A Brief Discussion of Shao Yong’s Atheist Thought

Shao Yong (1011–1077), courtesy name Yaofu, posthumous title Kangjie, was a native of Gongcheng, Henan (present-day Huixian, Henan). He was one of the Five Masters of the Northern Song [1]1 “Inherent nobility” (良贵, liángguì) — a Mencian concept referring to a value intrinsic to human nature that is not conferred by external social position or rank. and a forerunner of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. At present, scholarly research on Northern Song atheist thought mostly concentrates on Zhang Zai, paying little attention to Shao Yong’s atheist ideas; moreover, most scholars regard Shao Yong as a theist. When Ya Hanzhang and Wang Yousan compiled the Northern Song section of *A History of Chinese Atheism*, they studied only Zhang Zai as an atheist, did not include Shao Yong, the Cheng brothers, and other Neo-Confucians among the atheists, and even dismissed Shao Yong’s teachings as “wild talk” and “the theory of divine creation.” Hou Wailu went so far as to state directly that Shao Yong’s “spirit” ultimately “leads to religion and beats the drum for theism.” He argued that Shao Yong, using the study of images and numbers [2]2 “Study of images and numbers” (象数学, xiàngshùxué) — Shao Yong’s distinctive cosmological and divinatory system, which used numerical and symbolic diagrams (derived from the Yijing) to model the generation and transformation of all things., “castrated the substance of science,” turning natural science into “a handmaiden of theology,” thereby constructing a theistic system. Chen Zhongfan believed that different aspects of Shao Yong’s “spirit” reflected his pantheist thought. Zhai Kuifeng distinguished six layers of meaning in Shao Yong’s “spirit” and emphasized that Shao Yong’s “spirit” was a rational deity. In fact, whether “pantheism” or rational deity, both indicate that Shao Yong negated the traditional spirit, i.e., the personal god. In this sense, Shao Yong is an atheist. Dong Genhong proposed the concept of “Neo-Confucian atheism.” Through an analysis of Shao Yong’s categories of “spirit,” “heaven,” and “mandate,” he pointed out that Shao Yong’s Neo-Confucian system “is essentially an atheist system.” From the above, it can be seen that the scholarly world either regards Shao Yong as a theist, neglecting his atheist thought, or classifies Shao Yong as an atheist, but not from the standpoint of Marxist atheism.

邵雍(1011—1077年),字尧夫,谥康节,河南共城(今河南辉县)人,是北宋五子之一,宋明理学的先行者。目前,学界关于北宋无神论思想的研究大多集中于张载,对邵雍无神论思想少有关注,且大多学者将其视为有神论者。牙含章、王友三在编写《中国无神论史》的北宋部分时,仅把张载作为无神论者进行研究,并未将邵雍、二程等理学家列于其中,甚至将邵雍之学视为“妄说”及“神创说”。侯外庐更是直接称邵雍之“神”最后“通向宗教,为有神论张目”。他认为,邵雍以象数学“阉割科学的实质”,把自然科学安排为“神学的奴婢”,从而建构了有神论体系。陈钟凡认为,邵雍之“神”的不同侧面反映了其泛神论思想。翟奎凤区分了邵雍之“神”的六重含义,并强调邵雍之“神”为理性神。其实,无论是“泛神论”还是理性神,都说明邵雍否定了传统的神即人格神。在这个意义上,邵雍是无神论者。董根洪提出“理学无神论”的概念,他通过对邵雍“神”“天”“命”范畴的分析,指出其理学思想体系“本质上是一个无神论的体系”。从上可知,学界或将邵雍视为有神论者,忽视其无神论思想;或将邵雍归于无神论,但并非基于马克思主义无神论的立场进行分析。

In essence, Shao Yong, based on the theory of *qi* [3]3 Ren Jiyu (1916–2009) was a prominent Chinese historian of philosophy and religion, known for his Marxist approach to the study of Chinese intellectual history and his advocacy of atheist critique., established his cosmological model, highly elevated human subjective initiative, and criticized traditional concepts of ghosts and spirits, effectively opposing popular beliefs in ghosts and spirits. Sorting out and interpreting the meaning and function of Shao Yong’s “spirit” can enable people to clearly understand the atheist content contained in his thought and clarify his historical contribution to the development of atheism.

实质上,邵雍以气论为基础,建立其宇宙模型,高扬人的主观能动性,并对传统的鬼神观念进行了批判,有力对抗了世俗的鬼神信仰。对邵雍“神”之意涵及功能的梳理和阐释,可以使人们清楚了解其思想中所蕴含的无神论内容,明确其对无神论发展的历史贡献。

I. The Background of the Formation of Shao Yong’s Atheist Thought

一、邵雍无神论思想的形成背景

The Neo-Confucian trend of thought that arose in the mid-Northern Song was essentially a Confucian revival movement; Shao Yong’s Neo-Confucian thought was essentially a new Confucianism. Confucianism declined after the theological transformation by Han Confucians and the impact of Buddhism and Daoism. Its revival necessarily involved eliminating the theological and superstitious nature of Han Confucianism and negating Buddhism and Daoism. The theoretical basis for this opposition to religious theology came not only from Confucianism itself but was also the result of the long-term development of the natural sciences. That is to say, the revival movement of new Confucianism essentially contained rich atheist elements. Shao Yong’s thought precisely took atheism as its basic principle and main characteristic.

兴起于北宋中叶的理学思潮,实质上是一场儒学复兴运动,邵雍的理学思想本质上是一种新儒学。儒学经汉儒的神学化改造及佛道宗教的冲击而衰落,其复兴必然地以排除汉儒的神学巫妄性和否定佛道宗教来实现。而这种反对宗教神学的理论基础,既来自于儒学自身,也是自然科学长期发展的结果。也就是说,新儒学的复兴运动实质上包含着丰富的无神论要素。邵雍的思想正是以无神论作为自己的基本原则和主要特性。

(I) Shao Yong Was in the Initial Stage of Song-Ming New Confucianism

(一)邵雍处于宋明新儒学的初创阶段

The rise of new Confucianism directly targeted the proliferation of Buddhism and Daoism. Dong Zhongshu transformed pre-Qin Confucianism to defend the feudal order, making Confucianism the “orthodox” thought of the two Han dynasties. From the Wei and Jin dynasties onward, the dominant position of Confucianism was continuously challenged by Buddhism and Daoism. In the mid-Tang, Han Yu was the first to raise the banner of reviving Confucianism. Although he advocated extreme restrictive policies towards Buddhism, such as “making them into commoners, burning their books, and turning their dwellings into secular residences,” the rampant spread of Buddhism and Daoism was still not curbed. The otherworldly lifestyle and value concepts of Buddhism and Daoism seriously endangered the Confucian political ethics of the Three Bonds and Five Constants [4]4 The source of this quotation is Shao Yong’s *Huangji jingshi shu*. and threatened the feudal ruling order. Buddhism and Daoism not only deceived a large number of lower-class people with theories of reincarnation and immortality but also won the hearts of countless Confucian scholars with their theoretical systems of worldview and self-cultivation. Northern Song Confucians were keenly aware that the unprecedented threat facing Confucianism came from Buddhism and Daoism. The Cheng brothers once said: “Among the many people I have met, there are only three who are not mixed: Zhang Zihou, Shao Yaofu, and Sima Junshi.” [5]5 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. That is, throughout the world, only Zhang Zai, Shao Yong, and Sima Guang still adhered to the Confucian way, “standing firm without confusion”; the rest were all contaminated with the religious content of Buddhism and Daoism. Rejecting Buddhism and Daoism and promoting Confucianism was the direct wish of the Confucians who initiated the new Confucian movement at that time. Therefore, Confucians of the time, such as Zhang Zai and Shao Yong, all profoundly criticized the Buddhist and Daoist worldview of emptiness and non-being, their theories of mind and nature cultivation, and their doctrines of ghosts and spirits, in order to achieve the revival of Confucianism. Among them, Shao Yong “did not flatter Zen masters, nor did he flatter alchemists,” and “regarding matters of Buddhism and Daoism, he never spoke of them; he knew them but did not speak,” demonstrating his resolute attitude of resistance to Buddhist and Daoist religious thought.

新儒学的兴起直接针对佛道宗教的泛滥。董仲舒将先秦儒学进行改造,为封建秩序辩护,儒学成为两汉“正宗”思想。魏晋以降,儒学的尊统地位不断受到佛道二教的冲击。中唐韩愈率先举起复兴儒学大旗,他虽力主对佛教采取“人其人,火其书,庐其居”的极端限制政策,但佛道二教泛滥之势仍未有阻遏,佛老出世的生活方式和价值理念,严重危害儒家的三纲五常政治伦理,危及封建统治秩序。佛道二教不仅以生死轮回说和长生神仙说蒙蔽着大量的下层民众,而且还以其世界观、修养论等理论体系赢得了无数儒士学者的心。北宋儒者清醒地意识到儒学所面临的空前威胁就来自佛道。二程曾说:“某接人多矣,不杂者三人:张子厚、邵尧夫、司马君实。”即普天之下,只有张载、邵雍和司马光三人还恪守儒道,“特立不惑”,其余都杂染佛老的宗教内容。排斥佛老,倡明儒学是当时儒者发起新儒学运动的直接心愿。所以,当时张载、邵雍等儒者都深刻批判了佛道的空无世界观、心性修养论、鬼神说等内容,以求实现儒学的复兴。其中,邵雍更是“不佞禅伯,不谀方士”,“于佛老之事,口未尝言,知之而不言”,展现了其对佛道宗教思想的坚决抵制态度。

Furthermore, new Confucianism was also a critique of theological Confucianism. During the Western Han, Dong Zhongshu draped Confucianism in a “theological” cloak. He “assimilated the natural heaven to the religious ‘Heaven’,” and absorbed and distorted the pre-Qin theory of *qi* and the theory of *yin-yang* and the Five Phases [6]6 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Zhongfu and Wuwang are hexagrams from the *Yijing* (Book of Changes)., establishing a complete theoretical system of theological teleology based on “the interaction between Heaven and humanity.” [7]7 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Subsequently, the theology of *chenwei* [8]8 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. and the theological system of the *Baihu Tongyi* [9]9 This phrase is from the “Appended Remarks” (Xici) commentary to the *Yijing*. were continuations of this new theological system. Although theological Confucianism was criticized by Huan Tan, Wang Chong, and others during the two Han dynasties, and impacted by Neo-Daoism during the Wei and Jin, it continued to move slowly within the shallow and absurd nature of the theological Confucianism of the two Han dynasties until the Tang, due to the maintenance of the rulers and the promotion of a group of official classical scholars. This shallow and absurd deified Confucianism could hardly win people’s hearts. Especially, the object of faith for elite “wise men” had shifted from Confucianism to Buddhism and Daoism, because “the followers of Buddhism were dedicated in their studies,” and many contents of Buddhism were “extremely exquisite.” Therefore, to restore Confucian faith, it was necessary to enhance the speculative nature of Confucianism. That is, to use the rational power of enhanced speculation and logic to internally expel the absurd and dogmatic theological content, transforming theological Confucianism into philosophical Confucianism. In other words, enhancing the speculative nature of Confucianism was essentially a negation of the old theological concepts within Confucianism, such as the interaction between Heaven and humanity and *chenwei* theology. It was precisely during this period that the Northern Song Confucians, including Shao Yong, in the process of criticizing deified Confucianism, simultaneously absorbed the speculative essence of Buddhism and Daoism, establishing “an academic system that was compatible and open, with Confucianism as the main body, ‘human nature and the Way of Heaven’ as the guiding principles, and incorporating Buddhism and Daoism into Confucianism.”

另外,新儒学也是对神学化儒学的批判。西汉时期,董仲舒将儒学披上了“神学”外衣,他把“自然的天合同于宗教的‘天’”,并吸收和歪曲先秦气论及阴阳五行说,建立了一整套“天人感应”的神学目的论的理论体系。之后,蚩纬神学与《白虎通义》的神学体系都是这个新神学体系的继续。神学化的儒学虽在两汉时受到桓谭、王充等人的批判,在魏晋时受到玄学的冲击,但因统治者的维护及一批官方经学家的倡扬,直到唐代,儒学都在两汉神学化的浅薄诞妄性中缓行。这种浅薄和荒诞的神化儒学难以收拾人心,尤其是精英式的“智者”信仰对象已从儒学转向佛老,因为“释氏之徒,为学专精”,佛学中的诸多内容都“极精妙”。故而,要想重新恢复儒道信仰就必须增强儒学的思辨性。即用增强思辨性、逻辑性的理性力量内在地驱逐荒诞独断的神学内容,将神学化的儒学转变为哲学化的儒学。也就是说,增强儒学的思辨性实质上是对儒学中天人感应、蚩纬神学等旧有的神学观念的否定。正是在此期间,包括邵雍在内的北宋诸儒在批判神化儒学的过程中,同时吸收了佛、道的思辨精华,建立起“以儒学为主体,以‘性与天道9为纲目,援佛、道入儒的兼容性、开放性的学术体系”。

(II) Shao Yong Was in a Period of Rapid Development of the Natural Sciences

(二)邵雍处于自然科学快速发展的阶段

The natural sciences take the exploration of natural laws as their mission. “In the long process of development, they not only formed various systematic bodies of knowledge but also nurtured a scientific spirit, including the spirit of seeking truth, the spirit of doubt, and the spirit of criticism, which directly promoted the emergence of atheism.” This scientific spirit is precisely the natural enemy of theism. Ancient Chinese natural sciences sprouted in the Three Dynasties [10]10 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text.; were established in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods; their basic system took shape in the Han dynasty, with the five major disciplines of mathematics, astronomy, geography, agriculture, and medicine all having their own scientific paradigms; they continued to develop from the Wei, Jin, to the Sui and Tang dynasties, during which time the five disciplines all progressed to varying degrees, with a large number of mathematical works appearing, in addition to two major inventions: woodblock printing and gunpowder; during the Song and Yuan dynasties, ancient natural sciences reached their peak, with many accomplished scientists emerging. Among them, Shen Kuo, who was roughly contemporary with Shao Yong, was the most outstanding. His research covered fields such as mathematics, astronomy and calendar, geography, meteorology, physics, chemistry, and medicine. Joseph Needham called him “the most outstanding figure in the entire history of Chinese science.” Besides Shen Kuo, Jia Xian, Liu Yi, and others in the Northern Song also promoted the development of ancient mathematics; Zhang Sixun, Su Song, and others further improved astronomical instruments; works like *Taiping Huanyu Ji* and *Yuanfeng Jiuyu Zhi* [11]11 The source of these quotations is not identified in the original text. can be considered monumental geographical masterpieces. It was precisely because of the rapid development of the natural sciences during the Northern Song period that atheist thought was able to be further elevated.

自然科学以探求自然规律为己任,“在长期的发展进程中不仅形成了各种系统的知识,而且孕育了包括求实精神、怀疑精神、批判精神为内涵的科学精神,直接推动了无神论的产生。”这种科学精神正是有神论的天敌。中国古代自然科学萌芽于三代;奠基于春秋战国;基本体系形成于汉代,数学、天文学、地学、农学和医学五大学科都有了自己的科学范式;魏晋至隋唐时期得以持续发展,此时五大学科皆有不同程度进步,其中更是出现大量数学著作,除此还出现了雕版印刷术和火药这两项重大发明;宋元时期,古代自然科学达到高峰,出现了诸多卓有成就的科学家。其中与邵雍基本同期的沈括成绩最为显著,其研究涉及数学、天文历法、地理、气象、物理、化学和医学等领域,被李约瑟称为“中国整部科学史中最卓越的人物”。除沈括外,北宋时期的贾宪、刘益等人也推动了古代数学的发展;张思训、苏颂等人进一步改造了天文仪器;《太平寰宇记》《元丰九城志》等堪称地理学的皇皇巨著。正是由于北宋时期自然科学快速发展,无神论思想才得以进一步提高。

During the Northern Song period, natural science achieved great progress in its accomplishments, its research methods, and its depth of scientific understanding, providing rich intellectual resources for the formation of Neo-Confucianism. Although the Neo-Confucian scholars were not professional natural scientists, they all possessed relatively extensive knowledge of natural science. In terms of scientific and technological achievements, astronomical knowledge in particular was widely absorbed by the Neo-Confucians. In terms of research methods, starting from personal observation and field investigation, and using factual materials as the basis for verification, a preliminary method of scientific experimentation took shape, which directly influenced the formation of the Neo-Confucians’ cognitive methods. In addition, the natural science of the Song dynasty, “on the basis of previous descriptions of natural phenomena, had already begun to explore deep-level regularities, penetrating from knowing what is so to knowing why it is so.” [1]1 “Inherent nobility” (良贵, liángguì) — a Mencian concept referring to a value intrinsic to human nature that is not conferred by external social position or rank. Natural scientists of the time believed that all things in nature contained “principle” (li). Based on their understanding of the principle of nature, they were not satisfied with simple descriptions of natural phenomena but sought further to grasp the natural laws behind the phenomena, that is, to “trace back to their principle” (yuan qi li). “Principle” is the order and law of things, unrelated to spiritual phenomena. Using “principle” to explain natural phenomena, in a certain sense, constituted a negation of the original theism. This “principle” was one of the central topics of inquiry for the Neo-Confucians. For example, Shao Yong emphasized “the study of the principle of things” (wuli zhi xue), which is the inquiry into the principle and law of the myriad things, working upon the myriad things in order to know the principle of things. Although “the study of the principle of things” differs from physics in the modern scientific sense, it manifests his aspect of exploring natural laws and cognizing objective things. The era in which Shao Yong lived was precisely the heyday of the development of ancient natural science. The achievements and research methods of natural science provided, to varying degrees, important intellectual resources for the formation of his atheism.

北宋时期,自然科学在所取得的成就上、在科学研究方法上、在科学认识程度上,都取得了巨大进步,这为新儒学的形成提供了丰富的思想资源。理学家们虽非专业的自然科学家,但都具有较为丰富的自然科学知识。在科技成就方面,特别是天文学的知识被理学家广泛吸收。在研究方法方面,从亲身观察、实地考察入手,以事实材料为验证依据,成型为初步的科学实验方法,这直接影响着理学家认识方法的形成。另外,宋代的自然科学“在以往对自然现象进行描述的基础上,已经开始探讨深层规律性的东西,从知其然深入到知其所以然”。此时的自然科学家认为,自然界的事物都包含着“理”。基于对自然之理的认识,他们不满足于对自然现象的简单描述,而要进一步把握现象背后的自然规律,即“原其理”。“理”就是事物的条理、规律,与精神现象无关,用“理”来解释自然现象,从某种意义而言,就是对原有的有神论的否定。这种“理”是理学家们探讨的中心议题之一,如邵雍就强调“物理之学”,这是探究万物之理则,在万物之上做工夫,以求知物之理的学问。“物理之学”虽有别于近代科学意义上的物理,但彰显了他探索自然规律、认知客观事物的一面。邵雍所处的时代正是古代自然科学发展的鼎盛时期,自然科学取得的成就及研究方法,在不同程度上为其无神论的形成提供了重要的思想资源。

II. Main Manifestations of Shao Yong’s Atheist Thought

二、邵雍无神论思想的主要表现

Based on the developmental course of Confucianism and natural science, Shao Yong criticized the deified Confucianism of the Han dynasty and the religious content of Buddhism and Daoism, absorbed the speculative essence of Buddhism and Daoism as well as the achievements and methods of natural science, and established a new Confucian system rooted in qi (vital force), thereby criticizing the previous theological view of ghosts and spirits and elevating human subjective initiative. The new Confucian system constructed by Shao Yong contains rich atheist content.

基于儒学和自然科学的发展进程,邵雍批判两汉神化的儒学及佛道宗教内容,吸收佛老思辨精华及自然科学的成果与方法,建立了以气为根基的新儒学体系,批判了以往神学的鬼神观,高扬了人的主观能动性。邵雍建构的新儒学体系具有丰富的无神论内容。

(I) Analysis of the Generation of the Cosmos from the Perspective of Qi Theory

(一)对宇宙生成的气论分析

Ancient Chinese atheism mostly used qi theory as its theoretical foundation to criticize theism and negate the theological worldview, because qi theory, in contrast to the illusory nature of theism, primarily represents the reality of this world. On the basis of inheriting traditional qi theory, Shao Yong proposed that the qi which serves as the origin is the undifferentiated unity of yin qi and yang qi. This qi possesses the marvelous function of unpredictable change. The myriad things are born from qi and move by means of qi; that is, the existence and change of all things in the world are grounded in qi.

中国古代无神论多以气论为理论基础来批判有神论,否定神学世界观,因为气论与有神论的虚妄性相对,主要表征了这个世界的实在性。邵雍在继承传统气论的基础上提出作为本原的气是阴阳二气的浑沦为一,此气具有不测变化的神妙作用,万物由气而生,因气而动,即世界万物的存在及变化皆以气为根据。

The yin and yang qi, undifferentiated, constitute “one qi” (yi qi), possessing the marvelous function of generating and transforming the myriad things. Shao Yong said: “Originally it is one qi; when it generates, it becomes yang; when it dissolves, it becomes yin”; “As soon as the one qi is divided, the two modes [heaven and earth] are already complete. The round is heaven, the square is earth”; “The Supreme Ultimate (taiji) is one; it does not move; it generates two; the two is spirit (shen).” [2]2 “Study of images and numbers” (象数学, xiàngshùxué) — Shao Yong’s distinctive cosmological and divinatory system, which used numerical and symbolic diagrams (derived from the Yijing) to model the generation and transformation of all things. In this regard, the scholar Zhang Xingcheng explained: “The Supreme Ultimate is one qi; when qi generates, it advances and becomes yang; when it dissolves, it retreats and becomes yin.” Shao Yong believed that the “Supreme Ultimate” is in essence “one qi,” the root of the generation and transformation of the myriad things. Moreover, he pointed out that “the Way (dao) is the Supreme Ultimate,” and “the Way and the One are forced names for spirit.” That is to say, the category of “Supreme Ultimate” has various appellations such as “the Way,” “the One,” and “spirit,” all of which point to “one qi” behind these different names. “The Supreme Ultimate as one qi,” as the root of the generation and transformation of all things in the cosmos, is the undifferentiated unity of yin and yang qi. Yin and yang qi manifest the marvelous function of generating and transforming heaven, earth, and the myriad things, hence it is called “spirit.” This is the great virtue of the substance (benti), that is, the function of change inherent in yin and yang qi. The marvelous function of “spirit” is also manifested in its activity and stillness. “Activity and stillness” are likewise “the marvelous function of the Supreme Ultimate.” The Supreme Ultimate, in the change of activity and stillness, produces yin and yang: “At the beginning of activity, yang is generated; at the extreme of activity, yin is generated.” The Supreme Ultimate is the undifferentiated qi before the separation of yin and yang. This undifferentiated qi, whether active or still, differentiates into yin qi and yang qi. Yin and yang qi are a division of one qi, not separate entities generated by qi: “The two are simply one.” In other words, from the perspective of one qi, yin and yang are merely distinctions made regarding the nature of qi; in terms of their material substance, both are qi, and thus they can be unified as “one qi.” This is basically consistent with Zhou Dunyi’s view that “the Supreme Ultimate, in activity, generates yang” and “in stillness, generates yin,” [3]3 Ren Jiyu (1916–2009) was a prominent Chinese historian of philosophy and religion, known for his Marxist approach to the study of Chinese intellectual history and his advocacy of atheist critique. which is why Zhu Xi said that the “Supreme Ultimate” of Zhou and Shao “speaks of yin and yang rolled together.” [4]4 The source of this quotation is Shao Yong’s *Huangji jingshi shu*. Shao Yong’s “spirit” is “that which has no fixed direction and cannot be fathomed.” Zhang Xingcheng explained this: “Change (yi) is yin and yang. Spirit is the unfathomability of yin and yang.” Change is the fundamental characteristic of spirit; yin and yang qi are spirit itself. Clearly, this is an inheritance of the “Appended Remarks” (Xici) of the Book of Changes (Yijing), which states: “The unfathomability of yin and yang is called spirit.” [5]5 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text.

阴阳二气浑沦为“一气”,具有生化万事万物的神妙功用。邵雍说:“本一气也,生则为阳,消则为阴”;“一气才分,两仪已备。圆者为天,方者为地”;“太极一也,不动,生二,二则神也。”对此,学者张行成解释说:“太极一气也,气生则进而为阳,消则退而为阴。”邵雍认为,“太极”本质上就是“一气”,为万物生化的根源。而且他还指出“道为太极”,“道与一,神之强名也”。也就是说“太极”范畴具有“道”“一”“神”等多种称谓,这不同称谓的背后都指向“一气”。“太极一气”作为宇宙万物生化的根源,是阴阳二气的浑沦为一,阴阳二气呈现了生化天地万物的神妙功用,故谓之“神”。这是本体之大德,即阴阳二气具有的变化功能。“神”的妙用也体现在其动静作用中,“动静”亦是“太极之妙用”,太极在动静变化中产生了阴阳,“动之始则阳生焉,动之极则阴生焉”。太极就是阴阳未分的浑沦之气,此浑沦之气或动或静而分化出阴阳二气,阴阳二气是一气之分,而不是气所生的另外实体,“二者一而已矣”。换言之,从一气的角度看,阴阳只是对气的性质进行的区分,就其质料而言,二者同是气,故可统一为“一气”。这与周敦颐“太极动而生阳”,“静而生阴”的观点基本一致,故朱熹称周、邵的“太极”为“和阴阳滚说”。邵雍的“神”是“无方而不可测者”,张行成对此解释说:“易者,阴阳也。神者,阴阳不测也。”变化是神的根本特质,阴阳二气就是神本身。显然,这是对《易传》“阴阳不测谓之神”的承继。

“Qi” is the beginning and end of the change of all things in the cosmos. Shao Yong said: “The two is spirit. Spirit generates number; number generates image; image generates implement (qi). The change of implements returns again to spirit.” Here, “spirit” refers to yin and yang qi. Shao Yong took yin and yang qi as the beginning and end of the change of the myriad things, constructing a model of change: “qi → number → image → implement → qi.” In his view, the generation and transformation of the myriad things all arise from yin and yang qi, and the dissipation of the myriad things all return to yin and yang qi. The basis of this model of change is the law inherent in the cosmos itself: “The numbers of the world arise from principle,” and “the myriad things of the world” all have their “principle”; that is, the law contained in yin and yang qi is fundamental. In short, the existence, development, and extinction of the myriad things are merely the gathering and dispersing changes of qi according to certain laws (“principle”).

“气”是宇宙万事万物变化的始终。邵雍说:“二则神。神生数,数生象,象生器”;“器之变,复归于神也。”此处的“神”即阴阳二气。邵雍将阴阳二气作为万物变化的始终,构建了“气→数→象→器→气”的变易模式。在他看来,万物的生化皆由阴阳二气而起,万物的消散则终归于阴阳二气。这种变易模式的根据就是宇宙自身所具有的规律,“天下之数出于理”,“天下万物”皆有其“理”,即阴阳二气所蕴含的规律才是根本。总之,万物的存在、发展、消亡只不过是气按照一定规律(“理”)在聚散变化罢了。

The generation and transformation of the myriad things are not, as traditional theism claims, that heaven is high yet hears the lowly, the interaction between heaven and man (tianren ganying), or the rewarding of good and punishing of evil, but rather follow a set of laws (“principle”) of their own. Shao Yong believed that the myriad things must follow both the generative law of “twofold division” and the existential law of “four pieces.” “Twofold division” means that the generation of the myriad things follows the logical order of “one divides into two, two divides into four, four divides into eight, eight divides into sixteen, sixteen divides into thirty-two, thirty-two divides into sixty-four,” and “extending this, it becomes the ten thousand.” [6]6 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Zhongfu and Wuwang are hexagrams from the *Yijing* (Book of Changes). “Four pieces” means that the myriad things only possess a basically complete structure when they reach the stage of “four”; all things can be divided into four parts. For example, natural objects include “sun, moon, stars, and constellations”; the seasons include “spring, summer, autumn, and winter”; the ways of governance include “the emperor, the king, the hegemon, and the lord,” etc. [7]7 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Specifically, the Supreme Ultimate as one qi divides into heaven and earth; heaven divides into yin and yang, earth divides into hardness and softness; yin and yang divide into the qi of the Great Yang, the Great Yin, the Lesser Yin, and the Lesser Yang, which transform and generate the sun, moon, stars, and constellations, and their movements form day and night, cold and heat; hardness and softness divide into the qi of the Great Hardness, the Great Softness, the Lesser Hardness, and the Lesser Softness, which transform and generate water, fire, earth, and stone, and wind, rain, dew, and thunder. The fourfold division can also be extended to various aspects, such as nature, feeling, form, and condition, and the Book of Changes, the Book of Documents, the Book of Songs, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. Of course, “no category of things will have all four pure and unmixed.” [8]8 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. For example, animals and plants can be divided into the four categories of walking, flying, grasses, and trees. These four can be further refined; by cross-matching them, they divide into walking-walking, walking-flying, walking-grass, walking-tree, flying-walking, flying-flying, flying-grass, etc., sixteen categories, representing sixteen different kinds of animals and plants. The division of labor in ancient society can be divided into the four categories of scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Further refining these yields scholar-scholar, scholar-farmer, scholar-artisan, scholar-merchant, farmer-scholar, farmer-farmer, etc., sixteen occupations. In short, all things in the world, including nature and human society, are generated and exist within this model of “twofold division” and “fourfold division.” In Shao Yong’s view, heaven and earth are the largest existing things, and all existences between heaven and earth (including humans) are things, thus constructing a world of things. Although this world is infinitely diverse, it is orderly. To sum up, the cosmic model constructed by Shao Yong, based on qi theory, holds that the myriad things are all objectively existing entities, and the generation and transformation of the myriad things all follow the stipulations of “principle.” Regardless of whether this “principle” is a “rational god,” it constitutes a negation of the traditional personal god, which is to say, it articulates atheism.

万物的生化不是传统有神论所讲的天处高而听卑、天人感应、赏善罚恶等,而是自有一套法则(“理”)。邵雍认为,万物既要遵循“二分”的生成法则,又要遵循“四片”的存在法则。“二分”即万物的生成遵循“一分为二,二分为四,四分为八,八分为十六,十六分为三十二,三十二分为六十四”的逻辑次序,“衍之斯为万”。“四片”即万物发展到“四”的阶段才具备了基本完整的结构,万物皆能四分,例如自然物有“日月星辰”;四季有“春夏秋冬”;治道有“皇帝王伯”等。具体来说,太极一气分而为天地;天分阴阳,地分刚柔;阴阳分太阳、太阴、少阴、少阳之气,化生为日月星辰,它们的运行,形成昼夜寒暑;刚柔分太刚、太柔、少刚、少柔之气,化生水火土石,风雨露雷。四分法还可以向各个方面推广,如性情形体、《易》《诗》《书》《春秋》等。当然,“任何一类事物,都不会四种纯粹不杂”,如动植物可分走飞草木四类,此四者还能进一步细化,将之交互搭配,则分为走走、走飞、走草、走木、飞走、飞飞、飞草等十六类,代表十六种不同的动植物;古代社会分工可分士农工商四类,将之进一步细化,则为士士、士农、士工、士商、农士、农农等十六种职业。总之,包括自然界、人类社会在内的世间万物都是在这种“二分”与“四分”的模式中生成与存在的。在邵雍看来,天地是最大的存在物,天地之间的一切存在(包括人)皆是物,从而构建了一个物的世界,这个世界虽千差万别,但井然有序。综上所述,邵雍所建构的宇宙模型,以气论为基础,万物皆是客观存在的事物,万物的生化都遵循“理”的规定,无论这个“理”是不是“理性神”,都是对传统人格神的否定,也就是在言说无神论。

(II) An Atheist Interpretation of “the Spirit of Humans”

(二)对“人之神”的无神论诠释

Shao Yong’s meaning of “spirit” as the one qi of yin and yang is discussed more from the objective perspective; he also discusses “spirit” from the subjective perspective. “The spirit of humans” (ren zhi shen) has three layers of meaning: spirit, thought, and origin. The human spirit is born from essential qi (jingqi) and depends on the physical body; human thought, from the perspective of the theory of self-cultivation (gongfu lun), emphasizes the subject’s elimination of thoughts and ideas; the spirit as origin, from the perspective of the theory of mind-nature (xinxing lun), explains the generative meaning of the mind. It can be said that all three layers of connotation in Shao Yong’s “spirit of humans” possess atheist implications.

邵雍之“神”的一气阴阳义更多的是从客体角度而言,他还从主体角度谈论“神”。“人之神”具有精神、意念与本原三重意涵:人的精神自精气而生,依赖于形体;人的意念从工夫论的角度强调主体对思虑念头的涤除;本原之神从心性论角度说明心的生生之义。可以说,邵雍“人之神”的三层内涵皆具有无神论意蕴。

First, “the spirit of man” is the human spirit. Shao Yong held that “the heart stores spirit, the kidneys store essence”; “the spirit of man, when awake, lodges in the heart.” The spirit of man exists in the “heart,” that is, the human spirit exists in the organ of the heart. This is his absorption of the theory of “form as the lodging of spirit” from the *Inner Canon*, such as “the spirit-qi lodges in the heart” and “accumulating spirit in the heart.” [1]1 “Inherent nobility” (良贵, liángguì) — a Mencian concept referring to a value intrinsic to human nature that is not conferred by external social position or rank. Shao Yong further pointed out: “Spirit governs through the heart, qi governs through the kidneys, form governs through the head. Form and qi interact, and spirit presides within them.” In the relationship between form and spirit, the generation of spirit depends on the physical body: essential qi is light and formless, constituting Heaven; physical form is turbid and has shape, constituting Earth; spirit can only arise after form and qi interact and then becomes the master of form and qi. Zhang Xingcheng explained: “Spirit is the function of form; form is the substance of spirit.” Shao Yong said: “Essential qi constitutes things; that is substance. Wandering soul constitutes change; that is function.” Essential qi is the material foundation of human life; all bodily tissues are generated from essential qi. Spirit is the function arising from the activity of essential qi within the physical form. Spirit is generated according to the sequence “essential qi → physical form → spirit,” that is, spirit is born from form, and spirit depends on form. Clearly, “spirit” as the human spirit has no meaning of a deity. Shao Yong maintained an atheist position in his theory of form and spirit.

其一,“人之神”是人的精神。邵雍认为,“心藏神,肾藏精”;“人之神寤则棲心”。人之神存在于“心”中,即人的精神存在于器官之心中。这是他对《内经》“神气舍心”、“积神于心”等“形为神舍”理论的吸收。邵雍进一步指出:“神统于心,气统于肾,形统于首。形气交而神主乎其中。”在形神关系中,精神的产生依赖形体,精气轻而无形为天,形体浊而有形为地,精神在形气相交之后才能产生并成为形气之主。张行成解释说:“神者形之用,形者神之体。”邵雍说:“精气为物,体也;游魂为变,用也。”精气是人的生命的物质基础,身体组织皆由精气所生,精神是精气活动产生于形体之中的机能,精神依照“精气→形体→精神”的次序生成,即神生于形,神依赖于形。显然,作为人的精神的“神”没有神灵的意义,邵雍在形神论上坚持了无神论的立场。

Second, “the spirit of man” is the mind of thought and intention. Shao Yong believed that “the human spirit is also my mind.” As the “human mind,” “the spirit of man” is essentially a discourse on the mind of thought and intention in the sense of the theory of self-cultivation. [2]2 “Study of images and numbers” (象数学, xiàngshùxué) — Shao Yong’s distinctive cosmological and divinatory system, which used numerical and symbolic diagrams (derived from the Yijing) to model the generation and transformation of all things. Shao Yong said: “Where the Heavenly Mind returns is the mindless state; when the mind reaches nothingness, there is nowhere to seek it.” “Enjoying stillness—how could there be no illness? Fond of leisure—in the end there is still a mind.” Here, “mindless” and “having a mind” are equivalent to intention, that is, specific thoughts and ideas. So-called “mindlessness” means to sublimate the various reflections and thoughts arising from the mind; so-called “having a mind” means that reflections and thoughts are entrenched in the mind and cannot be dissolved. Shao Yong called the thoughts and ideas to be sublimated “mental faults” or “selfish intentions.” Regarding this, he emphasized the importance of “having no intention” and “not stirring the mind,” and proposed the self-cultivation technique of “returning to stillness” to enable the mind to achieve a state of tranquility. Specifically, first, one must remove “profit and desire” and “evil and depravity” from the mind in stillness; second, one must reflect on the principles of human affairs and things in stillness; finally, one must “clarify thoughts and reflections” in stillness, achieving the sublimation of thoughts and ideas within the mind. “If you ask about the state before Heaven, there is not a single word; only in the state after Heaven must effort be applied.” [3]3 Ren Jiyu (1916–2009) was a prominent Chinese historian of philosophy and religion, known for his Marxist approach to the study of Chinese intellectual history and his advocacy of atheist critique. This process is essentially the removal of the turbid and evil aspects of thought, thereby realizing the transformation of the moral person into the natural person, that is, the return from the state after Heaven to the state before Heaven. Clearly, “the spirit of man” as the mind of thought and intention only emphasizes the subjective sublimation of one’s own reflections and also has no connotation of a deity.

其二,“人之神”是意念之心。邵雍认为,“人神亦吾心”,作为人心的“人之神”,实质上是在工夫论意义上对意念之心的言说。邵雍说:“天心复处是无心,心到无时无处寻。”“乐静岂无病,好闲终有心。”这里的无心与有心,相当于意,即具体的意念。所谓无心,是说要扬弃由心生出的种种思虑念头;所谓有心,是说思虑念头横亘在心中,不能化去。邵雍将其要扬弃的意念称之为“心过”,或“私意”。对此,他强调“无意”“不动心”的重要性,并提出“复静”的工夫使心实现静的状态。具体来讲,首先,须在静中去除心中的“利欲”“邪淫”;其次,须在静中省思人事物理;最后,须在静中“澄思虑”,达到对心中意念的扬弃。“若问先天一字无,后天方要着工夫。”这个过程其实就是涤除思虑中浊恶的一面,进而实现道德人向自然人的转化,即从后天向先天的回归。显然,作为意念之心的“人之神”强调的只是主观上对自我思虑的扬弃,也没有神灵的意味。

Third, “the spirit of man” is the original mind. Shao Yong pointed out that “the spirit of man” can be understood as the original mind of generation and regeneration; this “mind” is “the root that generates the ten thousand things.” The original mind has the implication of the “human mind.” In this sense, the generation of the mind is a proposition of the theory of mind-nature, [4]4 The source of this quotation is Shao Yong’s *Huangji jingshi shu*. referring to the human mind’s ability to generate various thoughts and ideas. Shao Yong advocated that “the ten thousand transformations and ten thousand affairs are born from the mind,” and “the mind is the Supreme Ultimate.” [5]5 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. This is not a discussion of the generation of the cosmos, but rather holds that “the subject’s mind can generate intentions; these intentions construct the subject’s objects of consciousness, determine the direction of the subject’s actions, and thereby construct the subject’s ‘life-world.’” What Shao Yong emphasizes is precisely the creative, constructive, and guiding role of the mind, as the master of the body, over intentions, objects of consciousness, and actions. Clearly, this original mind is different from both subjective idealism—the view that “first there is the human mind, then there is the world; the world depends on the human mind”—and the creationism emphasized by theism.

其三,“人之神”是本原之心。邵雍指出,“人之神”可以被理解为生生的本原心,此“心”是“生万物之本”。本原之心具有“人心”的意涵,在这种意义上,心的生发是一个心性论命题,指人心能生成各种意念。邵雍主张“万化万事生乎心”,“心为太极”,并不是讨论宇宙生成问题,而是认为“主体的心能够产生意向,此种意向建构了主体的意识对象,决定了主体的行动方向,从而构造出了主体的‘生活世界’。”邵雍强调的正是心作为身体的主宰,对于意向、意识对象和行为所具有的创生、构造与导向的作用。显然,这种本原之心既不同于主观唯心主义,即“先有人心,后有世界,世界依赖于人心”的观点,也不同于有神论所强调的神创论。

(3) The Denial of the Existence of Ghosts and Spirits

(三)对鬼神存在说的否定

Shao Yong’s thought possesses a rationalist character. He took “qi” as the foundation for the generation of the world, held that the operation of the world has laws and principles and can be understood, and thereby excluded the domination and control of humanity by the traditional personal deity. Shao Yong regarded ghosts and spirits as the natural attributes and marvelous functions of material qi, striving to explain ghosts and spirits using materialist methods, thus negating Buddhist and Daoist theology as well as secular superstitious beliefs in ghosts and spirits.

邵雍的思想具有理性主义的品格,他把“气”作为世界产生的基础,认为世界的运行是有规律、有法则的,是可以认识的,排除了传统的人格神对人类的主宰和控制。邵雍把鬼神看作物质之气的自然属性和神妙功能,力求用唯物主义的方法解释鬼神,从而否定了佛、道神学及世俗的鬼神迷信思想。

First, the substance of ghosts and spirits is yin and yang qi. Shao Yong said: “When yang arrives, there is life; when yang departs, there is death. The life and death of Heaven and Earth and the ten thousand things are governed by yang, thus they return to the One.” Yang qi represents the power of generation and growth; yin qi represents the power of decline and death. The reason the ten thousand things live is that yang qi resides within them; yang qi is the root of the vitality of the ten thousand things. Shao Yong took the ultimate yang qi as spirit and the ultimate yin qi as ghost, while humans are situated between the two, possessing both yin and yang qi and being the most intelligent of the ten thousand things. Proceeding from the objective dialectical viewpoint that “when humans flourish, there must be decline; when things are born, they must die,” and “life and death are common occurrences,” he held that human life, like Heaven and Earth and the ten thousand things, must have a beginning and an end, must have birth and death. When yin and yang gather, there is life; when yin and yang disperse, there is death. Therefore, like Heaven and Earth and the ten thousand things, when a person dies, their life ends, and their form and spirit disperse and perish. Ghosts and spirits are merely the state of a person’s form and qi returning to yin and yang qi. Shao Yong said: “Although humans and ghosts are not the same, their principle is never different.” Both humans and ghosts are pervaded by the principle of yin and yang, and the “ghost” under the command of the principle of yin and yang can only be a natural phenomenon, namely, the return of qi. Regarding ghosts and spirits as yin and yang qi, and viewing life and death as the gathering and dispersing of qi, was basically the consensus of the Neo-Confucians of this period. Zhang Zai regarded ghosts and spirits as the “two qi’s inherent capacities” of yin and yang, that is, the condensation of qi is spirit, the dissipation of qi is ghost. [6]6 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Zhongfu and Wuwang are hexagrams from the *Yijing* (Book of Changes). The Cheng brothers also said: “When things are born, qi gathers; when they die, it disperses and returns to exhaustion.” [7]7 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Since when a person dies, the soul disperses and “returns to exhaustion,” the claim that the essential soul becomes a ghost has no basis.

首先,鬼神的实质是阴阳二气。邵雍说:“阳来则生,阳去则死。天地万物生死主于阳,则归之于一也。”阳气代表生发之力,阴气代表衰亡之力,万物之所以生,就是因为阳气存于其中,阳气是万物生命力的根本,邵雍以至阳之气为神,至阴之气为鬼,而人介于二者之间,兼具阴阳之气,为万物之灵。他从“人盛必有衰,物生须有死”,“死生常事”的客观辩证法观点出发,认为人生与天地万物一样,有始必有终,有生必有死。阴阳聚则生,阴阳散则死。因此,人与天地万物一样,人死命终形神便归散亡。鬼神只是人的形气回归阴阳二气的状态。邵雍称:“人鬼虽不同,其理何尝异。”人与鬼都由阴阳之理统贯其间,而在阴阳之理统率下的“鬼”只能是一种自然现象,即归气。将鬼神看作阴阳二气,把生死看作气之聚散,基本上是这一时期理学家的共识,张载视鬼神为阴阳“二气之良能”,即气的凝聚为神,气的游散为鬼。二程也讲:“物生则气聚,死则散而归尽。”既然人死魂散,且“散而归尽”,那么精魂变为鬼的说法便无由成立了。

Second, the manifestations of ghosts and spirits are the external presentation of the marvelous functioning of yin and yang qi. Shao Yong said: “Ghosts and spirits are formless yet have function; their manifestations can be known. They can be seen in their function. For example, the ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet of humans; the branches, leaves, flowers, and colors of plants and trees—all are the doings of ghosts and spirits. Blessing the good and punishing the evil—who is the master of this? Being intelligent and upright—who possesses this? Acting swiftly without haste, moving without walking—who is responsible for this? All are the manifestations of ghosts and spirits.” Although yin and yang qi themselves are formless and unfathomable, the marvelous functions of yin and yang qi, that is, the manifestations of ghosts and spirits, can be directly measured and known by humans. The sounds, colors, smells, and tastes of the ten thousand things; the intelligence and uprightness of conduct; the blessings, calamities, good, and evil of human affairs—all are the presentation of the marvelous functions of yin and yang qi. Furthermore, Shao Yong said: “The disposition of Heaven and Earth refers to their manifestations, which are the same as the manifestations of ghosts and spirits.” “The disposition of Heaven and Earth” refers to all phenomena within Heaven and Earth, all of which are visible and knowable. All phenomena in the world are the same as the manifestations of ghosts and spirits, that is, they originate from the marvelous changes of yin and yang qi.

其次,鬼神的情状是阴阳二气妙用的外在呈现。邵雍说:“鬼神者无形而有用,其情状可得而知也。于用可见之矣。若人之耳目鼻口手足,草木之枝叶华实颜色,皆鬼神之所为也。福善祸淫,主之者谁耶?聪明正直,有之者谁耶?不疾而速,不行而至,任之者谁耶?皆是鬼神之情状也。”阴阳二气本身虽无形不可测,但阴阳二气的神妙作用,即鬼神之情状却是可以直接为人所测、所知的,万物的声色气味、品行的聪明正直、人事的福祸善恶等皆是阴阳二气的妙用呈现。再者,邵雍说:“天地之情者,情状也,与鬼神之情状同。”“天地之情”是天地之间的一切现象,都是可见、可知的。世间的一切现象与鬼神之情状相同,即源于阴阳二气的神妙变化。

Finally, traditional ghosts and spirits do not exist. First, Shao Yong directly denied the existence of ghosts. He said: “Some say that in the underworld there are ghosts, skilled at causing people to die. Even if death has a cause, what is sought beyond death? Moreover, a person’s fate is tied to Heaven, not to others. Even if the ghosts of the underworld have spiritual power, how can they alone prevail against Heaven?” This powerfully negates the superstitious belief that after death, people become ghosts in the underworld who “have spiritual power” and thereby “cause people to die,” and he admonished the common people: “If the body is ill, one should seek medicine,” and not pray to ghosts and spirits for safety. Furthermore, he also denied the existence of immortals. Shao Yong said: “People speak of another cave immortal; the immortal in the cave, I fear, is a false rumor.” “Learning to be an immortal, one seeks not to die; learning to be a Buddha, one seeks to be reborn. Rebirth and immortality—can people truly achieve these two?” The theory of immortals is merely a “false rumor” and is not credible. Therefore, he satirized the illusory nature of the goals of those who study immortality and Buddhism, warning the world that if one blindly pursues non-existent gods and Buddhas, in the end one will surely be “deluded by others” and “not pitied by others.” Also, his many descriptions of immortals, such as “Enjoying leisure is not for learning to be an immortal,” “In every glance and bow there is joy, letting others say I resemble an immortal,” “Suspecting my body is a cave immortal,” [8]8 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. “A wall-cave immortal, today’s body.” [9]9 This phrase is from the “Appended Remarks” (Xici) commentary to the *Yijing*. Here, Shao Yong is essentially describing his own mental state. He believed that he roamed freely between Heaven and Earth, was at ease and comfortable in the human world, observed the transformations of Heaven and Earth, observed the birth and death of the ten thousand things, and took joy in it. This is “rejoicing together with the ten thousand things in their glory.” In this state of “joy,” there is no opposition to things, only a shared innate purity. Only when one reaches this mental state is it true ease and happiness, just like an “immortal.” Clearly, Shao Yong thereby denied the existence of a transcendent immortal. In summary, in Shao Yong’s view, a ghost is equivalent to “essential qi”; when a person dies, the qi disperses, and both the physical form and the spirit are gone. Naturally, ghosts do not exist.

最后,传统的鬼神并不存在。一者,邵雍直接否定了鬼魂的存在。他说:“或闻阴有鬼,善能致人死。致死设有由,死外何所求。又况人之命,系天不系他。阴鬼设有灵,独且奈天何!”有力否定了人死在阴间为鬼“有灵”,进而“致人死”的迷信观念,并告诫百姓“身之有病,当求医药”,而不能向鬼神祈求平安。再者,他也否认了神仙的存在。邵雍说:“人言别有洞中仙,洞里神仙恐妄传。”“学仙欲不死,学佛欲再生。再生与不死,二者人果能。”神仙之说只是“妄传”,并不可信。所以,他讽刺学仙、学佛者目标的虚妄性,告诫世人如果一味地追求并不存在的神佛,到头来定是“为人所惑”,而“不为人所惜”。还有他对神仙的诸多描述,“乐闲非为学神仙”,“俯仰之间俱是乐,任他人道似神仙”。“却疑身是洞中仙”O11,“壁洞神仙今日身”。这里实质上是邵雍对自己精神状态的描述。他认为自己逍遥于天地,闲适于人间,观天地之造化,观万物之生灭,并乐于其中,此即“乐与万物同其荣”。在这种“乐”之中,则与物无对,只剩一片同体天真,至此精神状态,才是真正的安乐逍遥,就像“神仙”一般。很显然,邵雍由此否定了超越性的神仙存在。总之,在邵雍看来,鬼魂相当于“精气”,人死气散,形体和精神就都没有了,当然不存在鬼魂。

(4) The Affirmation of the Doctrine of Human Activism

(四)对人生有为论的肯定

“A common feature of religious theological superstition is the infinite exaggeration of the roles of God, the Buddha, and ghosts and spirits, handing over human destiny to God, the Buddha, and ghosts and spirits for their control, using the illusory happiness of paradise and the Buddha-land to erode people’s subjective initiative, teaching people to passively submit to the arrangements of fate and to be faithful servants of God and ghosts and spirits.” [1]1 “Inherent nobility” (良贵, liángguì) — a Mencian concept referring to a value intrinsic to human nature that is not conferred by external social position or rank. Shao Yong, by contrast, valued the worth of human beings, emphasized the exertion of people’s subjective initiative, advocated a positive and active attitude toward life, and criticized fatalism, the idea of “leaving the family to have no home,” [2]2 “Study of images and numbers” (象数学, xiàngshùxué) — Shao Yong’s distinctive cosmological and divinatory system, which used numerical and symbolic diagrams (derived from the Yijing) to model the generation and transformation of all things. and other erroneous ideas.

“宗教神学迷信的一个共同特点是把上帝、佛祖、鬼神的作用无限夸大,把人的命运交给上帝、佛祖、鬼神掌握,以虚无缥缈的天堂佛国的幸福消蚀人们的主观能动性,教人们消极服从命运的安排,做上帝鬼神的忠实奴仆。”而邵雍看重人的价值,强调发挥人的主观能动性,倡导积极有为的人生态度,批判命定论、“出家无家”等错误思想。

First, he used the idea that human beings are valuable because they possess consciousness to oppose the Buddhist view of life as illusion and delusion. Shao Yong said: “The reason human beings can be more numinous than the myriad things is that it is said that their eyes can gather the colors of the myriad things, their ears can gather the sounds of the myriad things, their noses can gather the qi of the myriad things, and their mouths can gather the flavors of the myriad things.” [3]3 Ren Jiyu (1916–2009) was a prominent Chinese historian of philosophy and religion, known for his Marxist approach to the study of Chinese intellectual history and his advocacy of atheist critique. Human beings have perception, have thought, have numinous clarity; through perceiving the myriad things, they can attain direct knowledge of the objective world. But this kind of knowledge is still relatively superficial: “What is called ‘observing things’ is not observing with the eyes. It is not observing with the eyes, but observing with the mind. It is not observing with the mind, but observing with principle.” [4]4 The source of this quotation is Shao Yong’s *Huangji jingshi shu*. This is because when one uses the sense organs such as the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth to know things, one sees only the external form of the myriad things and cannot attain a deep understanding of things. Moreover, when “observing things with the mind,” it contains many subjective emotions, and the things observed also carry subjective factors, rather than being the things themselves. Therefore, when knowing things, one cannot rely on the senses and the mind; one can only rely on reason, proceeding in a systematic way. This is “observing things with principle.” At this point, what is observed is the structure, laws, and essence of the things themselves, meaning that the original appearance of things is presented as it truly is. In Shao Yong’s view, this ability to “observe things with principle” is not possessed by everyone; it can only be attained when one reaches the stage of a sage. Therefore, he also advocated that people must pass through moral education, diligent study, and self-cultivation—that is, returning to the original state and calming the mind, exhausting principle and fully realizing one’s nature, and penetrating the connection between Heaven and the human—in order to become sages. The sages Shao Yong spoke of are a level that everyone can reach through their own efforts, rather than the establishment of a transcendent deity to be worshipped by the world. His purpose was to use the goal of knowledge to establish the direction of people’s efforts and their ideals. This view, which takes the human world as “real” and is grounded in the human world, is completely opposed to the Buddhist religious theology that “takes human life as illusion” and focuses on the other shore.

其一,以人贵有灵反对人生幻妄。邵雍说:“人所以能灵于万物者,谓其目能收万物之色,耳能收万物之声,鼻能收万物之气,口能收万物之味。”人有知觉、有思维、有灵明,可以通过感知万物,达到对客观世界的直接认识。但这种认识还比较粗浅,“夫所以谓之观物者,非以目观之也。非观之以目,而观之以心。非观之以心,而观之以理也”。因为用耳目口鼻等感觉器官来认识事物,看到的只是万物的外形,不能达到对事物的深入理解。而“以心观物”时包含诸多主观情感,观得的事物也带有主观因素,而非事物本身。所以,认识事物时不能依仗感官和心灵,只能凭借理性,以条理化的方式进行,此即“观物以理”,这时观得的就是事物自身的结构、规律与本质,意味着如实地呈现了事物的本来面貌。这种“观物以理”的能力在邵雍看来,并非人人皆有,只有达到圣贤的阶段才能具备。所以,他又主张人们必须通过道德教育、努力为学和自我修养,即反本复静、穷理尽性、贯通天人,以成圣贤。邵雍所说的圣贤是人人皆可通过自身努力达到的层次,而非树立一个超越的神灵为世人所崇拜。他的目的是借助认识的目标确立人们努力的方向与理想,这种以人世为“实”、立足人世的观点与佛教“以人生为妄”、着眼于彼岸世界的宗教神学是完全对立的。

Second, he used positive and active effort to negate improper sacrifices and fatalism. Whether to be positive and active or negative and passive is the fundamental opposition between atheism and theism in terms of their outlook on life. Shao Yong said: “When blessings and disasters show signs, they always come gradually; they do not come from Heaven and Earth, but only from people.” [5]5 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. The blessings and disasters of human life are not sent down by Heaven and Earth, and blessings and disasters always come gradually, so people must fully exert their initiative before blessings and disasters arrive, be prepared for danger in times of safety, and be prepared for safety in times of danger. Shao Yong emphasized that blessings and disasters come from people, not that people should pray to gods and Buddhas in advance to ensure safety. On the contrary, he firmly criticized acts such as praying to gods and making supplications. “When people told him about averting disasters [by sacrifice], [Shao Yong] replied: ‘I have never made improper sacrifices.’ Therefore, a poem says: ‘If disaster could be avoided like this, people would have to be sycophantic; if blessings could be obtained by seeking, Heaven could be measured.’ He also said: ‘The inner truth [of the hexagram Zhongfu] inspires trust; why bother with prayer? The hexagram Wuwang brings disaster that is not easy to pray away.’” [6]6 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. Zhongfu and Wuwang are hexagrams from the *Yijing* (Book of Changes). “Averting disasters” means offering sacrifices and prayers to eliminate calamities. Shao Yong considered this to be “improper sacrifice,” a superstitious act identical to licentious cults and sycophantic prayers. “If the spirits are not efficacious, there is no need to pray,” [7]7 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. he admonished the world not to pray for the protection of spirits. The experience of blessings and disasters in a person’s life is in fact what is commonly called fate. Theists believe that the fate of human life has long been determined and dominated by Heaven, Earth, ghosts, and spirits. Shao Yong held a negative attitude toward this. He said: “As for the Mandate of Heaven, I know it; as for what the world commonly calls fate, I do not know it.” [8]8 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. What he affirmed was a rationalized theory of the Mandate of Heaven that had removed the content of theological superstition. This “mandate” is the “mandate” of “exhausting principle and fully realizing one’s nature in order to reach the mandate,” [9]9 This phrase is from the “Appended Remarks” (Xici) commentary to the *Yijing*. that is, the Heavenly principle endowed at the generation of a person or thing. This is a natural process that conforms to laws.

其二,以积极有为否定妄祭、命定。是积极有为,还是消极无为,这是无神论与有神论在人生观上的根本对立。邵雍说:“福祸兆时皆有渐,不由天地只由人。”人生的福祸并非天地所施降,且福祸总是逐渐来临,所以人们要在福祸到来之前充分发挥自己的主动性,居安思危,居危思安。邵雍强调福祸由人,并非让人提前求神拜佛,以保平安。相反,他坚决批判求神、祷告等行为。“人告之以穰灾,(邵雍)对曰:,吾未尝妄祭。故诗曰:祸如许免人须谄,福若待求天可量。’又曰:‘中孚起信宁烦祷,无妄生灾未易祷。’”“穰灾”即祭祷消灾。邵雍认为,这是“妄祭”,是与淫祠、谄祷相同的迷信行为,“神如无验不须祈”,告诫世人不必祈求神灵的护佑。人一生的福祸经历其实就是世俗所谓的命运。有神论者认为人生命运早已被天地鬼神所规定与主宰。邵雍对此持否定态度,他说:“若天命则知之,世俗所谓命则不知也。”他所肯定的是去除了神学迷信内容的理学化的天命论,这个“命”是“穷理尽性以至于命”的“命”,也就是人物生成时所禀受的天理,这是一个合乎规律的自然过程。

Third, he used ethical norms to vehemently denounce the doctrine of renouncing the world. An important manifestation of the Confucian positive and active outlook on life is using the guiding principles of social relations and moral ethics to influence society, transform society, and build a harmonious and orderly beautiful world. Buddhism, however, advocates “leaving the family to have no home,” prohibits marriage, and creates a serious opposition to Confucian moral ethics. Shao Yong said: “Does the Buddhist doctrine, which abandons the Way of the ruler-minister, father-son, and husband-wife, accord with natural principle?” [10]10 The source of this quotation is not identified in the original text. What Buddhist studies possess is only the study of the mind-nature and Chan principles; what it lacks is the principle of loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, righteousness, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world. Buddhists themselves do not observe the Way of the ruler-minister, father-son, and husband-wife; not only can they not govern the state, but if this were extended, human society would inevitably fall into danger. This is an extreme irresponsibility toward the family, the state, and the world. From this, Shao Yong emphasized that “the ruler and minister should abide by righteousness, the father and son should abide by benevolence”; “the son should be filial to his parents”; “the younger brother should respect his elder brother”; and so on. [11]11 The source of these quotations is not identified in the original text. Everyone must exert their own initiative and observe the duties and obligations they themselves should fulfill. This is because only on the basis of the guiding principles of social relations and moral ethics can one “prosper the state” and “bring order to the world.”

其三,以伦理纲常痛斥出世主义。儒者积极有为的人生观的一种重要表现就是用纲常名教、道德伦理来影响社会、改造社会,建立一个和谐有序的美好世界。而佛教主张“出家无家”,禁止婚嫁,与儒家道德伦理产生严重对立。邵雍说:“佛氏弃君臣父子夫妇之道,岂自然之理哉?”佛学所具有的只是心性禅理之学,所缺乏的是忠孝仁义治国平天下之理。佛教徒自己不遵守君臣父子夫妇之道,不仅不能治理国家,如果将之推广,则人类社会必然陷于危殆。这是对家庭、对国家、对天下极大的不负责。由此,邵雍强调“君臣守以义,父子守以仁”;“子孝亲”“弟敬哥”等。人人都要发挥自己的能动性,遵守自身所应尽的职责与义务。因为只有以纲常名教、道德伦理为基础,才能“兴国”“治天下”。

In summary, Shao Yong, based on the theory of qi, constructed a cosmic model of things, incorporating all existent beings in the world into it in an orderly manner. The existence and change of the myriad things are all natural results of the great transformation and circulation of yin and yang qi. Although human beings are honored as the most numinous of the myriad things, they too are born from qi. The human spirit originates from essential qi; the mind of intention and thought emphasizes the sublation of one’s own reflections; the original mind is the origin that generates various intentions and thoughts. What the world commonly calls ghosts and spirits and their conditions are in essence yin and yang qi and their mysterious functions, thereby negating the existence of superstitious ghosts and spirits and realizing a turn toward the rationalization of the concept of ghosts and spirits. At the same time, he also emphasized exerting people’s subjective initiative, advocated a positive and active attitude toward life, and criticized theistic ideas such as negative passivity, fatalism, and the doctrine of renouncing the world.

概言之,邵雍基于气论建构了一个物的宇宙模型,将世间一切存在者井然有序地纳入其中,万物的存在与变化皆是阴阳二气大化流行的自然结果。人虽贵为万物之灵,但也由气而生。人之精神源于精气;意念之心强调对自我思虑的扬弃;本原之心是生成各种意念的本原。世俗所谓的鬼神及其情状,本质上是阴阳二气及其神妙功能,从而否定了具有迷信色彩的鬼神存在,实现了鬼神观念的义理化转向。同时,他还强调发挥人的主观能动性,倡导积极有为的人生态度,批判消极无为、命定、出世主义等有神论思想。

III. The Contributions and Significance of Shao Yong’s Atheist Thought

三、邵雍无神论思想的贡献与意义

Shao Yong’s atheist thought, like that of Zhang Zai, [12]12 Zhang Zai (1020–1077) was a Northern Song Dynasty Confucian philosopher known for his theory of qi. is based on the theory of qi, using qi as a powerful weapon against religion and traditional feudal theology. This reflects the appropriate height that atheist thought could reach under the economic, social, and scientific and technological conditions of the Northern Song Dynasty. The significance and value of Shao Yong’s atheist thought can be briefly summarized as follows.

邵雍的无神论思想与张载的一样,皆是以气论为理论基础,将气作为反宗教与传统封建神学的有力武器,这反映了北宋经济、社会与科技条件下无神论思想所能达到的应有高度。邵雍无神论思想的意义与价值简要概括如下。

First, Shao Yong’s atheist thought powerfully criticized the nihilism and creationism of religious theology and greatly advanced the development of atheism. Previous atheist critiques of religious theology mostly used the Confucian orthodoxy as a weapon, criticizing the harm of religious theology in economic, political, and ethical aspects. Although this could also deliver a powerful blow to religious theology, it had little impact on its theological system, especially the vast theoretical system of Buddhist theology. The “theory of spontaneous generation from primordial qi” that existed before the Northern Song Dynasty could no longer deal with the highly speculative theological fortress of Buddhism. In response, Shao Yong not only criticized the social harm of religious theology but also, taking Confucian humanist thought and ethical thought as the core, absorbed the speculative spirit of Buddhism and the Daoist theory of cosmic generation, establishing a highly speculative philosophical system based on the theory of qi, including cosmology, epistemology, the theory of human nature, moral theory, and so on. He negated the existence of a theological other shore, dealt a heavy blow to religious theology with great combativeness, and made a significant contribution to the development of ancient Chinese atheism.

首先,邵雍的无神论思想有力地批判了宗教神学的空无论、神创论,大幅度推进了无神论的发展。此前的无神论对宗教神学的批判,多以儒家道统为武器,对宗教神学于经济、政治、伦理方面的危害加以批判,虽然也能给宗教神学以有力打击,但对其神学体系,尤其是佛教神学的庞大理论体系震动不大。北宋以前的“元气自然论”已经难以对付佛教思辨性极强的神学堡垒了。对此,邵雍不仅批判了宗教神学的社会危害,还进一步以儒学人本思想和伦理思想为核心,吸收佛教思辨精神和道家的宇宙生成论,建立了一个以气论为基础,包括宇宙论、认识论、人性论、道德论等在内的、思辨性较强的哲学体系,否定了神学彼岸的存在,以极强的战斗性给宗教神学以沉重的打击,为中国古代无神论的发展做出了重大贡献。

Second, Shao Yong paid attention to applying the natural scientific knowledge of his time, deepening the scientific nature of his atheist thought. Through his explanation of the essence and motive force of the cosmos, Shao Yong put forward the view that all existent beings are based on qi. This view reflects the new development of natural scientific thought in fields such as astronomy and calendrical science during the Song Dynasty. The rapid development of natural science made Shao Yong’s atheist thought more refined and profound. Shao Yong not only used the theory of qi to negate a dominant supreme deity and various other forms of ghosts and spirits but also affirmed the spirit, intention and thought, and the original “human spirit.” On the issue of the cognitive process, he emphasized the relatively scientific cognitive method of gradual deepening from “eye” to “mind” to “principle,” negating the popular Buddhist and Daoist mystical “intuitive” form of cognition. This kind of atheist thought, closely integrated with natural science, possessed greater scientificity and refinement.

其次,邵雍注重运用当时的自然科学知识,深化了其无神论思想的科学性。邵雍通过对宇宙本质和动力的说明,提出了一切存在者都依据于气的观点。这一观点反映着天文、历法等领域自然科学思想在宋代的新发展。自然科学的快速发展使邵雍的无神论思想更为精致与深刻。邵雍不仅以气论否定了主宰性的至上神和其他各种鬼神形式,还肯定了精神、意念与本原的“人之神”。在认识过程的问题上,强调了较为科学的“目—心—理”渐次深入的认识方式,否定了佛道流行的神秘主义的“直观”认知形式。这种与自然科学密切结合的无神论思想具有更强的科学性与精致性。

Finally, Shao Yong affirmed human agency and further elevated human value. Emphasizing humanity’s “inherent nobility” [1]1 “Inherent nobility” (良贵, liángguì) — a Mencian concept referring to a value intrinsic to human nature that is not conferred by external social position or rank. is a basic characteristic of Confucianism: humans can think, understand morality, and through self-cultivation become gentlemen and sages — a value that no one can deprive them of. On this basis, Shao Yong further stressed that humans are “the pinnacle of things” and “the spirit of the myriad things”; the principles of all things are fully present in the human person, and humans can through后天 effort “exhaust things” and “exhaustively investigate principle,” fully embodying the active spirit and infinite capacity of humanity in the process of understanding nature and society. Therefore, his atheist thought highlighted human significance, trusted in human nature, affirmed human subjective capacity, encouraged human development and progress, and advocated a positive attitude toward life. These ideas were not only advanced for their time but also, in contemporary society, have referential significance for us in overcoming life’s difficulties and pursuing life’s value.

最后,邵雍肯定了人的能动性,进一步高扬了人的价值。强调人的“良贵”是儒学的一个基本特质,人能思维,懂道德,可以通过修养成为君子、圣贤,这个价值是任何人都不能剥夺的。在此基础上,邵雍更是强调人为“物之至”,是“万物之灵”,万物之理皆备于人一身,人可以通过后天的努力“尽物”“穷理”,充分体现了人类在认识自然、社会过程中的主动精神和无限能力。因此,他的无神论思想突出了人的意义,信赖人性、肯定人的主观能力、鼓励人的发展进步,倡导积极的生活态度。这些理念不仅在当时具有先进性,在当今社会,对我们克服生活困难,追求人生价值,也具有借鉴意义。

Through the academic system he constructed, Shao Yong carried out sustained and forceful criticism of and struggle against Buddhist and Daoist religious theology and secular superstition, making a unique contribution to the development of Chinese atheism. However, because his thought was in the early stage of the formation of New Confucianism, his understanding of “principle” was not yet deep enough, his critique of traditional theological concepts was not yet thorough enough, and, combined with limitations of historical conditions, the level of science and technology, and so on, it cannot be denied that his atheist thought also had many incompletenesses and limitations — for example, the cosmology enveloped in the study of images and numbers [2]2 “Study of images and numbers” (象数学, xiàngshùxué) — Shao Yong’s distinctive cosmological and divinatory system, which used numerical and symbolic diagrams (derived from the Yijing) to model the generation and transformation of all things. could easily slide into theism; the negation of the existence of traditional ghosts and spirits was not thorough; the meaning of “spirit” had a pantheistic or deistic coloring, and so on. Of course, these do not detract from Shao Yong’s major contribution to advancing the cause of Chinese atheism.

邵雍通过自己构建的学术体系,对佛道宗教神学和世俗迷信进行了持续有力地批判和斗争,为中国无神论的发展作出了独有的贡献。但由于其思想处在新儒学的初创阶段,对“理”的理解还不够深刻,对传统神学观念的批判还不够彻底,再加之历史条件、科技水平等的限制,不可否认其无神论思想也存在诸多不彻底性和局限性,如笼罩在象数学之中的宇宙论容易滑向有神论;对传统的鬼神存在否定不彻底;“神”之意涵具有泛神论或理神论的色彩等。当然,这些并不妨碍邵雍在推进中国无神论事业发展中的重大贡献。

As one of the representatives of the earliest founders of Song-Ming New Confucianism, Shao Yong established a cosmological model based on the theory of qi and investigated the “principle” within it. Whether in his stipulation of the meaning of “spirit,” his critique of traditional ghost-spirit theory, or his elevation of human subjectivity, all reflect Shao Yong’s significance in promoting the development of ancient Chinese atheist thought. Mr. Ren Jiyu pointed out that with the development of modernization and the progress of philosophy and social science, “we are required to conduct deeper research on religion and more thorough criticism of theology.” [3]3 Ren Jiyu (1916–2009) was a prominent Chinese historian of philosophy and religion, known for his Marxist approach to the study of Chinese intellectual history and his advocacy of atheist critique. Therefore, in the present-day vigorous promotion of fine traditional Chinese culture, on the one hand we must make every effort to eliminate religious and theological factors from traditional thought and culture; on the other hand, we must also deeply excavate the atheist elements within past thought and culture. This is both a need of contemporary research on ancient Chinese atheism and can provide richer intellectual nourishment for the higher development of Chinese thought and culture in the New Era.

邵雍作为宋明新儒学最初创建者的代表之一,建立起以气论为基础的宇宙模型,并探究其中之“理”。无论是其对“神”义的规定,还是对传统鬼神论的批判,亦或是对人的主体性的高扬,都体现了邵雍对中国古代无神论思想发展的推动意义。任继愈先生指出,随着现代化的发展、哲学社会科学的进步,“要求我们对宗教进行更深入的研究,对神学进行更彻底的批判。”所以,在大力弘扬中华优秀传统文化的今天,一方面,我们要着力剔除传统思想文化中的宗教神学因素;另一方面,我们还要对以往思想文化当中的无神论要素进行深入挖掘。这既是当代中国古代无神论研究的需要,亦能为新时代中国思想文化的更高发展提供更为丰富的思想养分。

(Author’s bio: Cao Dong, doctoral candidate at the Institute of Chinese Thought and Culture, Northwest University; lecturer at the School of Marxism, Xianyang Normal University)

（作者简介：曹栋,西北大学中国思想文化研究所博士研究生,咸阳师范学院马克思主义学院讲师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心