The Status and Role of Traditional Chinese Religions in Traditional Chinese Culture

Editor’s note: In order to implement the spirit of General Secretary Xi Jinping’s important speech at the Symposium on Cultural Heritage and Development, and to explore how fine traditional Chinese culture can play a role in the Sinicization of religions in China, the China Atheism Society, the Research Center for Science and Atheism of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and the editorial department of *Science and Atheism* held a thematic symposium in Beijing on April 21, titled “Traditional Chinese Religions and Traditional Chinese Culture.” The following are excerpts from the key points of some experts and scholars at the symposium.

编者按：为贯彻落实习近平总书记在文化传承发展座谈会上的重要讲话精神，探讨中华优秀传统文化在我国宗教中国化进程中如何发挥作用，中国无神论学会、中国社会科学院科学与无神论研究中心、《科学与无神论》编辑部于4月21日北京举办了一次主题为“中国传统宗教与中华传统文化”的专题研讨会。现将部分专家学者的发言要点摘录如下。

I. The Overall Situation of the Development of Traditional Chinese Religions

一、中国传统宗教发展的整体情况

The status and role of traditional Chinese religions in traditional Chinese culture have varied across different historical eras. Broadly speaking, the earliest prevalent form was primitive religion, primarily characterized by nature worship, using spiritual forces to educate the people [shendao shejiao], [1]1 Huang-Lao school: A school of thought during the early Han dynasty that combined the teachings of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) and Laozi, emphasizing Daoist principles of non-action (wu wei) in governance. the intermingling of humans and spirits, the prevalence of shamanism, and integration with primitive social systems, dominating primitive culture. This was the era of the legendary “Three Sovereigns.” [2]2 Yu Dunkang (1930-): A prominent contemporary Chinese scholar of philosophy and religious studies, known for his work on Chinese philosophy and the history of Buddhism. Subsequently, entering class society, corresponding to the era of the legendary “Five Emperors,” [3]3 Wei-Jin Xuanxue: A metaphysical and philosophical movement during the Wei and Jin dynasties (3rd-4th centuries CE), also known as Neo-Daoism, which reinterpreted Daoist classics. Zhuanxu [4]4 Zhao Lun: A key text of Chinese Buddhist philosophy written by the monk Sengzhao (384–414 CE), synthesizing Madhyamaka Buddhist thought with Chinese philosophical concepts. carried out the religious reform of “cutting the communication between heaven and earth” [juedi tiantong], [5]5 Six Schools and Seven Sects: Early schools of Chinese Buddhism during the Eastern Jin dynasty that attempted to interpret the concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) from the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. separating the governance of humans and spirits, with the spiritual path inclining towards the human path, highlighting the authority of the emperor. Up to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the relationship between humans and spirits further differentiated. History records that the Xia people revered fate and were loyal, the Shang people revered spirits and served ghosts, and the Zhou people revered rites and were close to humanity. This ultimately led to the great transformation of society and culture during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, where the traditional religious cultural system transformed into an emerging humanistic system. During the Qin and Han dynasties, with the establishment of a unified centralized state, Confucian doctrine became the national ideology, the Six Arts [6]6 Sengzhao: A disciple of Kumārajīva and a major figure in the development of Chinese Buddhist philosophy. became the national cultural system, and the traditional religion of revering Heaven and following the ways of the ancestors [jingtian fazu] [7]7 Kumārajīva (344–413 CE): A Kuchean Buddhist monk and prolific translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese, whose translations were highly influential. became part of Confucian ritual studies, while divination and portent shamanism degenerated into an appendage of the *Yijing* [Book of Changes]. During the Han and Wei dynasties, indigenous Daoism arose, and Buddhism was introduced from abroad. Later, a pattern of parallel development of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism emerged, sometimes debating and competing, sometimes mutually absorbing, even leading to the phenomenon of the unity of the three teachings [sanjiao heyi]. [8]8 Yangming School of Mind: A school of Neo-Confucian thought founded by Wang Yangming (1472–1529), emphasizing innate knowledge and the unity of knowledge and action. In modern times, with the introduction of Western culture, people often, based on a Western religious cultural standpoint, believe that traditional Chinese culture since the Han and Wei dynasties was composed of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, even regarding Confucianism as a religion. However, this view is only valid concerning the relationship between religious belief and philosophical thought; it is by no means a perspective of national culture or a holistic view of traditional culture. In fact, traditional Chinese culture since the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods has been primarily composed of the philosophy of the *Yizhuan* [Commentaries on the Book of Changes], the literature of the *Book of Songs*, the political science of the *Book of Documents*, ritual law and ethics, music and dance studies, and the historiography of the *Spring and Autumn Annals*. The Confucian Five Constant Virtues [9]9 Five Constant Virtues (五常): The five cardinal virtues of Confucianism: benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and fidelity (xin). of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity served as the guiding ideology for national governance, while Heaven, Earth, the Sovereign, Ancestors, and the Teacher [tian di jun qin shi] [10]10 Tian di jun qin shi (天地君亲师): “Heaven, Earth, the Sovereign, Ancestors, and the Teacher.” A traditional Chinese object of veneration, representing the five fundamental relationships and sources of authority in life. were the objects of spiritual belief. Confucianism [rujiao] [11]11 Rujiao (儒教): Literally “the teaching of the scholars.” This term can refer to Confucianism as a philosophical and ethical system, but in this text, it specifically denotes the religious or ritualistic dimension of Confucianism, centered on the worship of Heaven and ancestors. has always been the main body of traditional Chinese culture. Buddhism, Daoism, and numerous folk religious beliefs were subsidiary, functioning only within the sphere of religious belief, confined to the spiritual realm outside the secular order [fangwai]. [12]12 Fangwai (方外): Literally “outside the square,” meaning beyond the secular world or the mundane social order. It refers to the realm of recluses, monks, and Daoist adepts who have renounced worldly affairs. Hence, Confucianism and Daoism have traditions of leaving the family [chujia] [13]13 Chujia (出家): “Leaving the family,” a term primarily used in Buddhism (and sometimes Daoism) for becoming a monk or nun, renouncing family life and secular ties. and transcending the world [chushi]. [14]14 Chushi (出世): “Transcending the world,” a concept in Buddhism and Daoism referring to a state of detachment from worldly concerns and desires, often associated with monastic life or spiritual cultivation. Religions were also not permitted to interfere in politics, economy, institutions, culture, or daily life, let alone interfere with the traditional cultural belief in revering Heaven and following the ways of the ancestors. Otherwise, cases like the “Three Wu Persecutions of Buddhism” [15]15 Three Wu Persecutions of Buddhism (三武灭佛): Three major state-sponsored persecutions of Buddhism in Chinese history, initiated by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (r. 424–452), Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (r. 560–578), and Emperor Wuzong of Tang (r. 840–846). The character “Wu” (武) meaning “martial” appears in the posthumous names of all three emperors. or the suppression of heretical sects [huidaomen] [16]16 Huidaomen (会道门): A general term for various folk religious sects and secret societies in Chinese history, often viewed by the state as heterodox or subversive, and subject to suppression. would occur. Therefore, overall, traditional Chinese religions have essentially occupied a subsidiary position in traditional Chinese culture, with their role limited to the spiritual fields of religious belief and philosophical thought.

中国传统宗教在中国传统文化中的地位和作用，在不同的历史时代有不同的地位和作用。大致而言，最早流行原始宗教，以自然崇拜为主，神道设教，人神杂糅，盛行巫术，与原始社会制度融为一体，主导原始文化，这便是传说的“三皇”时代。其后进入阶级社会，相当于传说中的“五帝”时代，颛顼进行“绝地天通”的宗教改革，人神分治，神道倾向于人道，突出帝王权威。直至夏商周三代，人神关系进一步分化，史称夏人尊命而忠，殷人尊神事鬼，周人尊礼近人。最终导致春秋战国时期社会文化大转型，传统的宗教文化体系转变为新兴的人文体系。秦汉之际，随着大一统体制的建立，以儒家学说为国家意识形态，以六艺人文为民族文化体系，敬天法祖的传统宗教成为儒家礼学的一部分，占卜灾异的巫术沦为易学的附庸。汉魏之际，本土道教兴起，域外佛教传入，后来形成儒、释、道三教并行格局，或论衡争胜，或互相吸收，乃至出现三教合一现象。近代以来随西方文化传入，人们往往立足于西方宗教文化立场，以为汉魏以来的中国传统文化由儒、释、道三教构成，乃至视儒教为宗教。但这种观点仅仅在于宗教信仰和哲学思想关系而言，绝非民族文化的视角和传统文化的整体而论。实际上，春秋战国以来的中国传统文化是以易传哲学、诗经文学、尚书政治学、礼仪法学及伦理学、乐礼音乐舞蹈学、春秋历史学为主体，儒家仁、义、礼、智、信五常为国家统治思想，以天、地、君、亲、师五伦为精神信仰对象。儒教始终是中国传统文化的主体，佛教、道教以及诸多民间宗教信仰是附属，只限于宗教信仰领域发挥作用，限定于方外精神领域，故儒道有出家、出世传统。宗教也不得干涉政治、经济、制度、文化、生活，更不得干涉敬天法祖的传统文化信仰，否则就如同“三武灭佛”、诛灭会道门的案例。故总体而言，中国传统宗教在中国传统文化中基本上处于附属地位，其作用限定在宗教信仰以及哲学思想等精神领域。

II. The History of the Construction of the Relationship between Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, and Traditional Chinese Culture

二、儒释道三教与中国传统文化关系的建构史

Regarding the status and role of traditional Chinese religions formed since the Qin and Han dynasties in traditional Chinese culture, “traditional religions” here mainly refers to the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Confucianism [rujiao] refers to the traditional religion within Confucianism of revering Heaven and following the ways of the ancestors. It does not mean that the entirety of Confucianism is a religion. Confucianism is the representative of traditional culture, relative to Buddhism and Daoism, but it is not the entirety of traditional culture either. The intellectual and cultural landscape of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period is commonly referred to as the “three teachings and nine schools” [sanjiao jiuliu]. [17]17 Sanjiao jiuliu (三教九流): A common Chinese idiom. “Three teachings” originally referred to the three cultural traditions of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, but later came to refer to Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. “Nine schools” refers to the major philosophical schools of the pre-Qin period. The term is now often used to describe all sorts of people and professions, sometimes with a slightly negative connotation. Here, the “three teachings” refer to the three cultural traditions of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. Confucius summarized them: “The Way of Xia revered fate... The Zhou people revered rites and valued bestowal... Both served ghosts and spirits but kept them at a distance, were close to humanity and loyal. The Shang people revered spirits, led the people to serve spirits, placed ghosts before rites, placed punishment before reward, revered but were not close” (*The Book of Rites: The Record of Example*). This points out the cultural traditions of the three teachings: the Xia and Zhou people emphasized humanism, while the Shang people emphasized religion. By the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, Shang shamanism gradually declined, Chinese humanism flourished, culture prospered, and various schools of thought emerged, historically known as the “Hundred Schools of Thought.” By the Qin and Han dynasties, the Hundred Schools settled into the “Nine Schools.” [18]18 Nine Schools (九流): The nine major philosophical schools of the pre-Qin and early Han periods, as categorized by Sima Tan and his son Sima Qian: Confucianism, Daoism, Yin-Yang, Legalism, Logicians, Mohism, the School of Vertical and Horizontal Alliances, the Eclectic School, and the School of Agriculture. According to the *Records of the Grand Historian: Autobiography of the Grand Historian*, the six schools of Yin-Yang, Confucianism, Mohism, Logicians, Legalism, and Daoism had the greatest influence. Emperor Wu of Han [19]19 Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝, r. 141–87 BCE): A famous emperor of the Han dynasty, known for his long reign, military expansion, and for establishing Confucianism as the state ideology. exclusively revered Confucianism, making the Six Arts the standard, forming a new type of traditional culture with Confucianism as the main body. But the Grand Historian [Sima Qian] [20]20 Sima Qian (司马迁, c. 145–c. 86 BCE): The Grand Historian of the Han dynasty, author of the *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*), a monumental work of Chinese history. clearly stated: “These are all concerned with governing the state, merely differing in the paths they advocate, some being insightful, others not.” That is, they were considered academic schools for governing the country. Even with the Six Arts as the standard, this was not the entirety of culture. The *Book of Han: Treatise on Literature* records that besides the Six Arts, there were also the categories of the Various Schools, Poetry and Rhapsody, Military Strategy, Numerology, and Recipes and Techniques. The Six Arts comprised 130 schools. Among the Various Schools were also the School of Vertical and Horizontal Alliances, the Eclectic School, the School of Agriculture, and the School of Fiction, collectively called the Ten Schools and Nine Schools. Excluding the Eclectic School or the School of Fiction, or not counting Confucianism, this constitutes the Nine Schools. This indicates that traditional culture contained a very broad range of content, not just Confucianism alone, but Confucianism held the status of national ideology and mainstream culture. As for Buddhism and Daoism, Buddhism was introduced from abroad, while Daoism formed indigenously. Additionally, there were other foreign religions such as Nestorianism and Manichaeism in the Tang dynasty, and *Yelikewen* [21]21 Yelikewen (也里可温): A Chinese term used during the Yuan dynasty for Christianity, particularly the Church of the East (Nestorianism) and Catholicism. and *Dashiman* [22]22 Dashiman (答失蛮): A Chinese term used during the Yuan dynasty for Muslim clerics or religious leaders, derived from the Persian *dāneshmand* (learned). in the Yuan dynasty, but these did not form traditional religions. There were also numerous folk religions and beliefs, such as the Maitreya sect during the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the White Lotus Society during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, but these also did not form a religious tradition, so they are not discussed here.

秦汉以来形成的中华传统宗教在中华传统文化中的地位和作用，其中传统宗教，主要指儒、释、道三教，儒教指儒家中敬天法祖的传统宗教，并不是说整体的儒家是宗教，儒家是传统文化的代表，相对于佛教与道教而言，但也不是传统文化的全部。春秋战国时期的思想文化面貌，俗称三教九流，此“三教”指夏、商、周三种文化传统，孔子概括说：夏道尊命，周人尊礼尚施，二者都事鬼敬神而远之，近人而忠焉。殷人尊神，率民以事神，先鬼而后礼，先罚而后赏，尊而不亲（《礼记·表记》）。这就指出了夏人与周人偏重人文而殷商偏重宗教的三教文化传统。而到春秋战国时期，殷商巫术日趋衰微，华夏人文发扬光大，文化繁荣，流派纷呈，史称百家争鸣。至秦汉时百家沉淀为“九流”，《史记·太史公自序》所载有阴阳、儒、墨、名、法、道德六家影响最大。汉武帝独尊儒术，六艺为法，形成以儒家为主体的新型传统文化。但太史公明确说：“此务为治者也，直所言之异路，有省不省耳。”即就治国理政的学术派别而言。即便六艺为法，也非文化的全部。《汉书·艺文志》载六艺之外，尚有诸子、诗赋、兵术、数术、方技诸略，六艺一百三十家，其中诸子又有纵横家者流、杂家者流、农家者流、小说家者流，综称十家九流，除杂家或小说家外，或不计儒家，即是九流。说明传统文化包含的内容很广，并非儒教一家，但儒教具有国家意识形态和主流文化的地位。释、道二家，释教从域外传入，道教在本土形成。另外还有其他域外宗教如唐代景教、摩尼教，元代也里可温、答失蛮等，但并未形成传统宗教，又有诸多民间宗教和信仰，如南北朝时期的弥勒教、元明清时期的白莲教等，也没有形成宗教传统，故此诸不论。

The view of summarizing traditional Chinese culture with Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism is a viewpoint that became popular in modern times. There are three reasons for this. First, since the Wei and Jin dynasties, there has been a historical reality of mutual comparison and debate among Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in the realm of thought and belief, hence the phenomenon of referring to them collectively as the three teachings. Second, after the introduction of Christianity, “religion” was often used as a frame of reference for distinguishing and judging national cultures. Westerners believe in Christianity, Arabs in Islam, Indians in Hinduism, while Chinese believe in the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, with Confucianism as the main one. Third, following the disintegration of traditional culture after the fall of the Qing dynasty, Chinese people developed a psychology of using traditional culture to counter Western culture, believing that Chinese people have their own religious beliefs and do not need to accept foreign religions. In particular, Chinese elite intellectuals constructed a New Confucianism, incorporating Buddhism and Daoism, identifying the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism as collectively representing traditional culture. Scholars engaged in the study of Chinese philosophy believed that it would be impossible to write a history of Chinese philosophy without Buddhist philosophy. They incorporated Northern and Southern Dynasties Buddhist scholasticism and Sui and Tang dynasty Buddhist sectarian philosophy into the category of Chinese philosophy, especially considering Sui and Tang Buddhist philosophy as the peak of Chinese philosophical development. They also believed that Song and Ming dynasty Neo-Confucianism was formed by absorbing Buddhist Chan [Zen] thought. Thus, they regarded the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism as the core of traditional Chinese culture. With the development of religious studies and the prevalence of the theory of religious culture, research on traditional culture from the standpoint and perspective of religious studies, even religion itself, began to view Confucianism as a religion or a Chinese-style religion, further strengthening the concept that Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism constitute traditional Chinese culture. The biggest problem with this concept is that it overemphasizes the status and role of religion, interpreting the secularity of Chinese culture through the religiosity of Western culture, blurring the boundary between religious culture and secular culture, and also blurring the distinction between traditional religion and traditional culture.

以儒释道三教来概括中国传统文化，这是近代以来流行的一种观点。其原因有三，一者魏晋以来在思想信仰领域就有儒释道三教之间相互比较、争论的史实存在，故有儒释道三教并称的现象。二者基督教传入以后往往以“宗教”作为区分和判定民族文化的参照系，西方人信仰基督教，阿拉伯人信仰伊斯兰教，印度人信仰印度教，而中国人则信仰儒释道三教，其中以儒教为主。三者随着清朝覆亡后传统文化的解体，中国人产生了以传统文化抗衡西方文化的心理，以为中国人有中国人的宗教信仰，无须接受洋教，尤其中国精英知识分子建构新儒家，佛教、道教亦纳入其中，认同儒释道三教共同代表传统文化。而从事中国哲学研究的学者，以为缺少佛教哲学难以书写中国哲学史，把南北朝佛教经学、隋唐佛教宗派哲学纳入中国哲学范畴，尤其以隋唐佛教哲学为中国哲学发展的高峰，又认为儒家宋明理学吸收佛教禅学而形成，于是以儒释道三教为中国传统文化的核心。而随着宗教学研究的发展和宗教文化论的流行，从宗教学乃至宗教立场和视角出发研究传统文化，把儒教也看作宗教或中国式宗教，更加强化了儒释道三教构成中国传统文化的观念。这种观念最大的问题在于过于强调宗教的地位和作用，从西方文化的宗教性来理解中国文化的世俗性，模糊了宗教文化与世俗文化的界限，也模糊了传统宗教与传统文化的区别。

From the perspective of traditional Chinese culture, during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, the religious system of traditional culture was transformed into a humanistic system. Even among the Hundred Schools of Thought, the Mohist school, which advocated theism, belonged to the humanistic school and actually contained the most scientific and technological elements. According to the definition in the *Yizhuan*, “the interweaving of the hard and the soft produces patterns; this is the pattern of Heaven” [tianwen]. [23]23 Tianwen (天文): Literally “heavenly patterns” or “celestial patterns.” In the *Yizhuan*, it refers to the patterns and order observed in the heavens (astronomy and astrology), which serve as a model for human culture and social order. During the Qin and Han dynasties, with the exclusive reverence for Confucianism and the establishment of the Six Arts as the standard, humanistic education was institutionalized, forming the basic characteristics of Chinese culture. “Exclusive reverence for Confucianism” meant establishing the national ideology, taking benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity as the guiding thought for governance, and Heaven, Earth, the Sovereign, Ancestors, and the Teacher as the objects of belief. “Making the Six Arts the standard” meant constructing a national cultural system. The Six Arts refer to the Six Classics and their commentaries. The “Classics” are the original texts, and the “commentaries” are the explanations. By the Han dynasty, these classics and commentaries had become established fields of learning. The study of the *Yijing* was philosophy; the study of the *Book of Songs* was poetry and literature; the study of the *Book of Documents* was government decrees and political science; the study of the *Book of Rites* was ritual law and ethics; the study of the *Book of Music* was music and dance; and the study of the *Spring and Autumn Annals* was historiography. This constituted the main disciplines of philosophy, humanities, and social sciences, forming a Chinese national culture with a stable structure, rich content, and a complete system.

从中国传统文化来说，春秋战国时期将传统文化的宗教体系转换为人文体系，诸子百家中即便主张有神论的墨家，也属于人文学派，其科技成份还最多。按《易传》的定义，刚柔交错而成文，是天文，秦汉之际，独尊儒术，六艺为法，人文教育制度化，形成中华文化的基本特性。独尊儒术，是确立国家意识形态，以仁、义、礼、智、信为统治思想，以天、地、君、亲、师为信仰对象。六艺为法，是建构民族文化体系，六艺即六艺经传，“经”为原典，“传”即解释，至汉代经传成学。易学即是哲学，诗学即诗歌文学，书学即是政令政治学，礼学即礼法伦理学，乐学即音乐舞蹈，春秋即历史学，具备哲学、人文、社会科学的主要学科，形成一个结构稳定、内涵充分、体系完整的中华民族文化。

The traditional religion of revering Heaven and venerating ancestors, along with the Confucian belief in the Five Cardinal Relationships, played a core role in traditional culture in maintaining the Chinese national psyche, safeguarding the consciousness of national unity, and sustaining the order of feudal society.

敬天法祖的传统宗教，儒家的五伦信仰，在传统文化中起着维系中华民族心理、维护国家统一意识，维持封建社会秩序的核心作用。

After the Confucian-dominated Chinese national culture was institutionalized, Daoism emerged locally and Buddhism was introduced from abroad. Starting from the Eastern Han period and developing through the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, they gradually gained independent status and were collectively referred to as the Three Teachings alongside Confucianism, engaging in mutual debates. In the Tang Dynasty, this was called the "Debates among the Three Teachings" or "Debates between Buddhism and Daoism." However, the debates among Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism do not imply that the three teachings were in a state of equal tripartite confrontation. Rather, Confucianism, as a symbol of the state ideology and the national cultural system, always occupied the dominant position and played a leading role. Buddhism and Daoism, as foreign and heterodox currents of religious belief and philosophical thought, were always in a subordinate position in the process of the Sinicization of religions, playing a supplementary role.

自从以儒家为主体的中华民族文化体制化之后，本土出现道教，域外传入佛教，从东汉时期开始，经魏晋南北朝时期的发展，逐渐取得独立身份，与儒家并称三教，且相互论争，唐代称为三教论衡，也称佛道论衡。但儒、释、道三教论衡，并不意味着三教处于势均力敌的三足鼎立状态，而是儒教作为国家意识形态和民族文化体系的象征，始终处于主体地位，起着主导作用，佛教、道教只是作为一种宗教信仰和哲学思想的外教异流，在宗教中国化进程中总是处于附属地位，起着补充作用。

3. Differences among the Three Teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism

三、儒释道三教之间的差别

The greatest difference among the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, besides Confucianism's status as the main body of the state ideology and national cultural system, is that the nature of Confucianism is humanistic, while Buddhism and Daoism are religions. However, Confucianism also has religious components, or a religious character, namely the secular belief in revering Heaven and venerating ancestors. At the religious level, the three teachings share certain commonalities. Only, the religiosity of Confucianism belongs to ancient nature worship and ancestor worship, possessing certain characteristics of shamanism. In contrast, Buddhism and Daoism are religious professions; Buddhism is a world religion, while Daoism is an ethnic religion, and their doctrines are both more sophisticated than those of Confucianism. Therefore, Buddhism and Daoism were competitive in the field of religious belief, prominently manifested in their efforts to win over the personal religious faith of the emperor and his imperial family. Besides fulfilling his religious duty of revering Heaven and venerating ancestors, the emperor was also attracted to Buddhism and Daoism, often making a choice between them. Throughout various dynasties, some emperors and members of the imperial household either believed in Buddhism or Daoism. The emperor's personal religious belief directly influenced the formulation of national religious policies. Buddhism and Daoism also actively sought to win over some Confucian officials and literati, and had a certain influence on ordinary believers.

儒释道三教之间最大的不同，除了儒家作为国家意识形态和民族文化体系的主体之外，儒家的性质是人文，佛教、道教是宗教，但儒家也有宗教的成份，或有其宗教性，这就是敬天法祖的世俗信仰，在宗教层面，三教有一定的共同性。只是儒家的宗教性属于古老的自然崇拜和祖先崇拜，带有一定的巫术特点。而佛教和道教是宗教专业，佛教属于世界宗教，道教是民族宗教，其教义都比儒教高明。因此佛道教在宗教信仰领域具有竞争力，突出表现在争取皇帝个人及其皇室成员的宗教信仰。皇帝除了履行其敬天法祖的宗教责任外，也被佛道教所吸引，往往在佛道教之间做出选择。历朝历代都有一部分皇帝以及皇室或者信仰佛教，或者信仰道教，皇帝的宗教信仰直接影响国家宗教政策的制定。佛道教也积极争取一部分儒臣和文人，对普通信众也有一定影响。

As a school of thought, Confucianism had a strong academic interest and maintained a positive and open attitude towards academic issues. The translation and introduction of Buddhist scriptures were mostly undertaken by Confucian officials, and the translation halls were mostly organized and implemented by the state. Buddhism and Daoism also possessed a strong academic character. Daoism was supported by Daoist philosophy; during the Qin and Han dynasties, the techniques of the Huang-Lao school [1]1 Huang-Lao school: A school of thought during the early Han dynasty that combined the teachings of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) and Laozi, emphasizing Daoist principles of non-action (wu wei) in governance. once served as the ruling ideology, and it was also very familiar with traditional culture and Confucian thought. Buddhism originated from the cultures of the Tibeto-Burman language family ethnic groups on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Śākyamuni arose in opposition to religion, thus advocating humanism. The theme of his teachings was the philosophy of life, belonging to epistemology, similar to the various schools of thought during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Later, the schism into sects was also caused by academic disagreements, and its saṅgha organization practiced a democratic system. During its spread to the northwestern Central Asian region, it was also influenced by the culture of Greek immigrants, thus forming the Buddhist philosophy and art of the Mahāyāna period. Therefore, when Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and then to China, it contained much cutting-edge information in fields such as philosophy and art. This was also the main reason China accepted foreign Buddhism.

而儒家作为一个学派，有浓厚的学术兴趣，对学术问题持积极开放的态度，佛教经典的翻译介绍大都由儒臣担当，译场大都也由国家组织实施。佛教和道教二家也有浓厚的学术性，道教以道家理论为支撑，秦汉之际黄老道术一度作为统治思想，对传统文化和儒家思想也很熟悉。佛教起源与喜马拉雅山南麓的汉藏语系藏缅语族诸民族文化，释迦牟尼因反对宗教而起，故主张人本主义，其学说主题是人生哲学，属于认识论，与春秋战国时期时期的诸子百家相似。后来部派分裂也是因为学术分歧造成，其僧伽组织实行民主制度。在向西北中亚地区传播过程中，又受到希腊移民的文化影响，故由此形成大乘时期的佛教哲学和艺术。所以佛教从印度到中亚再传到中国，其中包含了诸多哲学、艺术等领域的前沿信息，这也是中国接受外来佛教的主要原因。

Regarding the influence and evaluation of Buddhism and Daoism on Chinese philosophy and culture, Buddhism and Daoism differ. Concerning the evaluation of Buddhism's impact on Chinese philosophy and Chinese culture, the most positive assessment holds that Buddhism elevated the quality of Chinese culture (a view of Yu Dunkang [2]2 Yu Dunkang (1930-): A prominent contemporary Chinese scholar of philosophy and religious studies, known for his work on Chinese philosophy and the history of Buddhism.). This actually refers to the enhancement of the theoretical thinking level of Chinese philosophy by Buddhist philosophy, mainly manifested in the improvement of traditional Chinese dialectics by Buddhist dialectical thinking during the Wei-Jin period and the Sui-Tang period. It is generally believed that Wei-Jin Xuanxue [3]3 Wei-Jin Xuanxue: A metaphysical and philosophical movement during the Wei and Jin dynasties (3rd-4th centuries CE), also known as Neo-Daoism, which reinterpreted Daoist classics. was influenced by Prajñā thought, and the Zhao Lun [4]4 Zhao Lun: A key text of Chinese Buddhist philosophy written by the monk Sengzhao (384–414 CE), synthesizing Madhyamaka Buddhist thought with Chinese philosophical concepts. represents the level of dialectical thinking. However, according to research by Chinese scholars, Wei-Jin Xuanxue was not influenced by Buddhist philosophy, or was only indirectly influenced, or received some inspiration. For example, the level of the Six Schools and Seven Sects [5]5 Six Schools and Seven Sects: Early schools of Chinese Buddhism during the Eastern Jin dynasty that attempted to interpret the concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) from the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. of Buddhism was actually lower than that of Wei-Jin Xuanxue. Even Sengzhao [6]6 Sengzhao: A disciple of Kumārajīva and a major figure in the development of Chinese Buddhist philosophy. did not truly grasp the dialectics of the Buddhist Mādhyamaka; instead, he was influenced by the dialectical thinking of Xuanxue. It was only the translation group of Kumārajīva [7]7 Kumārajīva (344–413 CE): A Kuchean Buddhist monk and prolific translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese, whose translations were highly influential., which translated the Mādhyamaka doctrine, that demonstrated the highest level of Buddhist Mādhyamaka dialectics. During the Sui-Tang period, the Buddhist philosophies of the Tiantai, Huayan, and Chan schools reached the highest level of Chinese philosophy. In particular, Huayan philosophy transcended the dualistic model, using pluralistic thinking to explain the multiple dialectical relationships existing between things. Additionally, the translation and transmission of Buddhist logic and Vijñānavāda thought also enhanced China's logical thinking ability. Buddhist philosophy promoted the development of Chinese philosophy not only in ontology but also in epistemology. However, the idealism of its religious philosophy also had a negative impact on Chinese philosophy, mainly manifested in the influence of Chan thought on the idealist philosophy of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism and Yangming School of Mind [8]8 Yangming School of Mind: A school of Neo-Confucian thought founded by Wang Yangming (1472–1529), emphasizing innate knowledge and the unity of knowledge and action.. The defects of religious philosophy also led Chinese Buddhist philosophy towards a fideistic line, with doctrines such as Buddha-nature, Tathāgatagarbha, the Awakening of Faith, and Chan-Pure Land thought becoming the mainstream of Buddhist philosophy after the Tang Dynasty, further promoting the development of idealist philosophy. In summary, dialectical thinking was already fully expressed in the Yijing (Book of Changes) and the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, forming the foundation of Chinese philosophy. During the Wei-Jin period, China's traditional speculative philosophy was further developed in Wei-Jin Xuanxue. When it encountered Buddhist philosophy, they collided and influenced each other, leading to the elevation of traditional philosophy. The result was the formation of Sui-Tang Buddhist philosophy, which reached the peak of Chinese philosophy. With Buddhism as the medium, traditional Chinese philosophy, Greek immigrant philosophy, and Indian philosophy met in China, sparking the flame of Buddhist philosophy and bearing fruit within Chinese culture. When encountering Western culture in modern times, it was precisely because of this foundation that China readily accepted Marxist philosophy. The combination of traditional dialectical idealism and Marxist dialectical materialism, learning from each other's strengths to compensate for weaknesses, has become the theme of the times in China today.

佛道教对中国哲学和文化的影响和评价，佛教与道教各有不同。关于佛教对中国哲学以及中国文化的评价，最积极的评价认为佛教提升了中国文化的品质（余敦康语），实际上指佛教哲学对中国哲学理论思维水平的提升，主要表现在魏晋时期和隋唐时期的佛教辩证思维对中国传统辩证法的提升，一般认为魏晋玄学受到般若学的影响，《肇论》代表辩证思维水平，但根据中国学者的研究，魏晋玄学并没有受到佛教哲学的影响，或只有间接影响，或受到一定启发，如佛教的六家七宗的水平反而低于魏晋玄学，即便僧肇也没有真正把握佛教中观的辩证法，反而受玄学辩证思维的影响，只是鸠摩罗什译经集团翻译中观学说，表现了佛教中观辩证法的最高水平。隋唐时期天台、华严、禅宗的佛教哲学达到中国哲学的最高水平，尤其华严哲学超越二元模式，以多元思维说明事物之间存在的多重辩证关系。另外，佛教逻辑学以及唯识学说的传译，也提升了中国的逻辑思维能力。佛教哲学不仅在本体论上，也在认识论上都促进了中国哲学的发展，但其宗教哲学的唯心论也对中国哲学产生了负面影响，主要表现在禅宗思想对宋明理学、阳明心学的唯心主义哲学的影响。宗教哲学的弊病也使中国佛教哲学走向信仰主义路线，以佛性论、如来藏、起信论和禅净思想成为唐以后的佛教哲学主流，也促使唯心主义哲学进一步发展。总之，辩证思维在春秋战国时期的《易传》以及老庄哲学中已有充分表达，这是中国哲学的基础。魏晋时期，中国传统的思辨哲学在魏晋玄学中得到进一步发展，与佛教哲学相遇，相互碰撞、相互影响，传统哲学得到提升。其结果是形成隋唐佛教哲学，达到中国哲学的高峰。以佛教为媒介，中国传统哲学、希腊移民哲学、印度哲学在中国相遇，碰撞出佛教哲学的火花，在中国文化中结出果实。近代与西方文化相遇时，正因为中国有此基础，很容易接受了马克思主义哲学，传统的辩证唯心主义与马克思主义辩证唯物主义相结合，取长补短，就成为今天中国的时代主题。

4. The Influence of the Three Teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism on Chinese Traditional Culture

四、儒释道三教对中国传统文化的影响

From the Tang Dynasty onwards, the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism played an important role in the lifestyle of the Chinese people. A popular saying is: "Use Confucianism to govern the world, use Daoism to cultivate the body, and use Buddhism to cultivate the mind." This can be described as a model of division of labor and cooperation among the three, which basically reflects the respective characteristics and different roles of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, and also generally explains the lifestyle and state of conduct of Chinese literati. Generally speaking, the belief in Confucianism is universal, a lifelong belief for the entire population, while belief in Buddhism and Daoism is a choice for only a portion of the people, and is often阶段性 (stage-specific).

儒释道三教从唐代以后对中国人的生活方式起着重要作用，一种流行的说法就是以儒治世，以道治身，以佛治心，可以说是一种三家分工合作的模式，基本上反映了儒释道三教各自的特点和所起的不同作用，也基本上说明了中国士人的生活方式和处事状态。宗的来说，儒教的信仰具有普遍性，是全民性的、终生的信仰，而佛道教的信仰只是一部分人的选择，具有阶段性。

Regarding the influence of the three teachings on the religious beliefs of the Chinese people, Confucianism played a role in maintaining the Chinese national psyche, safeguarding the consciousness of a unified Chinese state, and sustaining the order of feudal society. Buddhism enriched and filled out the content of Chinese religious beliefs and the deep structure of the psyche, such as the doctrine of retribution across three lifetimes, Pure Land belief, and "seeing one's nature and becoming a Buddha" (明心见性). Its otherworldly approach provided a way of life and spiritual归宿 (final refuge) for those escaping worldly affairs, and also represented a form of separation of religion and state, where religion does not interfere in politics. At the same time, it fostered negative emotions of pessimism and world-weariness, as well as an individualism of "cultivating oneself alone" (独善其身). Daoism's philosophy of life and the ideal of immortality through self-cultivation resonated with the religious psychology of the Chinese people, providing a way of life for those who remained in the secular world while pursuing spiritual transcendence.

儒释道三教对中国人的宗教信仰的影响，儒教起到了维系中华民族心理、维护中国统一国家意识、维持封建社会秩序的作用。佛教丰富和充实了中国人宗教信仰的内容和深层心理结构，如三世业报说、净土信仰、明心见性等，其出世方式给一部分逃避现实俗务的人提供了生活出路和精神归宿，也是一种政教分离、宗教不干预政治的方式，同时造成了悲观厌世的负面情绪和独善其身的个人主义。道教的生命哲学和长生成仙思想契合中国人的宗教心理，为处俗而追求精神超越的人提供了一种生活方式。

Foreign Buddhism also had a certain influence on Chinese traditional culture, the most obvious being the art of cave temples and monastery sculpture. The Mogao Caves at Dunhuang, the Yungang Grottoes, the Longmen Grottoes, the Maijishan Grottoes, and the Dazu Rock Carvings have all become World Cultural Heritage sites. It also had a certain influence on the themes and literary forms of Chinese literature, art, and opera.

外来佛教对中国传统文化也产生了一定影响，其中最明显的是石窟及寺院雕塑艺术，敦煌莫高窟、云岗石窟、洛阳石窟、麦积山石窟、大足石刻都成为世界文化遗产。对中国文学、艺术、戏曲的题材、文体、也有一定影响。

(Author's bio: Lü Jianfu, Chair Professor at Sichuan University)

（作者简介：吕建福，四川大学讲席讲授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心