Zai, in his *Classical Studies: The Cave of Rites: Sacrifice*, gives a similar explanation of the purpose and meaning of sacrifice: “Sacrifice connects with ghosts and spirits, unites the clan, dispenses virtue and favor, practices teaching and transformation; its preparation must be beforehand, therefore at the time one receives blessings.” But Zhang Zai’s understanding of “establishing teachings through the way of spirits” is based on his new view of ghosts and spirits. He said:

鬼神观念在实践领域即为“祭祀”,这是从鬼神观念诞生之初就保留下来的一大传统。《礼记·祭义》篇借孔子的口吻对祭祀的目的和意义进行了说明：“合鬼与神，教之至也。……因物之精，制为之极，明命鬼神，以为黔首，则百众以畏，万民以服。圣人以是为未足也，筑为宫室，设为宗祧，以别亲疏远迩，教民反古复始，不忘其所由生也。众之服自此，故听且速也……”此即通过祭祀赋予“鬼神”以教化意义。张载在《经学理窟·祭祀》中对祭祀的目的和意义有同样的说明：“祭接鬼神，合宗族，施德惠，行教化，其为备须是豫，故至时受福也。”但张载对“神道设教”的理解是基于其新的鬼神观之上的，其曰：

Where there are two, there must be stimulation; yet what stimulation does Heaven have? It is nothing but the natural. The sage can use stimulation. What is meant by using stimulation? All teaching and transforming arrangements are using stimulation. Acting here and transforming there are all the way of stimulation. This is what the sage means by establishing teachings through the way of spirits.

有两则需有感，然天之感有何思虑?莫非自然。圣人则能用感，何谓用感?凡教化设施，皆是用感也，作于此化于彼者，皆感之道，圣人以神道设教是也。

Here, “where there are two” takes “Heaven’s stimulation” as its basis. “Where there are two” means “transformation.” Heaven’s stimulation without thought or deliberation is Heaven’s “spirit.” The sage “establishes teachings through the way of spirits,” that is, establishes teachings according to this principle of creation and natural generation, which is called “using stimulation.” Conversely, the significance of people sacrificing to the gods of soil and grain, the five sacrifices, and the hundred spirits lies in “repaying Heaven’s virtue with the merits of the hundred spirits.” “Heaven’s virtue” is the generative and transformative virtue of ghosts and spirits. Therefore, Zhang Zai said: “Serving ghosts and spirits with Heaven’s affairs is the ultimate of service, the utmost of principle.”

这里“有两”以“天之感”为根据，“有两”即“化”也，“天之感”无思无虑即天之“神”也。圣人“以神道设教”即依此造化自然生生之理而设教，即所谓“用感”。反过来，人们祭祀社稷、五祀、百神的意义就在于“以百神之功报天之德尔”,“天之德”即鬼神生化之德，故张载说：“以天事鬼神，事之至也，理之尽也。”

Traditional sacrificial activities, although a kind of religious ritual, are not without blind obedience and superstition, yet they also have an undeniable sacredness. This sacredness is what Confucians call “sincerity that cannot be concealed.” “Sincerity” directly connects to the Way of Heaven. This is perhaps an inherent transcendent pursuit of humanity. Feng Youlan said: “The pursuit of the transcendent is one of the innate desires of humanity.” Zhang Zai’s “discrimination of ghosts and spirits” aims, first, to manifest this sacredness in sacrifice, and second, to dispel blind obedience and superstition. Regarding the first point, some explanation has been given above, namely that Zhang Zai reversed the naturalist view of ghosts and spirits since the Qin and Han dynasties, restored the transcendent dimension of ghosts and spirits from the perspective of principle and meaning, and gave spirit the status of substance. Therefore, Zhang Zai believed that during sacrifice, one does not sacrifice to a specific, named, or imaged ghost or spirit, but only to the spirit of the infinite Great Void and its meaning of contraction and extension, coming and going. Zhang Zai said:

传统的祭祀活动，虽说是一种宗教仪式，其中不乏盲从与迷信，但又俨然有其不可掩之神圣性。此神圣性即儒者所谓“诚之不可掩”,“诚”直通天道。此盖是一种人固有的超越追求，冯友兰说：“对超乎现世的追求是人类先天的欲望之一。”张载“辩鬼神”,其一就在于彰显祭祀中的这种神圣性，其二则在于破除盲从与迷信。关于第一点，前文已进行了部分说明，即张载扭转了秦汉以来的自然主义鬼神观，并从义理角度恢复了鬼神的超越维度，给予神本体的地位。所以张载认为，在祭祀之时并非是祭祀某一具体的、有名、有像之鬼神，而只是祭祀那无限的太虚之神，及其往来屈伸之意而已。张载说：

Ghosts and spirits mean coming and going, contraction and extension. Therefore, Heaven is called spirit, Earth is called manifestation, and humans are called ghost. (Spirit and manifestation are the beginning of return; returning and going are the end of coming.)

鬼神，往来、屈伸之意，故天曰神，地曰示，人曰鬼。(神示者归之始，归往者来之终。)

In Zhang Zai’s view, ghosts and spirits “embody things and cannot be discarded.” The myriad things of heaven and earth are all results of the contraction and extension, coming and going of ghosts and spirits. So-called “spirit, manifestation, ghost” are just different appellations of the same ghosts and spirits in different sacrificial contexts. When sacrificing to Heaven, it is called spirit; when sacrificing to Earth, it is called manifestation; when sacrificing to ancestors, it is called ghost. Based on this concept, Zhang Zai opposed setting up human images for the spirits of mountains and rivers. Zhang Zai said:

在张载看来，鬼神“体物而不可遗”,天地万物无一不是鬼神屈伸往来的结果。所谓“神、祇、鬼”只是同一鬼神在不同的祭祀场景中的不同称谓而已，盖在祭天时曰神，祭地时曰祇，祭祖先时曰鬼。基于这种观念，张载反对为山川之神设人像，张载说：

The sacrifice to mountains and rivers is only because they are so toweringly high, so profoundly deep, so moist and steaming that they are sufficient to raise clouds and produce rain; one must repay them, therefore one sacrifices to them, treating them as the three dukes and feudal lords. How could there ever be such human images! When the sage governs, he must remove them.

山川之祀，止是其如此巍然而高，渊然而深，蒸润而足以兴云致雨，必报之，故祀之视三公诸侯，何尝有此人像!圣人为政必去之。

That is to say, the divinity of mountains and rivers is manifested in their being “towering and high, deep and profound” and able to bring forth clouds and rain, benefiting humanity, rather than in their personification. Personification is superstition and blind obedience. Similarly, on the matter of offering sacrifices to ancestors and presenting them with offerings, Zhang Zai also does not attach importance to the numbers of temples and altars, the distinctions of rank and position, and so forth. Zhang Zai says:

即是说山川之神性就显现在其“巍然而高，渊然而深”而能兴云致雨、造福人类之上，而非将其人格化。人格化即是迷信和盲从。同理，在祭祀祖先为其供奉祭品问题上张载亦不重视那些庙、坛之数，位次之分别等，张载说：

“As for ghosts, they are merely what is enjoyed by the spirits [gui xiang], and this is not the ‘ghostly enjoyment’ [gui xiang] spoken of in the *Classic of Filial Piety*. [1]1 The *Classic of Filial Piety* (*Xiaojing*) is a Confucian classic on filial piety. The phrase “ghostly enjoyment” (*gui xiang*) appears in a different context in that text. What is said here about ghostly enjoyment means that, since it is not a matter of the numbers of temples and altars, it is simply a matter of offering enjoyment to all the ancestors together, without further distinctions of rank and position; it is simply a shared offering of enjoyment. It is only a matter of embracing the spirit. ‘Ghost’ [gui] simply means returning to the Great Void [tai xu], [2]2 The Great Void (*tai xu*) is a central concept in Zhang Zai’s philosophy, referring to the original, undifferentiated state of qi (*qi*) from which all things emerge and to which they return. and therefore they are offered enjoyment together.”

至于鬼只是鬼飨之，又非《孝经》所谓鬼飨也。此言鬼飨，既不在庙与坛墠之数，即并合上世一齐飨之而已，非更有位次分别，直共一飨之耳，只是怀精神也。鬼者只是归之太虚，故共飨之也。

Although the individual has birth and death, the Great Void, which is its original nature, does not perish. This is the meaning of “ghost simply means returning to the Great Void.” For heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things all share the same original nature of the Great Void; the spirit of the ancestors is our own spirit. Therefore, the ghostly enjoyment in sacrifice is actually a shared enjoyment or collective enjoyment. The numbers of temples and altars, the distinctions of rank and position, may have their practical significance, but they have no basis in principle. The fundamental meaning of sacrifice lies in spiritual communication [gan tong], [3]3 *Gan tong* (感通) is a key Neo-Confucian term for a sympathetic resonance or communication that transcends physical separation, often between humans and between humans and the cosmos. that is, communicating that we and our ancestors, and even heaven and earth, share the same original nature of the Great Void. This “nature” is also the principle of the natural generation and transformation of creation. The sage’s “establishing instruction through the way of the spirits” [shendao shejiao] [4]4 “Establishing instruction through the way of the spirits” (*shendao shejiao*) is a classical Confucian phrase referring to the sage’s use of ritual and spiritual concepts to guide the people, often interpreted as a pedagogical or political strategy. is merely following this principle of generation and transformation in creation. “Heaven does not speak, yet the four seasons proceed; the sage establishes instruction through the way of the spirits, and the world submits.” Following this principle of creation and letting it function naturally, then the world submits.

个体虽有生有灭，但其本性之太虚不亡，此即“鬼者只是归之太虚”之意。盖天地万物皆有其同一太虚之本性，祖先之精神即吾人之精神。所以祭祀中的鬼飨实际上是齐飨或共飨。庙与坛墠之数，位次之分别或有其现实的意义，但并无义理之根据。祭祀的根本义谛在精神之感通，即感通吾人与祖先，乃至与天地有其同一太虚之本性而已。此“性”亦是造化自然生生之理，圣人“神道设教”亦不过是依此造化生生之理。“天不言而四时行，圣人神道设教而天下服”,顺此造化之理而自然发用，则天下服矣。

At that time, there was also a highly superstitious explanation of “ghosts and spirits” prevalent in society, namely the theory of “divine monsters and strange things” [shenjian wuguai]. Zhang Zai refuted this. Zhang Zai says:

当时社会上对“鬼神”还有一个极具迷信色彩的解释，即“神奸物怪”之说，张载对此予以驳斥。张载说：

“Fan Xunzhi once spoke of divine monsters and strange things. I debated with him, saying that the thunder, lightning, grass, and trees of heaven and earth are the strangest of things, yet because they have fixed forms, they are not considered strange. The pottery, smelting, boats, and carts made by humans are also the strangest of things, yet because they have fixed principles, they are not considered strange. Now, when people speak of ghosts, their forms cannot be seen, or some say they have been seen but without certainty — this is the first difficulty in believing. Furthermore, they use the formless to move and alter things that have form — this cannot be reasoned out, and is the second difficulty in believing. Moreover, we can infer that the thunder, lightning, grass, and trees of heaven and earth cannot be made by humans, and the pottery, smelting, boats, and carts of humans cannot be made by heaven and earth. Now, when people speak of ghosts and spirits, they say they are formless like heaven and earth, yet their actions are no different from humans. How can the ghost of a dead person possess both the abilities of heaven and humans? Let me further evaluate this based on common worldly sayings: If the dead all had consciousness, then a loving mother who deeply loved her child, once she had passed away, why would she not daily speak through people or entrust her dreams to care for him? They say [ghosts] can reward good and punish evil, yet sometimes a small evil receives a heavy punishment while a great villain enjoys abundant blessings — such cases are too numerous to count. They also say that ‘the refined and intelligent among humans can become malevolent spirits.’ [5]5 This is a reference to a common folk belief that the spirits of particularly strong-willed or wronged individuals could become vengeful ghosts. Why did the First Emperor of Qin [6]6 The First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shihuang, 259–210 BCE) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first to unify China under a single imperial rule. alone not punish Zhao Gao, [7]7 Zhao Gao (d. 207 BCE) was a powerful eunuch official in the Qin court who, after the First Emperor’s death, conspired to place a weak successor on the throne and effectively seized power, contributing to the dynasty’s collapse. and why did Emperor Taizong of Tang [8]8 Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649 CE) was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty, often regarded as one of China’s greatest rulers. alone not punish Empress Wu [Zetian]?” [9]9 Empress Wu Zetian (624–705 CE) was the only female emperor in Chinese history, who rose to power during the Tang dynasty. She was a consort of Emperor Taizong and later became the wife of his son, Emperor Gaozong, eventually seizing the throne herself.

范巽之尝言神奸物怪，某以言难之，谓天地之雷霆草木至怪也，以其有定形故不怪，人之陶冶舟车亦至怪也，以其有定理故不怪。今言鬼者不可见其形，或云有见者且不定，一难信；又以无形而移变有形之物，此不可以理推，二难信。又尝推天地之雷霆草木，人莫能为之，人之陶治舟车，天地亦莫能为之。今之言鬼神，以其无形则如天地，言其动作则不异于人，岂谓人死之鬼反能兼天人之能乎?今更就世俗之言评之：如人死皆有知，则慈母有深爱其子者，一旦化去，独不日日凭人言语托人梦寐存恤之耶?言能福善祸淫，则或小恶反遭重罚而大憨反享厚福，不可胜数。又谓“人之精明者能为厉”,秦皇独不罪赵高，唐太宗独不罚武后耶?

Zhang Zai summarized several characteristics of this kind of “divine monsters and strange things”: First, such things are formless and invisible yet can move or act upon things that have form. Zhang Zai believed that this is actually a product fabricated by borrowing the concept of the formlessness of heaven and earth and the active image of humans; lacking both fixed form and fixed principle, it is therefore unreliable. Second, such things have consciousness and can reward good and punish evil. Zhang Zai countered this by citing facts such as the loving mother who, after passing away, could not entrust dreams to care for her child, the First Emperor of Qin not punishing Zhao Gao, and Emperor Taizong of Tang not punishing Empress Wu [Zetian]. Furthermore, Zhang Zai also proposed a criterion for judging the phenomenon of “strange things” [wuguai]. He said:

张载总结了这类“神奸物怪”的几个特点：其一，这类事物无形不可见却能移动或作用于有形之物。张载认为，这其实是借助天地的无形概念与人的能动形象所加工创作的产物，一无定形，二无定理，故不可信。其二，这类事物有知，能福善祸淫。张载则举慈母化去不能托梦存恤，秦皇不罪赵高，唐太宗不罚武后之类的事实进行反驳。此外，张载还对“物怪”现象提出了一判断标准，他说：

“As for strange things: if many people see them, that is principle [li], that is spirit [shen]; if only one person sees them, that is either illness or fraud. How can there be a thing that some do not see while others do? What is seen by only one person is illness; if a person’s mind is ill, then his ears and eyes are also ill. Now, the brightness of the sun and moon is spirit; who is there who does not see it? Another example is the meteorite that fell in Song. [10]10 This refers to an event recorded in the *Spring and Autumn Annals* (*Chunqiu*), where a meteorite fell in the state of Song in 645 BCE. This did not exist before but exists now; it is clearly seen by everyone on the ground — this is principle.”

物怪，众见之即是理也，神也，偏见之者非病即伪。岂有有一物有不见者有见者?偏见者即病也，人心病则耳目亦病。今日月之明，神也，谁有不见者?又如殒石于宋，是昔无今有，分明在地上皆见之，此是理也。

That is, he used “seen by many” [zhong jian] and “seen by one alone” [pian jian] as the criterion. Zhang Zai believed that some strange phenomena do indeed exist in reality, such as “the meteorite that fell in Song,” but this is a fact seen and heard by everyone, just like “the brightness of the sun and moon.” “What is seen and heard by all, even if greatly unusual, is genuine; it arises from the correctness of yin and yang.” [11]11 Yin and yang are the two complementary, interdependent forces or principles that, in Chinese cosmology, constitute all phenomena and govern the processes of change in the universe. Zhang Zai believed that if one knows that this special phenomenon arises from “the correctness of yin and yang,” then one knows it conforms to the principle of creation, and thus there is nothing to be strange about. As for what is seen or heard by one person alone, it is either an illusion caused by illness or a fabrication.

即以“众见”与“偏见”作为判断标准。张载认为，现实中确实存在一些奇怪的现象，如“殒石于宋”,但此为众人共见共闻之事实，好比“日月之明”。“共见共闻，虽大异，诚也，出阴阳之正也。”张载认为，人若知此特殊现象出于“阴阳之正”,便知此合乎造化之理，于是也就没有什么好奇怪的了。而那些独见独闻，要么是人因疾病而产生的幻觉，要么就是捏造的。

V. Conclusion

五、结语

Zhang Zai advocated “first understanding creation” [xian shi zaohua], that is, taking the established phenomenal world as the basis of cognition. Therefore, compared to other Neo-Confucians, Zhang Zai’s philosophy contains more “naturalistic” elements. It is precisely through the whole of the transformative process of qi [qihua liuxing] that Zhang Zai grasps the ontological meaning of “spirit” [shen] — this is the meaning of “manifesting the substance through its function” [ji yong jian ti]. [12]12 “Manifesting the substance through its function” (*ji yong jian ti*) is a methodological principle in Chinese philosophy, particularly associated with the Neo-Confucian Cheng-Zhu school, which holds that the underlying substance or principle can be apprehended through its manifested functions or operations. Thus Zhang Zai reversed the “form-spirit” relationship within naturalism. But apart from function there is no substance; divinity is not manifested in transcendence above the ten thousand things, but precisely in the inexhaustible transformation of the ten thousand things themselves. Ghosts and spirits are not qi but are inseparable from qi; the “meaning of coming and going, withdrawing and extending” of ghosts and spirits is the different functions or names of the spirit of the Great Void in the process of the birth and death of things. Although Zhang Zai criticized heretical theories such as “divine monsters and strange things,” he was not a thoroughgoing atheist. While restoring the ontological status of “spirit,” he also endowed “establishing instruction through the way of the spirits” with a broader dimension of principle. The sage, following this principle of generation and transformation in creation, establishes instruction through the way of the spirits. The fundamental meaning of sacrifice lies in spiritual communication, communicating that we and our ancestors, and even heaven and earth, share the same original nature of the Great Void.

张载主张“先识造化”,即以既定之现象界为认识的基础。因此，较之其他理学家，张载哲学包含了更多的“自然主义”成份。张载正是通过气化流行之整体来把握“神”的本体义，此“即用见体”之意。由此张载扭转了自然主义中的“形一神”关系。但离用而无体，神性并不显现在超越万有上，而就在万有本身的变化无穷上。鬼神非气但不离气，鬼神“往来屈伸之意”即太虚之神在事物生灭过程中的不同作用或称谓。张载虽然对“神奸物怪”等邪说予以批判，但并非是彻底的无神论者。他在恢复“神”本体地位的同时，也赋予了“神道设教”更广泛的义理维度。圣人依此造化生生之理而神道设教，祭祀的根本意义在于精神感通，感通吾人与祖先，乃至与天地有其同一太虚之本性而已。

In summary, Zhang Zai’s transformation of the naturalistic view of ghosts and spirits since the Qin and Han dynasties also promoted the development of atheism from a narrow to a broad sense. Later, Wang Fuzhi [13]13 Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) was a late Ming-early Qing dynasty philosopher and a major figure in the “learning of qi” (*qi xue*) tradition, which he developed on the basis of Zhang Zai’s thought. regarded himself as one who “aspired to the correct learning of Zhang Zai [Hengqu].” [14]14 Zhang Zai is also known as Zhang Hengqu, after his place of origin (Hengqu, in present-day Shaanxi province). It was precisely on the basis of Zhang Zai’s thought that he took the “qi of the Great Harmony” [taixu zhi qi] as the substance and constructed a “learning of qi of the transcendent type” [xian tian xing qi xue], [15]15 “Learning of qi of the transcendent type” (*xian tian xing qi xue*) is a term used by the author to characterize Wang Fuzhi’s philosophy, emphasizing its grounding in a primordial, pre-cosmic qi. becoming another milestone in the development of atheist thought. From this, it can be said that Zhang Zai’s view of ghosts and spirits is not a deviation in the development of atheism, but a critical friend [zhengyou]. [16]16 *Zhengyou* (诤友) literally means “a friend who admonishes,” referring to a friend who offers frank and critical advice. Here it is used metaphorically to indicate that Zhang Zai’s view, while not identical to later atheism, served as a constructive interlocutor that pushed its development forward.

总之，张载对秦汉以来自然主义鬼神观的改造，也促使无神论的发展从狭义走向广义。后来王夫之以“希张横渠之正学”自居，他正是在张载思想基础上，以“铟编之气”为本体，建构起了“先天型气学”,成为无神论思想发展的又一里程碑。由此可以说张载的鬼神观，并非无神论发展之歧出，而是诤友。

(Author’s bio: Wang Jinchi, doctoral candidate, School of Philosophy, Shaanxi Normal University)

（作者简介：王金驰，陕西师范大学哲学学院博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心