An Exploration of Atheist Thought in Wang Fuzhi’s Cosmology

Cosmology is one of the fundamental domains of philosophy, primarily investigating questions concerning the origin, composition, and development and change of the universe. Influenced by Buddhism and Daoism, the cosmology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism possessed a certain mystical coloring; Neo-Confucians often regarded the cosmic substance as a mysterious existence transcending the empirical world, viewing the myriad things of the world as the function and manifestation of this substance. Wang Fuzhi, a great Confucian scholar at the transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties, systematically reformed the cosmology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. On the one hand, he dissolved the divine nature of the Neo-Confucian substance; on the other, he constructed a unique cosmic system. His cosmology is divided into three aspects: cosmic ontology, cosmogony, and cosmic order. This paper intends to examine the atheist thought contained within these three aspects.

宇宙论是哲学的基本论域之一,主要探讨宇宙的起源、构成和发展变化等问题。受到佛道二教的影响,宋明理学的宇宙论具有一定的神秘色彩,理学家往往将宇宙本体视为超越经验世界的神秘存在,将世界万物视为此本体的作用与表现。明清转换之际的大儒王夫之对宋明理学宇宙论进行了系统改造,一方面消解了理学本体的神性,另一方面建构了独具特色的宇宙体系。其宇宙论分为宇宙本体论、宇宙生成论和宇宙秩序论三个方面,本文拟从这三个方面考察其所包含的无神论思想。

1. Replacing the Void with the Concrete: The Cosmic Ontology of the Harmony of Principle and Material Force

一、以实黜虚:理气和合的宇宙本体论

The essence and supreme determinant of the universe is called the substance. Song-Ming Neo-Confucians regarded heavenly principle (天理), the Way of Heaven (天道), the Supreme Ultimate (太极), etc., as the substance. These possess characteristics such as immateriality, abstractness, and transcendence; they can all be said to be illusory substances, lacking substantive content, with no referent object to be found in the empirical world. After profound reflection on the Neo-Confucian substance, Wang Fuzhi established “Supreme Harmony” (太和) as the cosmic substance. Unlike the illusory substance of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, “Supreme Harmony” is a dialectical synthesis of the empirical world.

宇宙的本质和最高决定者,被称为本体。宋明理学家将天理、天道、太极等视为本体,它们具有非物质性、抽象性、超验性等特性,都可以说是虚幻性的本体,没有实质的内容,在经验世界中无法找到所指称的对象。王夫之在对理学本体进行深刻反思之后,确立“太和”为宇宙本体。不同于宋明理学的虚幻本体,“太和”是对经验世界的辩证性统合。

The term “Supreme Harmony” first appeared in the commentary on the hexagram *Qian* (乾) of the *Book of Changes* (周易), referring to a state of harmony and compliance among the myriad things. The Song Confucian Zhang Zai placed considerable emphasis on “Supreme Harmony,” saying: “What is called the Way of Supreme Harmony contains within it the natures of floating and sinking, rising and falling, movement and stillness, mutual stimulation; it is the beginning of the engendering of intermingling, mutual agitation, victory and defeat, contraction and extension.” [1]1 Zhang Zai, *Zhengmeng* (Correcting Youthful Ignorance), “Taihe” (Supreme Harmony) chapter. The “Supreme Harmony” spoken of by Zhang Zai was used to describe the relationship between the “Great Void” (太虚) and material force (气), and was not a concept of substance. Zhang Zai’s contribution lay in extracting “Supreme Harmony” from the *Book of Changes* and making it an independent philosophical concept. Wang Fuzhi went a step further, endowing “Supreme Harmony” with the status of substance. He said: “Supreme Harmony is the utmost harmony. The Way is the universal principle of heaven, earth, and human beings; it is what is called the Supreme Ultimate. Yin and Yang have different characteristics, yet they intermingle within the Great Void, combining without mutual obstruction or harm, undifferentiated and without gap; this is the utmost harmony.” [2]2 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhangzi Zhengmeng Zhu* (Commentary on Zhang Zai’s Correcting Youthful Ignorance), “Taihe” chapter. In response to this, scholar Xiang Shiling believes that Wang Fuzhi, by coordinating the concepts of cosmic origin since the Song dynasty with “Supreme Harmony,” endowed it with the significance of a unity of all the concepts of origin in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. [3]3 Xiang Shiling, “Wang Fuzhi’s ‘Taihe’ Concept and the Construction of the Ontology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism,” *Journal of Xiangtan University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)*, 2009, no. 6. Therefore, “Supreme Harmony” is the core category and concept of substance in Wang Fuzhi’s philosophy. However, it must be noted that Wang Fuzhi’s “Supreme Harmony” is not merely a simple combination of the various concepts of substance in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. Rather, he first fully understood the concepts of substance in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, then provided a new interpretation, dissolving the unreasonable divine nature within them, and then organically integrated the various concepts of substance through “Supreme Harmony,” making “Supreme Harmony” the sole cosmic substance.

“太和”一词最早出现在《周易·乾卦》的象辞,是指万物和顺的状态。宋儒张载较为重视“太和”,他说:“太和所谓道,中涵浮沉、升降、动静、相感之性,是生綱缢、相荡、胜负、屈伸之始。”张载所说的“太和”被用来形容“太虚”与气的关系,而不是本体性的概念。张载的贡献在于将“太和”从《周易》中抽离出来,使之成为一个独立的哲学概念。王夫之则更进一步,赋予“太和”本体地位。他说:“太和,和之至也。道者,天地人物之通理,即所谓太极也。阴阳异撰,而其綱缢于太虚之中,合同而不相悖害,浑沦无间,和之至矣。”对此,学者向世陵认为,王夫之以“太和”协调宋以来的宇宙本原概念,就使其具有宋明理学诸本原概念的统一体的意义。所以说,“太和”就是王夫之哲学中的核心范畴和本体概念。不过需要注意的是,王夫之的“太和”并不只是宋明理学诸本体概念的简单结合,而是他先对宋明理学的本体概念充分理解的基础上进行了新的诠释,消解其中不合理的神性,再以“太和”有机统合诸本体概念,使“太和”成为唯一的宇宙本体。

Regarding the specific connotation of “Supreme Harmony,” Wang Fuzhi said: “Within Supreme Harmony, there is material force and there is spirit (神). Spirit is none other than the clear and penetrating principle of the two forces… The harmony of material force and spirit is called Supreme Harmony.” [4]4 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhangzi Zhengmeng Zhu*, “Taihe” chapter. Spirit refers to “the clear and penetrating principle of the two forces”; “the harmony of material force and spirit” is thus “the harmony of material force and principle.” Wang Fuzhi’s son, Wang Yu (王敌), summarized his father’s thought, saying: “Principle contains yin and yang; yin and yang contain principle; principle and material force are undifferentiated; this is the substance.” [5]5 Wang Yu, *Dazheng Jian* (The Great Rectification Commentary), cited in Wang Fuzhi, *Chuanshan Quanshu* (Complete Works of Chuanshan), vol. 12, p. 502. The substance in which principle and material force are undifferentiated is “Supreme Harmony.” Principle has no concrete image; it is the general term for the laws of all things and spiritual phenomena. Material force has concrete images; it is the general term for all material phenomena. Therefore, “the harmony of material force and principle” indicates that “Supreme Harmony” is the union of all material phenomena and spiritual phenomena, a holistic and generalized expression of the cosmic world. In this regard, the substance spoken of by Wang Fuzhi is not an entity transcending the empirical world, but rather the original state of the world, that is, the state of unity between the material world and the spiritual world. In other words, Wang Fuzhi, taking the empirical world as his basis, grasps the substance through rational inference, without the transcendent metaphysical tracing back of the substance found in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, thereby avoiding the illusory transformation of the substance.

关于“太和”的具体内涵,王夫之说:“太和之中,有气有神。神者非他,二气清通之理也……气与神和,是谓太和。”神是指“二气清通之理”,“气与神和”也就是“气与理和”。王夫之的儿子王敌概括其父的思想说:“理具阴阳,阴阳具理,理气浑然,是为本体。”理气浑然的本体就是“太和”。理没有具体形象,是一切事物规律与精神现象的统称;气有具体形象,是一切物质现象的统称。所以,“气与理和”表明“太和”是一切物质现象和精神现象的结合,是对宇宙世界的整体性、概括性的表达。就此而言,王夫之所说的本体就不是超越经验世界的实体,而是世界的本然状态,即物质世界与精神世界相统一的状态。也就是说,王夫之以经验世界为根据,通过理性的推理来把握本体,没有宋明理学那种对本体进行超验性的形上追溯,从而避免了本体的虚幻化。

Regarding the relationship between principle and material force within “Supreme Harmony,” Wang Fuzhi believed that material force is prior to principle, and that matter is prior to consciousness. The myriad things of the world are all constituted by material force; principle is the law that the myriad things possess after their formation. With the development of the material world, conscious activity and spiritual phenomena emerge; these are also called principle. Principle arises with the development and change of material force. When Wang Fuzhi speaks of material force, it already contains principle. Therefore, Wang Fuzhi also refers to the substance as “the material force of Supreme Harmony” (太和之气): “The material force of Supreme Harmony exists in the yin and exists in the yang.” [6]6 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhangzi Zhengmeng Zhu*, “Taihe” chapter. “The material force of Supreme Harmony is strong and compliant; its movement and rest, its timely actions, are the source from which principle emerges.” [7]7 Wang Fuzhi, *Du Sishu Daquan Shuo* (Reading the Complete Explanation of the Four Books), vol. 7. “The material force of Supreme Harmony” contains the two attributes of yin and yang; it is the basic substance constituting the real world and also the root from which principle arises. Thus, Wang Fuzhi unifies the real world under material force, adhering to the principle of the primacy of matter.

关于“太和”中的理气关系,王夫之认为,气先在于理,物质先在于意识。世界万物都由物质性的气构成,理就是万物形成后所具有的规律。随着物质世界的发展,出现了意识活动和精神现象,它们也被称为理。理随着气的发展变化而来,王夫之谈论气时,就已经包含着理。所以,王夫之又将本体称为“太和之气”:“太和之气,于阴而在,于阳而在。”“太和之气健顺,动止时行而为理之所自出也。”“太和之气”含有阴阳两种属性,是构成现实世界的基本材质,也是理产生的根源。由此,王夫之将现实世界统一于物质性的气,坚持了物质第一性的原则。

Wang Fuzhi’s understanding of material force inherited and developed the traditional Chinese “Theory of the Night Sky” (宣夜说). [8]8 The “Theory of the Night Sky” (宣夜说) was an ancient Chinese cosmological theory that posited the universe as an infinite space filled with material force (qi), in which celestial bodies float and move freely, in contrast to the “Canopy Heaven” and “Celestial Sphere” theories. The “Theory of the Night Sky” is a cosmological doctrine, holding that “the sun, moon, and numerous stars naturally float and are born within the void; their movements and rest all depend on material force.” [9]9 *Jin Shu* (Book of Jin), “Treatise on Astronomy,” Part 1. That is to say, the celestial bodies and the myriad things of the world are all constituted by material force. Compared to the “Theory of the Canopy Heaven” (盖天说) and the “Theory of the Celestial Sphere” (浑天说), the “Theory of the Night Sky” was more scientific. Chen Meidong points out: “(The Theory of the Night Sky) depicts a magnificent picture of the sun, moon, and stars moving according to their own laws in an infinite space filled with material force; comparatively speaking, it is closer to our current understanding of the general state of the heavens and possesses significant theoretical importance.” [10]10 Chen Meidong, *Zhongguo Kexue Jishu Shi: Tianwenxue Juan* (History of Chinese Science and Technology: Astronomy Volume) (Beijing: Science Press, 2003), p. 93. Proceeding from this, Wang Fuzhi opposed the theological cosmology of the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci. Ricci believed that above the seven luminaries’ heavens and the fixed-star heaven, there was a Primum Mobile (宗动天), the dwelling place of the Lord of Heaven (God), who governs and controls the entire cosmic world. In response, Wang Fuzhi said: “North of the North Pole, humans have nothing that can be recorded. There is no image to point to, no movement to verify; yet recent speakers on heaven have added the name of the Primum Mobile above it, which is merely painting legs on a snake.” [11]11 Wang Fuzhi, *Siwen Lu* (Record of Thoughts and Questions), “Outer Chapter.” He also said: “The body of heaven is merely a seamless ring… Its undifferentiated single material force flows and fills everything; from the smallest grain of millet, up to above the seven luminaries’ heavens and the infinite Primum Mobile, to the immeasurable height above and the immeasurable depth below, it is all one and the same.” [12]12 Wang Fuzhi, *Siwen Lu*, “Outer Chapter.” Wang Fuzhi insisted that the understanding of celestial bodies cannot be separated from the empirical observation of the ears and eyes; he considered adding a Primum Mobile above the natural heaven to be superfluous. The cosmic world is entirely the circulation of a single material force; even if there is a so-called “Primum Mobile,” it is a heaven of material force, not a dwelling place of spirits. Regarding Ricci’s view of mixing cosmology with theological concepts, Wang Fuzhi denounced it as absurd and unfounded talk. He advocated establishing all knowledge on the basis of empirical observation, excluding all possibilities leading to mysticism.

王夫之对气的认识,继承并发展了中国传统的“宣夜说”。“宣夜说”是一种宇宙学说,主张“日月众星,自然浮生于虚空之中,其行其止,皆须气焉”,就是说宇宙天体与世界万物都由气构成。相较于“盖天说”和“浑天说”,“宣夜说”更为科学。陈美东指出:“(宣夜说)描绘了一幅日月星辰在充满气的无限空间、按各自的规律运动的壮丽图景,比较起来更接近我们今天对于天的总体状况的认识,具有重大的理论意义。”由此出发,王夫之反对意大利传教士利玛窦的神学宇宙观。利玛窦认为,在七曜天与恒星天之上,有一宗动天,是天主(上帝)居住之地,主宰统摄整个宇宙世界。对此,王夫之说:“北极以北,人无可得而纪焉。无象可指,无动可征,而近之言天者于其上加以宗动之名,为蛇足而已矣。”又说:“天之体,浑然一环而已……其浑然一气流动充满,则自黍米之小,放乎七曜天之上、宗动天之无穷,上不测之高,地不测之深,皆一而已。”王夫之坚持对天体的理解不可脱离耳目感官的经验观察,对在自然之天的上面再增加一宗动天,认为是画蛇添足。宇宙世界皆一气流行,即使有所谓的“宗动天”,那也是气化之天,而不是神灵的居所。对于利玛窦将宇宙学说与神学观念杂糅在一起的观点,王夫之斥之为荒诞不经之言。他主张将一切知识确立在经验观察的基础上,排除一切导向神秘主义的可能性。

From the above, it can be seen that Wang Fuzhi replaced the void with the concrete, taking “Supreme Harmony,” which represents the whole of the empirical world, as the cosmic substance, replacing illusory substances without substantive content. He also took material force as the original substrate of the cosmic world and the material basis of spiritual phenomena, opposing not only the cosmic ontology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism but also Western theological cosmology, thereby establishing a materialist worldview.

由上可知,王夫之以实黜虚,将表征现实世界整体的“太和”作为宇宙本体,代替没有实质内容的虚幻性本体,又将气作为宇宙世界的原始基质和精神现象的物质基础,不仅反对宋明理学的宇宙本体论,而且反对西方神学宇宙观,建立了一种唯物主义的宇宙观。

2. Replacing Non-Being with Being: The Cosmogony of the Cycle of Manifestation and Concealment

二、以有代无:隐显循环的宇宙生成论

Wang Fuzhi believed that the process of cosmic generation first manifests as the differentiation of “the material force of Supreme Harmony” into the two forces of yin and yang. The two forces interact with each other, and then generate the myriad things of heaven and earth. The principle inherent within material force constitutes the law of the growth of the myriad things. At the same time, Wang Fuzhi emphasized that the universe has neither beginning nor end; there is no point in time when only “the material force of Supreme Harmony” exists, without the myriad things of heaven and earth. The cosmic world is without beginning and without end; beginning and end are always relative to specific individuals. He said: “The beginning of heaven and earth is today; the end of heaven and earth is today.” [13]13 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhouyi Waizhuan* (External Commentary on the Book of Changes), vol. 4. “Heaven ends with winter and begins with spring; it ends with *hai* (亥) and begins with *zi* (子); people say this is so; but in the cycle of operation, heaven itself does not know beginning or end.” [14]14 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhouyi Waizhuan*, vol. 4. *Hai* and *zi* are the last and first of the twelve Earthly Branches (地支), used to mark the twelve two-hour periods of the day and the twelve months of the year; *hai* thus represents the end and *zi* the beginning of a cycle. From the perspective of the individual, birth is the beginning, being; death is the end, non-being. But from the perspective of the cosmic world as a whole, the life and death of the myriad things are merely the coming and going of material force; there is no process of transformation from non-being to being, or from being to non-being. The beginning and end of the four seasons and the twelve two-hour periods are viewed from the human perspective; for the whole world, it is merely a cycle of operation, without any so-called beginning or end. Therefore, in Wang Fuzhi’s cosmic schema, “the material force of Supreme Harmony” and the myriad things of the world coexist eternally; “the material force of Supreme Harmony” continuously generates the myriad things, and the myriad things continuously return to “the material force of Supreme Harmony,” manifesting a visage of ceaseless production, “abundance and daily renewal.” [15]15 “Abundance and daily renewal” (富有日新) is a phrase from the *Book of Changes*, “Xici” (Appended Remarks), describing the constant generation and renewal of the myriad things.

王夫之认为,宇宙生化过程首先表现为“太和之气”分化为阴阳二气,二气交相感应,而后化生天地万物,内在于气中的理构成万物生长的规律。同时,王夫之强调,宇宙是没有开端与结束的,并不存在只有“太和之气”、而没有天地万物的时间点。宇宙世界无始无终,终始都是相对于具体的个体而言。他说:“天地始者今日也,天地终者今日也。”“天以冬终,以春始,以亥终,以子始,人谓之然尔;运行循环,天不自知终始也。”从个体的角度而言,出生为始为有,死亡为终为无。但从宇宙世界之整体的角度而言,万物生死皆气之往来,并不存在从无到有,从有到无的转换过程。四季、十二时辰之终始,是以人的视域观之,于整体世界而言,只是运行循环,而无所谓终始。所以在王夫之的宇宙图式中,“太和之气”与世界万物恒久共存,“太和之气”不断化生万物,万物不断复归“太和之气”,展现出一种生生不已、“富有日新”的面貌。

Wang Fuzhi’s view of cosmic generation inherited and developed Zhang Zai’s idea that “when form condenses it becomes a thing; when form disintegrates it returns to the origin.” Zhang Zai said: “When form condenses it becomes a thing; when form disintegrates it returns to the origin. Returning to the origin – is this not what is meant by the wandering soul transforming? What is called transformation is a term set in contrast to condensation and dispersal, existence and extinction; it is not like the metamorphosis of a firefly into a sparrow, which is spoken of as a former body and a later body.” Here, Zhang Zai’s meaning is that form condenses into concrete things; when form disintegrates it does not disperse into nothingness but returns to the “great origin.” Zhu Xi once criticized Zhang Zai’s theory of “form disintegrates and returns to the origin” as falling into the Buddhist doctrine of reincarnation. In response, Wang Fuzhi pointed out that Zhang Zai’s theory of “form disintegrates and returns to the origin” is fundamentally different from the Buddhist doctrine of reincarnation: “form disintegrates and returns to the origin” is not reincarnation and transmigration, but rather highlights the substantiality of the cosmic world. When a particular individual comes into being, it is composed of many material elements; when the individual perishes, it does not disappear completely but is instead dissolved back into certain concrete material elements – that is, it still exists as something. In this sense, death is also a kind of new birth, a transformation from one thing into another, i.e., “from the perspective of bringing forth the new, death is also the great creation of life.” Wang Fuzhi’s theory here approximates the modern scientific law of conservation of energy. On this point, Joseph Needham pointed out: “Wang Fuzhi’s most significant contribution to the history of Chinese scientific thought may be his emphasis on what today is called the principle of dynamic equilibrium.” After all, Wang Fuzhi did not possess the scientific literacy of modern people, so he expressed this situation as a return to the “qi of supreme harmony” (太和之气), which is equivalent to what we call basic material elements, such as quarks, protons, neutrons, etc. But against the background of the late Ming dynasty, it is truly remarkable that Wang Fuzhi could have had such insight. Furthermore, Wang Fuzhi also used this substantial view of generation to criticize the mysticism and religious view of generation of Buddhism and Daoism.

王夫之的宇宙生化观继承并发展了张载“形聚为物,形溃反原”的思想。张载说:“形聚为物,形溃反原,反原者,其游魂为变与!所谓变者,对聚散存亡为文,非如萤雀之化,指前后身而为说也。”这里,张载的意思是,形聚凝为具体的事物,形溃不是散为虚无,而是复归“大原”。朱熹曾批评张载“形溃反原”说陷入佛教的轮回说。对此,王夫之指出,张载的“形溃反原”之说与佛教的轮回说有本质的差别,“形溃反原”不是轮回转世,而是凸显了宇宙世界的实有性。当某一个体产生时,它是由许多物质要素组成,当个体消亡时,不是彻底消失,而是又被消解为某些具体的物质要素,也就是说它还是作为某种东西存在着。在这个意义上,死亡也是一种新生,是从一个事物转换为另一个事物,即“由致新而言之,则死亦生之大造矣”。王夫之此说近似于现代科学中的能量守恒定律。对此,李约瑟指出:“王夫之对中国科学思想史最有意义的贡献,或许是他所强调的今天称之为动力学平衡原理的东西。”王夫之毕竟不具备现代人的科学素养,所以他把这种情况表述为复归“太和之气”,也就相当于我们所说的基本的物质要素,诸如夸克、质子、中子等。但在晚明的时代背景下,王夫之能有这种洞见确实是难能可贵。此外,王夫之还以这种实有的生化观批判佛道二教的神秘主义和宗教主义的生化观。

Daoism advocates that “the myriad things are born from being, being is born from non-being,” holding that before the substantial world there is a “Way” (道) called “non-being”; Buddhism advocates that “birth and extinction leave no remainder,” holding that the myriad things arise through the combination of causes and conditions, which is called birth, and disperse through the dissolution of causes and conditions, which is called extinction. Wang Fuzhi opposed both the Daoist theory of “being and non-being” and the Buddhist theory of “birth and extinction.” On the one hand, the theory of “being and non-being” implies a fragmentation of the unity of the cosmic world. If one presupposes a point in time when there was only “non-being” and no myriad things as the beginning of the cosmos, then one falls into the paradox of infinite regress, as Zhuangzi said: “Suddenly there is non-being – but one does not know whether non-being really is being or non-being” (Zhuangzi, “Discussion on Making All Things Equal”). On the other hand, the Daoist linear structure of “the Way gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, three gives birth to the myriad things,” and the Buddhist doctrine of “birth and extinction,” holding that when a person dies there is no remainder and they ultimately return to nothingness, thereby lose reverence for life and run counter to the development of human ethical civilization. Therefore, Wang Fuzhi emphasized that “birth and extinction is the crude theory of the Śākya clan.” [16]16 “Śākya clan” (释氏) is a Chinese term for Buddhism, referring to the Buddha Śākyamuni of the Śākya clan. Furthermore, he advocated using “concealment and manifestation” (隐显) to discuss the process of cosmic generation. “What is visible is called being; what is invisible is then called non-being. In reality, movement and stillness have their times, but yin and yang are constantly present; being and non-being are not different.” Buddhism and Daoism take what is “visible” as being and what is “invisible” as non-being. This theory of “being and non-being” depends on human observation of the “condensation and dispersal of qi.” But in fact, whether qi condenses or disperses, the waxing and waning of yin and yang, movement and stillness, never cease; they are all inherent realities. In this regard, the distinction between being and non-being can be eliminated. What humans cannot see is actually “concealed”; what can be seen is actually “manifested.” The “qi of supreme harmony,” as a basic material element, is difficult for the naked eye to observe; for people it is a “concealed” existence. When it condenses into concrete things that people can observe, it transforms into a “manifested” existence. Whether concealed or manifested, it always exists as something substantial and cannot be called “non-being.”

道家主张“万物生于有,有生于无”,认为在实有世界之前,有一个被称为“无”的“道”;佛教主张“生灭无余”,认为万物依因缘和合而有,叫做生,依因缘分散而无,叫做灭。王夫之既反对道家“有无”之论,也反对佛教的“生灭”之说。一方面,“有无”之论意味着对宇宙世界之统一性的割裂。如果预设一个只有“无”,而没有万物的时间点,作为宇宙的起始,那么就会如同庄子所说的“俄而有无矣,而未知有无之果孰有孰无也”(《庄子.齐物论》),陷入无穷追溯的悖论;另一方面,道家的“道生一,一生二,二生三,三生万物”的线性结构,及佛教的“生灭”学说,认为人死无余,终归于无,由此就会失去对生命的敬畏,与人伦文明的发展背道而驰。所以,王夫之强调“生灭者,释氏之陋说也”。进而,他主张以“隐显”来论述宇宙的生化过程。“可见谓之有,不可见遂谓之无,其实动静有时而阴阳常在,有无无异也。”佛道以“可见”为有,“不可见”为无,这种“有无”之论取决于人对“气之聚散”的观察,但实际上,无论“气聚”“气散”,阴阳动静消长从不停息,皆为固有之实,就此而言,有无的区分可以消弭。人不可见的其实是“隐”,可见的其实是“显”。“太和之气”作为基本的物质要素,人们用肉眼难以观察到,它对于人们来说就是“隐”的存在。当它聚合为人们可以观察到的具体事物,就转化为“显”的存在。无论隐显,它始终是作为某样实有的东西存在着,而不可称之为“无”。

In Chinese history there also existed a doctrine of “interaction between heaven and humanity” (天人感应), which held that heaven has a will, even sensory organs such as ears and eyes; heaven is not only the creator of humans and the myriad things but also interacts with human behavior, capable of punishing evil and rewarding good. Such a heaven is in fact a personal god. Wang Fuzhi criticized this: “If one thinks that heaven can make the earth settle, make the sun and moon move, make the wind and clouds rise and fall and breathe, then heaven must have ears and eyes to examine and judge, hands and feet to move and shift, and a mind to give orders. Only if there is a reason can one seek to obtain that reason to spur oneself on and imitate it as virtue.” That is to say, the generation of humans and the myriad things of nature is the result of the condensation and transformation of material qi, not the embodiment of a divine will. Qi condenses into life, qi disperses into death; death is not a return to nothingness but a transformation into another material form of existence. Therefore, both life and death are natural events, not dominated and ruled by a deity.

在中国历史上还存在着一种“天人感应”学说,认为天有意志,甚至有耳目感官,天不仅是人与万物的创造者,而且与人的行为有所感应,可以惩善罚恶。这样的天,实际上就是一种人格神。对此,王夫之进行了批判:“若以为天能使地处,使日月推行,使风云隆施而嘘吸,则天其有耳目可以审察,手足可以推移,心思可以使令。唯有故,则可求得其故以自勉,而效之以为德。”也就是说,人与自然万物的产生,是物质之气的聚合变化作用的结果,而不是神灵意志的体现。气聚为生,气散为死,死亡不是归于虚无,而是转化为另一种物质形式而存在。因此,生死皆是自然之事,而不是由神灵所主宰与统治。

From the above, it can be seen that Wang Fuzhi believed that the generation and evolution of the myriad things in the world are realized through the concealed and manifested changes of qi. The movement of qi from concealment to manifestation is the generation of things; from manifestation to concealment is the death of things. Whether concealed or manifested, qi as a basic material element always exists, thereby establishing cosmic generation on a substantial foundation.

由上可知,王夫之认为,世界万物的生成衍化,是通过气的隐显变化来实现的。气由隐到显,是物的产生,由显到隐,是物的死亡。无论隐显,作为基本物质元素的气始终存在,从而将宇宙生化确立在实有的基础上。

III. Movement within Stillness: A Theory of Continuously Evolving Cosmic Order

三、静中有动:持续进化的宇宙秩序论

Wang Fuzhi believed that qi is always in flux and change; therefore, motion is absolute and stillness is relative. “Movement within stillness – then stillness can be called movement.” Stillness means that one thing’s position relative to another reference object has not changed; no thing is in absolute stillness, so he said that stillness is also within motion. Due to the eternal motion of qi, the cosmic world also unfolds as a process of constant change over time. Wang Fuzhi put forward the view that “the transformations of heaven and earth are daily renewed,” holding that all things are pushing out the old and bringing forth the new. He said: “The transformations of heaven and earth are daily renewed. Today’s wind and thunder are not yesterday’s wind and thunder; thus we know that today’s sun and moon are not yesterday’s sun and moon.” “The water of rivers and streams is the same today as in antiquity, but today’s water is not the water of antiquity. The flame of a lamp or candle is the same yesterday as today, but yesterday’s flame is not today’s flame.” Although in form today’s wind and thunder resemble yesterday’s wind and thunder, and today’s sun and moon resemble yesterday’s sun and moon, the physical changes of things occur at every moment; therefore, in terms of content, one cannot say that today’s wind and thunder are yesterday’s wind and thunder, or that today’s sun and moon are yesterday’s sun and moon. The same principle applies to river water and lamp flames. Starting from the view that “the transformations of heaven and earth are daily renewed,” Wang Fuzhi believed that the cosmic world changes from moment to moment without ceasing, and that the changes of the cosmic world manifest an overall order of development and progress.

王夫之认为,气始终在流动与变化之中,因而运动是绝对的,静止是相对的。“动于静,则静可名为动。”静止是一物相对于另一参照物的位置没有发生变化,没有任何事物处于绝对静止之中,因而他说静亦处于动中。由于气的永恒运动,宇宙世界也开展为随着时间不断变化的过程。王夫之提出了“天地之化日新”的观点,认为一切事物都在推陈出新。他说:“天地之化日新。今日之风雷非昨日之风雷,是以知今日之日月非昨日之日月也。”“江河之水,今犹古也,而非今水即古水。灯烛之火,昨犹今也,而非昨火即今火。”虽然从形式上看,今天的风雷犹如昨天的风雷,今天的日月犹如昨天的日月,但是事物的物理变化时时刻刻都在发生,所以从内容上,就不能说今天的风雷是昨天的风雷,今天的日月是昨天的日月,江河之水与灯烛之火也是同样的道理。从“天地之化日新”的观点出发,王夫之认为,宇宙世界瞬息万变从不停歇,而且宇宙世界的变化表现出发展与进步的总体秩序。

From a holistic perspective, all life in the cosmic world is in a state of continuous evolution. Taking humans as an example, Wang Fuzhi said: “Before the time of the Yellow Emperor, were they not like the barbarians? Before the time of Taihao, were they not like birds and beasts? … They were merely upright-standing beasts.” [17]17 The Yellow Emperor (轩辕, Xuanyuan) and Taihao (太昊) are legendary sage-rulers of high antiquity in Chinese tradition, often regarded as cultural heroes and ancestors of the Chinese people. Tang and Yu (唐虞) refer to the legendary emperors Yao and Shun, also considered model rulers in early Chinese historiography. “Before the times of Tang and Yu, nothing can be verified in detail, but clothing was not yet proper, the five social relationships were not yet clear, marriage was not yet distinguished, mourning and sacrifice were not yet cultivated; people were brutish and ignorant, and the difference between humans and birds and beasts was slight.” In high antiquity, there was no essential difference between humans and birds and beasts in their way of life: they had neither fire to cook food nor clothing to cover their bodies, let alone human ethical civilization; they lived in a state of ignorance, which Wang Fuzhi called “upright-standing beasts.” Over time, humans gradually departed from the state of beasts, and the level of civilization continuously improved – from eating raw food to men plowing and women weaving, from tribal settlements to enfeoffing states and establishing kingdoms, from not knowing rites and propriety to instituting rites and creating music. The development and evolution of humans present a process of unity between logic and history, and they are still within this evolutionary process today. Not only humans, but all things in the world are constantly evolving. “If the Han and Tang dynasties had no Way of today, then there are many Ways of today that will not exist in other years.” The cosmic world is always pushing out the old and bringing forth the new. What exists today may not have existed in the past; what will exist in the future may not exist today. In the torrent of time, the only constant is that everything is changing. Wang Fuzhi said: “The changes of the sun, moon, wind, and clouds have no constancy, yet they have been thus from antiquity to the present – this is the utmost constancy.” The changes of the world are originally inconstant, but they have been so eternally – this is the constant Way.

从整体的角度看,宇宙世界的所有生命都处于不断进化之中。以人类为例,王夫之说:“轩辕以前,其犹夷狄乎!太昊以上,其犹禽兽乎!……亦植立之兽而已矣。”“唐、虞以前,无得而详考也,然衣裳未正,五品未清,婚姻未别,丧祭未修,狂狂臻臻,人之异于禽兽无几也。”在上古时代,人与禽兽在生活方式上没有本质上的区别,既无火源烹饪食物,也无衣服遮蔽身体,更无人伦文明可言,生活在蒙昧状态之中,王夫之称之为“植立之兽”。随着时间的推移,人类逐渐脱离了禽兽的状态,文明程度不断提升,从茹毛饮血到男耕女织,从部落聚居到封邦建国,从不知礼义到制礼作乐,人类的发展进化呈现出逻辑与历史相统一的过程,至今仍然处于这一进化过程之中。不只是人类,世界万物都在不断进化。“汉、唐无今日之道,则今日无他年之道者多矣。”宇宙世界总是在推陈出新,今天有的东西,过去不一定有,未来有的东西,今天也不一定有,在时间的洪流之中,唯一不变的就是一切都在发生变化。王夫之说:“日月风云之变易,无有常也,而终古类然,又至常也。”世界之变化本为无常,但恒久如此,即为常道。

The Song-Ming Neo-Confucian school held a view of restoring antiquity, believing that the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were a golden age of civilization, and that every subsequent dynasty fell short of the flourishing of these three dynasties. Hence they raised the slogan of “returning to the three dynasties.” Zhang Zai stated that “when speaking of governance, one must invariably aim for the three dynasties”; the Cheng brothers held that “whoever does not take the three dynasties as the standard of governance is ultimately pursuing a crooked path”; Zhu Xi believed that the rulers of the three dynasties “made the mind of transmitting and receiving [the mandate] clear to all under Heaven,” whereas later rulers were preoccupied with profit and desire. This restorationist view, which asserted that the present is inferior to antiquity and that social mores are in decline, denied the continuous development of human society. In response, Wang Fuzhi argued that humans evolved from animals and that the whole of human society is in a constant process of evolution; the restorationist view that antiquity was advanced and later ages were retrogressive is absurd. He sharply criticized the restorationist view of earlier Confucians, saying that “to boast of restoring antiquity is utterly obstructive” — returning to antiquity is neither possible nor desirable.

宋明理学存在一种复古观,认为夏商周三代是文明盛世,而后的每一代都不如三代鼎盛,所以他们喊出了“复归三代”的口号。张载“语治则必期于三代”,二程认为“不以三代为治者,终苟道也”,朱熹认为,三代之君“转相授受之心”明于天下,后世之君则心系于利欲。这种复古的观念,主张今不若古,世风日下,否认了人类社会的不断发展。对此,王夫之反驳道,人类由动物进化而来,整个人类社会处于不断进化的过程中,以古代为先进,后世为退步的复古观念是荒谬的。他极力批判先儒的复古观,认为“自矜复古,何其窒也”,复归古代既不可能,也不可取。

From an individual perspective, each person’s human nature is also in a constant process of evolution. On this point, Wang Fuzhi held that human nature includes both people’s sensory capacities and their rational capacities; it is a synthesis of all kinds of human spiritual qualities. “Thus the principles of benevolence, righteousness, ritual propriety, and wisdom cannot be extinguished even by the most benighted, while the desires for sounds, colors, smells, and tastes cannot be abolished even by the most wise; both can be called nature.” Value rationality and sensory desires both fall within the scope of human nature. Wang Fuzhi also held that “nature is the principle of life; it is produced daily and completed daily” — human nature is not in a perfect state at birth but is always in the process of generation and development. On the one hand, people’s sensory capacities gradually strengthen as the body grows. “At the beginning of life, a person has no power; he cannot take and use things on his own… After birth, a person already has power; he can take and use things on his own.” That is to say, at the moment of birth, the body’s functions cannot support the senses in taking and using things from the external world; only as the body grows does one acquire sufficient functions to take the essence and use things. On the other hand, people’s logical thinking and moral judgment capacities also gradually improve through acquired cultivation and social education. “The body is nourished day by day, the vital energy is enriched day by day, and principle is completed day by day.” That is to say, people must continuously improve themselves through various means, enhance rational thinking, and cultivate good social customs in order to become civilized people with wisdom and morality, rather than relying solely on innate endowment from Heaven.

从个体的角度看,每个人的人性也处在不断进化的过程之中。对此,王夫之认为,人性既包含人的感性能力,也包含人的理性能力,是人的各种精神性质的统合体。“故仁义礼智之理,下愚所不能灭,而声色臭味之欲,上智所不能废,俱可谓之为性。”价值理性与感官欲望,都在人性的范围之内。王夫之还认为,“夫性者生理也,日生则日成也”,人性并不是一出生就是完美的状态,而是始终在生成发展之中。一方面,人的感官能力随着身体的成长而逐渐加强。“生之初,人未有权也,不能自取而自用也……生以后,人既有权也,能自取而自用也。”也即是说,人在初生之时,身体的机能无法支撑感官对外界的取用行为,随着身体的成长,才能拥有足够的机能去取精用物。另一方面,人的逻辑思维与道德判断能力,也会随着后天培养与社会教化而逐步提升。“形日以养,气日以滋,理日以成。”也就是说,人要通过各种途径,不间断地提升自己,增强理性思维,陶冶社会良俗,才能成为具有智慧与道德的文明人,而不能仅仅依赖天命禀赋。

Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism held that human nature is an innate moral goodness, the essence that determines what makes a person human; it is present from birth, not formed after birth. For example, Zhu Xi said: “Nature is the Heavenly principle received by people.” In Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, human nature is the manifestation of Heavenly principle in people, the implementation of the noumenon in the individual; it is transcendent. This is a theoretical assumption without empirical basis. Western theology holds that humans were created by God and that human nature is bestowed by God. Matteo Ricci said: “Heavenly Lord creates things, and then begins to transform the various kinds of things. Once there are various kinds, they generate themselves. Now, if things generate things, as humans generate humans, and if the use of humans comes from Heaven, then is not the one who generates humans the Heavenly Lord? It is like a saw or a chisel: though they can make tools, it is the craftsman who makes them work. Who would say that the tool is made by the saw or chisel, not by the craftsman?” That is to say, Ricci believed that the Heavenly Lord (God) created humans and all things, giving each its own kind, so human wisdom also comes from God, and one must apply this wisdom through faith and the practice of God’s word. Wang Fuzhi, by contrast, held that people’s sensibility and rationality are continuously perfected after birth; there is no transcendent, unchanging moral essence or wisdom. Through natural evolution, humans stood out from all things and became the “spirit of all things”; and through individual growth and social influence, they became civilized people with reason and conscience.

宋明理学认为,人性是先天的道德善性,是决定人之为人的本质,它是人一生下来就有的,而不是后天形成的。例如,朱熹说:“性者,人所受之天理。”在宋明理学中,人性是天理在人身上的表现,是本体对人的落实,具有超越性。这是一种理论的假设,而没有经验根据。西方神学认为,人是由神创造的,人性是神赋予的。利玛窦说:“天主生物,乃始化生物类之诸宗。既有诸宗,诸宗自生。今以物生物,如以人生人,其用人由天,则生人者则非天主?譬如锯鑿,虽能成器,皆由匠者使之,谁曰成器乃锯鑿非匠人乎?”也就是说,利玛窦认为,天主(上帝)创生人与万物,使其各有所宗,所以人的智慧也来自于上帝,要通过信仰和实践上帝的话语来应用这种智慧。王夫之则认为,人的感性与理性在后天不断完善,并不存在先验不变的道德本质或智慧。人类通过自然进化,从万物中脱颖而出,成为“万物之灵”,又通过个人的成长与社会的习染,成为有理性有良知的文明人。

Some scholars have pointed out that Wang Fuzhi’s evolutionary thought is “an outstanding insight that directly approaches modern scientific conclusions,” reaching the peak of thinking at that time, and constituting a powerful refutation of traditional Chinese mysticism and Western religious obscurantism. Of course, due to the limitations of his era, Wang Fuzhi’s evolutionary thought remained in a primitive state, somewhat crude and mixed, and neglected the important role of labor in the process of human evolution. But Wang Fuzhi’s courage to disenchant and his far-sighted insight that surpassed his predecessors are worthy of affirmation.

有学者指出,王夫之的进化思想是“直逼近代科学结论的卓越见解”,达到了那个时代思维水平的高峰,是对中国传统神秘主义与西方宗教蒙昧主义的有力驳斥。当然,由于时代的局限,王夫之的进化思想仍然是一种朴素的状态,略显粗糙与驳杂,忽视了劳动在人类进化过程中所起到的重要作用。但王夫之勇于祛魅的精神,和发前人所未发的远见卓识,是值得肯定的。

IV. Conclusion

四、结语

Wang Fuzhi regarded “Supreme Harmony” as the cosmic noumenon, the unity of the real world. Qi is the substrate constituting the real world; the generation of things is the manifestation of qi from the hidden to the manifest, and the death of things is the manifestation of qi from the manifest to the hidden; throughout this process, qi always exists in some form, and there is no transcendent noumenon of nothingness beyond actual existence. Qi is characterized by eternal motion; motion is absolute, rest is relative; the real world changes and renews daily, manifesting as a constantly evolving overall order. In sum, Wang Fuzhi’s cosmology depicts a cosmic picture of qi transforming and generating, of a vibrant and flourishing universe, establishing the origin and development of the world on a materialist foundation, and purging the mystical elements from Confucianism in a fundamental way. Wang Fuzhi’s atheist thought enables people to break free from the bonds of theology, focus on the empirical world and real life, affirm people’s position and value in the world, and has the significance of ideological enlightenment. It led the trend of thought at the turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties and promoted the development of Chinese atheist thought. Marxist scholars such as Hou Wailu, Zhang Dainian, and Xiao Jiefu interpreted Wang Fuzhi’s cosmological thought from a materialist perspective, promoting the modern transformation of Wang Fuzhi’s thought and opening a new phase in the development of Chinese atheist thought. Thus it can be said that Wang Fuzhi’s atheist thought produced broad and far-reaching influence.

王夫之将“太和”视为宇宙本体,是现实世界的统一体。气是构成现实世界的基质,万物的产生是气由隐到显的表现,万物的死亡是气由显到隐的表现,在这一过程中气始终以某种形式存在着,而不存在超越实有的虚无本体。气以永恒运动为特性,运动是绝对的,静止是相对的,现实世界变化日新,展现为一个不断进化的总体秩序。总之,王夫之的宇宙论描绘了一幅气化生生、綱缢盎然的宇宙图景,将世界的起源与发展建立在唯物论的基础上,以正本清源的方式剔除了儒学中的神秘因素。王夫之的无神论思想使人们摆脱神学的束缚,聚焦于经验世界与现实人生,肯定人在世界中的地位和价值,具有思想启蒙的意义,引领了明清之际的时代思潮,推动了中国无神论思想的发展。侯外庐、张岱年、萧疌父等马克思主义学者从唯物论的角度诠释王夫之的宇宙论思想,推动王夫之思想的现代转化,开创了中国无神论思想发展的新局面。由此,可以说王夫之的无神论思想产生了广泛而深远的影响。

(Author’s bio: Gao Guipeng, Lecturer, School of Marxism, Xi’an University of Finance and Economics)

（作者简介：高贵朋,西安财经大学马克思主义学院讲师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心