The Historical Logic, Theoretical Connotation and Contemporary Enlightenment of Ya Hanzhang’s Thought on Propaganda and Education of Atheism

Propaganda and education of atheism is a basic task of Marxism in the ideological sphere. As early as the period of the New Democratic Revolution, the Communist Party of China attached importance to breaking down superstition and liberating the masses’ thinking through propagating materialism and atheism. After the founding of New China, it continuously explored methods and paths for atheist education in the practice of religious policy and theoretical research. In this process, a number of important theoretical workers emerged, and Ya Hanzhang was one of the outstanding representatives. Ya Hanzhang (1916–1989) was an important advocate in the theory of propaganda and education of atheism in China, and at the same time was learned across the research fields of ethnicity, religion, and Tibetology, laying a solid foundation for his thought on propaganda and education of atheism with his profound interdisciplinary research attainments.

无神论宣传教育是马克思主义在意识形态领域的一项基本任务。中国共产党早在新民主主义革命时期就重视通过宣传唯物主义和无神论来破除迷信、解放群众思想，新中国成立后更是在宗教政策实践和理论研究中不断探索无神论教育的方法路径。在这一过程中涌现出一批重要的理论工作者，牙含章就是其中的杰出代表之一。牙含章(1916—1989)是中国无神论宣传教育理论方面的重要倡导者，同时学贯民族、宗教、藏学等研究领域，以深厚的跨学科研究造诣为其无神论宣传教育思想奠定了坚实基础。

In recent years, research results on Ya Hanzhang’s ethnic theory and Tibetology studies have gradually emerged, especially with the 2016 commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Ya Hanzhang’s birth as a node, a number of documentary biographies, theoretical collections and academic papers studying Ya Hanzhang have been published, including the first systematic presentation of Ya Hanzhang’s life and academic contributions, *The Biography of Ya Hanzhang*. Through a systematic review of Ya Hanzhang’s academic thought, Zhang Sannan, Li Jiaxuan and others pointed out that he made foundational work in the “Hui nationality question” and the debate on the concept of “minzu” [1]1 The “last kilometer” (最后一公里) is a common Chinese political metaphor referring to the final, often most difficult, stage of implementing a policy or reaching a target, especially at the grassroots level., the construction of the theory of national formation, and the theoretical interpretation of socialist ethnic relations. Ya Hanzhang raised the issue of the boundary between religion and superstition, enriched the theoretical interpretation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, and for the first time systematically proposed the research framework of “the history of Chinese atheism”. A-wang Jia-cuo, Wang Zhihao and others, through sorting out his work practice in the field of ethnicity during the period of the peaceful liberation of Tibet, revealed Ya Hanzhang’s outstanding contributions in promoting ethnic unity in Tibet, safeguarding the unity of the motherland, and promoting the Sinicization of ethnic theory. Xu Sheng believed that Ya Hanzhang, through his scientific interpretation of religious policy and practical promotion of atheist education, effectively raised the level of ideological understanding of the Chinese people, providing strong theoretical support for the implementation of atheist education and religious policy. However, the academic community has so far lacked a systematic review of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism, and his theoretical contributions have not been fully explored. In view of this, this article intends to conduct a comprehensive investigation of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism, sort out its core content and ideological characteristics, and deeply analyze the academic value and practical significance contained therein.

近年来，有关牙含章民族理论和藏学研究的成果逐渐涌现，特别是以2016年纪念牙含章诞辰100周年为节点，出版了一批研究牙含章的纪实传记、理论文集和学术论文，其中就包括首部系统性呈现牙含章生平与学术贡献的《牙含章传》。张三南、李佳轩等人通过对牙含章学术思想的系统梳理，指出他在“回回民族问题”与“民族”概念论争、民族形成理论的建构、以及社会主义民族关系的理论诠释等方面做出了奠基性工作，牙含章提出了宗教与迷信的边界问题，丰富了对宗教信仰自由政策的理论阐释，并首次系统提出了“中国无神论史”的研究框架。阿旺嘉措、王志豪等人通过对其在西藏和平解放时期民族工作实践的梳理，揭示了牙含章在推动西藏民族团结、维护祖国统一、促进民族理论中国化过程中的突出贡献。徐盛则认为，牙含章通过对宗教政策的科学阐释和无神论教育的实践推动，有效提升了我国民众思想认识水平，为无神论教育和宗教政策的落实提供了有力的理论支撑。但是，学界迄今缺乏对牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的系统梳理，其理论贡献尚未得到充分发掘。鉴于此，本文拟对牙含章无神论宣传教育思想进行全面考察，梳理其核心内容与思想特色，并深入分析其中蕴含的学术价值和现实意义。

I. The Historical Background and Process of the Formation of Ya Hanzhang’s Thought on Propaganda and Education of Atheism

一、牙含章无神论宣传教育思想形成的历史背景与过程

(I) From “Temple” to Yan’an: Early Life and Marxist Enlightenment

(一)从“寺庙”到延安：早期生活与马克思主义启蒙

Ya Hanzhang was born into an ordinary family in Ninghebao, Hezhou, Gansu (today’s Hezheng County, Gansu), and from his youth was influenced by diverse ethnic and religious cultures. After the He-Huang Incident of 1928 [2]2 Gongmengzi (also known as Gongmeng) was a figure from the Warring States period (c. 5th century-221 BCE) associated with the Mohist school of thought, known for his explicit denial of the existence of ghosts and spirits., he obeyed his father’s order and entered the Tibetan Buddhist holy site Labrang Monastery to become a monk, spending nearly three years of life as an “Aka” [3]3 *Aka* (阿卡) is a Tibetan term for a Buddhist monk, commonly used in the Amdo region.. This unique experience enabled Ya Hanzhang from a young age to deeply engage with temple religious education, personally experiencing Buddhist scriptures and national traditional culture. In 1931, he returned to complete his middle school education at Gansu Provincial Fifth Middle School. In 1937, at the age of 21, Ya Hanzhang accompanied the 5th Jamyang Zhaypa Living Buddha [4]4 The Jamyang Zhaypa (嘉木样) is the title of the highest-ranking reincarnated lama of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism at Labrang Monastery. to the Drepung Monastery in Lhasa, Tibet, as secretary and translator, diligently studying Tibetan classics and investigating Tibetan society and culture in the religious holy land. However, soon with the full outbreak of the War of Resistance Against Japan, the Chinese nation was at a critical juncture. Cherishing patriotic fervor, Ya Hanzhang resolutely bid farewell to the Jamyang Zhaypa Living Buddha and traveled by a circuitous route to Yan’an to join the anti-Japanese national salvation movement. After arriving in Yan’an, Ya Hanzhang entered the Northern Shaanxi Public School [5]5 The Northern Shaanxi Public School (陕北公学) was a higher education institution established by the CPC in Yan’an in 1937 to train cadres for the anti-Japanese war effort. to receive the enlightenment and education of Marxist thought. At that time, in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region base area, schools at all levels arranged many courses propagating materialism and scientific knowledge, with compulsory courses such as *Dialectical Materialism* and *Historical Materialism* taught personally by Party leaders. Here, Ya Hanzhang began to receive a complete education in Marxist theory.

牙含章出生于甘肃河州宁河堡(今甘肃和政县)的一个普通家庭，少年时代即受到多元民族和宗教文化的熏陶。1928年河湟事变后，他遵父命进入藏传佛教圣地拉卜楞寺出家为僧，度过近三年的“阿卡”生活。这一独特经历使牙含章自幼就深入接触到寺庙宗教教育，亲身领略了佛教经义和民族传统文化。1931年，他回到甘肃省立第五中学完成中学学业。1937年，21岁的牙含章以秘书和翻译身份随第五世嘉木样活佛赴西藏拉萨哲蚌寺学经，在宗教圣地潜心研习藏文经典、考察西藏社会与文化。然而很快随着抗日战争的全面爆发，中华民族处于危机关头，胸怀爱国热忱的牙含章毅然辞别嘉木样活佛，辗转奔赴延安投身抗日救亡运动。到达延安后，牙含章进入陕北公学接受马克思主义思想的启蒙和教育。当时的陕甘宁根据地，各级学校都安排了许多宣传唯物主义和科学知识的课程，《辩证唯物主义》《唯物史观》等必修课由党的领导人亲自主讲。在此，牙含章开始完整地接受马克思主义理论教育。

(II) The Establishment of the Marxist Theoretical Standpoint and Revolutionary Practice

(二)马克思主义理论立场的确立与革命实践

The theoretical cultivation of the Yan’an period enabled Ya Hanzhang to gradually establish a firm Marxist standpoint and materialist world outlook. In October 1938, Ya Hanzhang formally joined the Communist Party of China at the main school of the Northern Shaanxi Public School. After graduating from the Northern Shaanxi Public School, Ya Hanzhang entered the Central Committee’s Northwest Work Committee [6]6 The Northwest Work Committee (西北工作委员会) was a Party body established in 1938 under the CPC Central Committee to handle work among ethnic minorities in the northwest. to engage in research on ethnic issues, beginning to examine ethnic and religious issues from a Marxist standpoint. He participated in compiling the book *The Hui Nationality Question*, responsible for writing the part on the origin and history of the Hui nationality. The book was published in Yan’an in 1941, clearly pointing out that the “Hui” are a member of the big family of the Chinese nation. Through this practice, Ya Hanzhang initially applied Marxist theory to ethnic and religious work in the united front, laying the foundation for the later development of his thought on propaganda and education of atheism.

延安时期的理论熏陶使牙含章逐步确立了坚定的马克思主义立场和唯物主义世界观。1938年10月，牙含章在陕北公学总校正式加入了中国共产党。从陕北公学结业后，牙含章进入中共中央西北工作委员会从事民族问题研究，开始以马克思主义立场审视民族宗教问题。他参与编写了《回回民族问题》一书，负责撰写回回民族起源与历史部分。该书于1941年在延安出版，旗帜鲜明地指出“回回”是中华民族大家庭中的一员。通过这一实践，牙含章初步将马克思主义理论运用于统一战线中的民族宗教工作，为日后其无神论宣传教育思想的发展奠定了基础。

Thereafter, he underwent training in multiple posts, continuously putting theory into practice. In the later period of the War of Resistance Against Japan, he entered the Minority Nationalities Research Office of the Fourth Sub-Bureau of the Central Committee’s Investigation and Research Bureau [7]7 The Investigation and Research Bureau (调查研究局) was a CPC Central Committee organ responsible for intelligence gathering and policy research during the Yan’an period., participating in the formulation of ethnic policies in the base areas, and cooperating with older-generation revolutionaries such as Ulanhu [8]8 Ulanhu (乌兰夫, 1906–1988) was a senior CPC leader of Mongol ethnicity, later President of the People’s Republic of China (1983–1988). to carry out investigation and research on ethnic issues. After the victory of the War of Resistance, Ya Hanzhang was ordered to transfer to the secret front. In 1946, he was transferred to Gansu to carry out underground work, and based on this experience wrote the memoir *Underground Struggle in Longyou* [9]9 Longyou (陇右) refers to the region west of the Long Mountains in present-day Gansu Province.. In the early period after the founding of New China, he successively held posts such as Director of the Ethnic Affairs Committee of the Linxia Prefectural Administrative Office and Deputy Head of the United Front Work Department of the Gansu Provincial Committee of the CPC, devoting himself to the unity and revolutionary mobilization of the masses of all ethnic groups. In 1951, utilizing his profound understanding of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan affairs, Ya Hanzhang was responsible for escorting the Panchen Erdeni [10]10 The Panchen Erdeni is the second-highest reincarnated lama in the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism; the 10th Panchen Lama, Choekyi Gyaltsen, was escorted back to Tibet in 1951–1952. back to Tibet, making a special contribution to the Central Government’s peaceful liberation of Tibet and the consolidation of the unity of the motherland. During his work in Tibet, he was appointed as a member of the Tibet Work Committee [11]11 The Tibet Work Committee (西藏工委) was the CPC’s leading organ in Tibet from 1950 until the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965. — the Central People’s Government’s institution stationed in Tibet — as well as its Secretary-General and Director of the Policy Research Office, playing an important role in the implementation of social reform and ethnic and religious policies in Tibet. During this period, he completed the first draft of *A Biography of the Dalai Lama* [12]12 *A Biography of the Dalai Lama* (《达赖喇嘛传》) was a historical work on the Dalai Lama lineage; the 14th Dalai Lama later fled into exile after the 1959 Tibetan uprising., and collected and organized a large amount of material for works such as *A Biography of the Panchen Erdeni* and *A New Chapter in the History of Tibet*, which were subsequently published one after another.

此后，他历经多岗位锻炼，不断将理论付诸实际。抗日战争后期，他进入中共中央调查研究局第四分局少数民族研究室工作，参与根据地民族政策制定，并同乌兰夫等老一辈革命家合作开展民族问题调查研究。抗战胜利后，牙含章奉命转入秘密战线，1946年调赴甘肃开展地下工作，根据这一经历撰写了回忆性著作《陇右地下斗争》。新中国成立初期，他历任临夏专署民委主任、中共甘肃省委统战部副部长等职，致力于各族群众的团结和革命动员。1951年，牙含章利用自己对藏传佛教和西藏事务的深厚了解，负责护送班禅额尔德尼返回西藏，为中央和平解放西藏、巩固祖国统一做出了特殊贡献。进藏工作期间，他被任命为中央人民政府驻藏机构——西藏工委委员、秘书长兼政策研究室主任，在西藏社会改革和民族宗教政策的实施中发挥了重要作用；其间他完成了《达赖喇嘛传》初稿，搜集整理了《班禅额尔德尼传》《西藏历史的新篇章》等著作的大量资料，这些成果后来相继出版。

Through revolutionary practice, Ya Hanzhang deepened his understanding of Marxist ethnic theory and the atheist standpoint, providing theoretical support for the Party’s policies in the fields of ethnicity and religion. In 1958, Ya Hanzhang moved to a leadership position in the social science field, being transferred to Beijing to serve as Deputy Director of the Institute of Nationality Studies of the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences [13]13 The Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences (哲学社会科学部) was the predecessor of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS)., concurrently serving as Editor-in-Chief of *Nationality Research* [14]14 *Nationality Research* (《民族研究》) is a leading Chinese academic journal on ethnic studies.. During this period, he participated in the academic debate in the early years of New China concerning the concept of “minzu” and the issue of national formation, using Marxist viewpoints to put forward insightful opinions, contributing to the improvement of the theoretical system of ethnic groups in New China. Through the tempering and practical testing of the period of the New Democratic Revolution, Ya Hanzhang’s Marxist theoretical standpoint became increasingly firm, laying a solid foundation for his subsequent focused work on propaganda and education of atheism.

通过革命实践，牙含章深化了对马克思主义民族理论和无神论立场的理解，为党在民族宗教领域的政策提供了理论支撑。1958年，牙含章转入社科领域领导岗位，调至北京担任中国科学院哲学社会科学部民族研究所副所长，兼《民族研究》主编。在这一时期，他参与了新中国成立初期关于“民族”概念与民族形成问题的学术论战，运用马克思主义观点提出颇有见地的见解，为新中国民族理论体系的完善做出了贡献。经过新民主主义革命时期的锤炼和实践考验，牙含章的马克思主义理论立场愈发牢固，为其此后专注开展无神论宣传教育奠定了坚实基础。

(III) Research on Atheism after the Founding of New China

(三)新中国成立后的无神论研究

After the founding of New China, Ya Hanzhang firmly applied Marxist theory to the study of propaganda and education of atheism, becoming a pioneer and authoritative scholar in this field. From the late 1950s onward, he published many important papers on atheism and religious issues, systematically explaining the necessity and methodology of atheist education. During the period from 1959 to 1964, Ya Hanzhang compiled these research results and published them as the book *Problems of Atheism and Religion* [15]15 *Problems of Atheism and Religion* (《无神论和宗教问题》) was published by Shanghai People’s Publishing House in 1964.. This work of approximately 91,000 characters was the first monograph by a New China scholar to use Marxist theory to study the problems of atheism and religion, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of the disciplines of religious studies and atheism in China.

新中国成立后，牙含章坚定地将马克思主义理论运用于无神论宣传教育研究，在这一领域成为开拓者和权威学者。从20世纪50年代末起，他围绕无神论与宗教问题发表了多篇重要论文，系统阐释无神论教育的必要性和方法论。1959年至1964年期间，牙含章将这些研究成果结集出版为《无神论和宗教问题》一书。这部约9.1万字的著作是新中国学者首次运用马克思主义理论研究无神论和宗教问题的专著，为我国宗教学和无神论学科的建立奠定了坚实基础。

Ya Hanzhang pointed out: “Propagating atheism to the broad masses and conducting atheist education is the only correct method for the Communist Party to lead the people in the struggle against religious superstition.” In order to establish a scientific and rational worldview throughout society, Ya Hanzhang repeatedly emphasized that propaganda and education of atheism is a long-term and important task, playing an irreplaceable role in eradicating ignorance and emancipating thought. However, he also keenly recognized the deficiencies and shortcomings in the construction of the discipline of atheism in China’s academic circles at that time, stating that “not only has a history of Chinese atheism not been written, but even a compilation of historical materials on Chinese atheist thought has not been produced.”

牙含章指出：“我们向广大人民宣传无神论，进行无神论教育，就是共产党领导人民同宗教迷信作斗争的唯一正确方法。”为了使全社会树立科学理性的世界观，牙含章反复强调无神论宣传教育是一项长期而重要的任务，对于破除愚昧、解放思想具有不可替代的作用。然而他也敏锐地认识到，当时我国学术界在无神论学科建设方面的欠缺和不足，“不仅没有写出一本中国无神论史，而且连一本关于中国无神论思想的史料汇编也没有搞出来”。

In response to this weak link, after the “Cultural Revolution,” Ya Hanzhang began to devote himself to pioneering research on the history of Chinese atheist thought. During this period, he successively published a series of papers such as “A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism” and “The Relationship between Confucius’ Doctrine and Chinese Atheist Thought – A Sequel to ‘A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism’,” reawakening the academic community’s attention to the study of the history of atheism. Subsequently, Ya Hanzhang spared no effort in the compilation work of the “History of Chinese Atheism.” This topic was also listed as a key scientific research project during the national “Sixth Five-Year Plan” and “Seventh Five-Year Plan” periods, [1]1 The “last kilometer” (最后一公里) is a common Chinese political metaphor referring to the final, often most difficult, stage of implementing a policy or reaching a target, especially at the grassroots level. with him leading the research group to tackle the problem. After years of arduous effort, he led the completion of the “History of Chinese Atheism,” which totals over one million characters, systematically sorting out the development thread of Chinese atheist thought over the more than two thousand years from the pre-Qin period to the “May Fourth Movement.” [2]2 Gongmengzi (also known as Gongmeng) was a figure from the Warring States period (c. 5th century-221 BCE) associated with the Mohist school of thought, known for his explicit denial of the existence of ghosts and spirits. It is a landmark achievement in applying Marxist principles to the study of atheism.

针对这一薄弱环节，“文革”之后，牙含章开始致力于中国无神论思想史的开创性研究。这一时期，他先后发表了《中国无神论史初探》《孔子学说与中国无神论思想的关系——〈中国无神论史初探〉续篇》等系列论文，重新唤起学界对无神论史研究的重视。此后，牙含章不遗余力地投入“中国无神论史”的编撰工作，这一课题也被列为国家“六五”“七五”期间的重点科研项目，由他带领课题组进行攻关。经过多年艰辛努力，他领衔完成了长达百万余字的《中国无神论史》,系统梳理了先秦至“五四运动”时期两千多年间中国无神论思想的发展脉络，是运用马克思主义原理研究无神论问题的里程碑式成果。

Through the positive interaction between theoretical research and propaganda practice, Ya Hanzhang made outstanding contributions to the cause of atheist education in New China, both filling a gap in the academic study of the history of Chinese atheism and cultivating a scientific and rational belief view among the public in society. Through his lifelong efforts, the thought of propaganda and education of atheism was disseminated and developed in China, playing an important role in improving the scientific literacy of the entire people and consolidating the socialist ideology.

通过理论研究与宣传实践的良性互动，牙含章为新中国无神论教育事业做出了杰出贡献，既在学理上填补了中国无神论史研究的空白，又在社会上培养了民众科学理性的信仰观。在他的毕生努力下，无神论宣传教育思想在中国得到传播和发展，为提高全民科学素养、巩固社会主义意识形态发挥了重要作用。

II. The Main Content of Ya Hanzhang’s Thought on Propaganda and Education of Atheism

二、牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的主要内容

Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism is rich in connotation, reflected not only in his in-depth research on atheist theory and history but also in his elucidation of the principles of propaganda and education practice. Academic circles summarize that his main contributions to the study of religious studies and atheism include: scientifically explaining Marxist atheist theory and the policy of freedom of religious belief, analyzing the relationship between religion and superstition, and compiling the “History of Chinese Atheism.”

牙含章的无神论宣传教育思想内涵丰富，既体现于对无神论理论与历史的深入研究，也体现在对宣传教育实践原则的阐明上。学界总结认为，他在宗教学与无神论研究方面的主要贡献包括：科学阐释马克思主义无神论理论和宗教信仰自由政策，剖析宗教与迷信的关系，以及编撰《中国无神论史》等。

To better understand the connotation of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism, it is necessary first to clarify the meaning of “propaganda and education of atheism.” According to the “Dictionary of Atheism” compiled by the Soviet Union, atheist education refers to “the influence exerted on people to establish a scientific materialist worldview and overcome religious beliefs,” while atheist propaganda, as an indispensable part of it, aims to “explain the falsity of religious beliefs and demonstrate the scientific materialist worldview in the process of ideological influence on individuals and groups.” Chinese scholars (including Ya Hanzhang) define atheist education from the perspective of content, that is, using historical materialism to analyze the roots of theistic concepts, analyze the laws of the emergence, development, and extinction of religion, enable the broad masses of the people to correctly understand the essence of theism and religion, and thereby liberate people from the shackles of theism and religion. It was under this theoretical guidance that Ya Hanzhang gradually formed a systematic thought on propaganda and education of atheism. To summarize, Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism mainly includes the following aspects.

为更好理解牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的内涵，有必要首先明确“无神论宣传教育”的含义。按照苏联编纂的《无神论词典》,无神论教育是指“为确立科学唯物主义的世界观和克服宗教信仰而给予人们的影响”,而无神论宣传作为其中不可或缺的部分，则旨在“说明宗教信仰之虚妄，论证在对个人和集群的思想影响的过程中之科学唯物主义世界观”。我国学者(包括牙含章)则从内容方面界定无神论教育，即运用历史唯物主义分析有神论观念产生的根源，分析宗教发生、发展和消亡的规律，使广大人民群众正确认识有神论和宗教的本质，从而将人们从有神论和宗教的桎梏中解放出来。正是在这一理论指引下，牙含章逐步形成了系统的无神论宣传教育思想。概括而言，牙含章的无神论宣传教育思想主要有以下几个方面。

(I) Adhering to the Theoretical Guidance of Marxist Atheism

(一)坚持马克思主义无神论的理论指导

Ya Hanzhang always adhered to using Marxist atheism as the theoretical guide to carry out the work of propaganda and education of atheism. He believed that Marxist atheism is the most thorough and scientific form of atheism in human history, and that dialectical materialism and historical materialism must be used as the theoretical basis to analyze religious phenomena and carry out atheist propaganda. In Ya Hanzhang’s view, the fundamental purpose of propaganda and education of atheism is to raise the scientific worldview and political consciousness of the masses, prompting them to consciously break free from the bonds of religion. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of religious phenomena based on Marxist theory, including revealing that the origin of religion lies in natural and social oppression, and the close connection between religion and class relations, thereby clarifying people’s understanding of the nature and function of religion.

牙含章始终坚持以马克思主义无神论作为理论指导开展无神论宣传教育工作。他认为马克思主义无神论是人类历史上最彻底、最科学的无神论形态,必须以辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义为理论基础来分析宗教现象，开展无神论宣传。在牙含章看来，无神论宣传教育的根本目的在于提高人民群众的科学世界观和政治觉悟，促使群众自觉摆脱宗教束缚。要达成这一目标，就必须以马克思主义理论为基础对宗教现象作全面深入的剖析，包括揭示宗教的起源根源于自然和社会压迫、宗教与阶级关系的密切关联等，从而澄清人们对宗教本质和作用的认识。

First, on the issue of the origin and development of theism and religion, Ya Hanzhang believed that “the emergence and development of theism can be roughly divided into three stages: the earliest concept to emerge was the concept of the soul, which is the low-level stage of theism; the concept of gods is the intermediate stage of theism; and the concept of God is the high-level stage of theism.” Among these, the concept of the soul is the “spiritual self” discovered by people in dreams, distinct from the physical self, while the concept of gods emerged only after the formation of clan and tribal organizations, that is, the “souls” of heroic figures worshipped within the tribe were gradually elevated to “human gods.” In this process, the concept of the soul gradually extended from humans themselves to all things in nature, and thus nature gods also appeared. The concept of God was created by humans after entering class society, imitating the “supreme ruler” to create the “supreme soul that dominates the entire universe.” In terms of the classification of religion, it is divided into the “spontaneous religion” of primitive society and the “artificial religion” of class society. Ya Hanzhang explained Marx’s citation of Morgan’s judgment on primitive religion in “Ancient Society,” that under the domination of “natural forces” and “social forces,” sacrificial activities in primitive society gradually formed specific worship idols and fixed sacrificial rituals, as well as specialized personnel to preside over sacrifices, which constituted the three conditions for the formation of “spontaneous religion”; while “artificial religion” formed on the basis of “spontaneous religion,” each having its own different worshipped gods, doctrines and religious activities, and specific religious professionals, such as Christianity, Buddhism, etc. By analyzing the roots and development process of theism and religion, Ya Hanzhang deconstructed the mystery of the emergence of religion from the perspective of historical materialism.

首先，在有神论和宗教的起源、发展问题上，牙含章认为，“有神论的发生和发展，大体上可以分为三个阶段：最早产生的是灵魂观念，是有神论的低级阶段；神的观念是有神论的中级阶段；上帝观念是有神论的高级阶段”,其中，灵魂观念是人们在做梦中发现的区别于肉体自我的“精神的我”,而神的观念是在氏族和部落的组织产生以后才出现的，即部落中受到崇拜的英雄人物的“灵魂”逐渐被推崇为“人神”。在这一过程中，灵魂观念逐渐由人类自身扩展到自然界的万物，自然神也由此出现。而上帝的观念是人类进入阶级社会以后模仿“最高统治者”创造的“主宰全宇宙的至高无上的灵魂”。在宗教的分类上，分为原始社会的“自发宗教”和阶级社会的“人为宗教”。牙含章阐释了马克思对摩尔根《古代社会》中对原始宗教判断的引用，即在“自然力量”和“社会力量”的支配下，原始社会中的祭祀活动逐渐形成了特定的崇拜偶像和固定的祭祀仪式，以及专门主持祭祀的人员，这也就构成了“自发宗教”形成的三个条件；而“人为宗教”是在“自发宗教”基础上形成了各自不同的崇拜神灵、教义与宗教活动、特定的宗教职业者，例如基督教、佛教等。通过分析有神论和宗教产生的根源和发展过程，牙含章以唯物史观的视角解构了宗教产生的神秘性。

Second, on the theory of the essence of religion, Ya Hanzhang continued the Marxist critical inheritance of Feuerbach’s theory of the essence of religion. In the article “Feuerbach’s ‘The Essence of Christianity’,” Ya Hanzhang not only explained the critical inheritance of the Marxist view of religion from Feuerbach’s religious thought, for example, Engels’ exposition on religion in “Anti-Dühring” – “all religion is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men’s minds of those external forces which control their daily life” – inherits Feuerbach’s assertion that “it is not God who created man, but man who created God; man created God in his own image.” At the same time, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that Marxism criticizes the abstractness and detachment from real society present in Feuerbach’s humanist view of religion, arguing that the “real world” Feuerbach spoke of is abstract and lacks concrete content, and that religion is not merely a reflection of general, abstract man, but a reflection of man in relationships, of social man. Therefore, religion returns to the human world in a superhuman form, dominating man. Ya Hanzhang believed that from an atheist perspective, since Feuerbach understood God as an existence created by man in his own image, then the essence of God is reduced to the essence of man. Once man becomes “primary,” the existence of God is negated. This is precisely a distinct atheist viewpoint.

其次，在宗教本质论上，牙含章延续了马克思主义对费尔巴尔宗教本质论的批判继承。在《费尔巴哈的〈基督教的本质〉》一文中，牙含章既阐释了马克思主义宗教观对费尔巴哈宗教思想的批判继承，例如恩格斯在《反杜林论》中对宗教的论述“一切宗教都不过是支配着人们日常生活的外部力量在人们头脑中的幻想的反映”,就继承自费尔巴哈“不是上帝创造了人，而是人创造了上帝，人按照自己的形象创造了上帝”的论断。同时，牙含章指出马克思主义对费尔巴哈人本主义宗教观存在的抽象性和脱离现实社会进行的批判，认为费尔巴哈所讲的“现实世界”是抽象的、没有具体内容，而宗教不单单是对一般、抽象的人的反映，更是对关系中的人、社会的人的反映，因此宗教以超人间的形式回到人间，支配着人。牙含章认为，从无神论角度来看，费尔巴哈将上帝理解为人按照自己的形象所创造的存在，那么上帝的本质就被还原为人的本质，人成为“第一性”以后也就否定了上帝的存在，这正是鲜明的无神论观点。

Third, on the question of the extinction of religion, Ya Hanzhang, as a Marxist, firmly upheld the ultimate judgment that religion will die out, but also pointed out, based on the current level of development of our country’s socialist society, that “the socialist society is not the period of the extinction of religion.” Ya Hanzhang believed that the extinction of religion is predicated on “when communism has triumphed on a world scale, with the elimination of classes and class struggle, with the enormous development of social productive forces and science and technology, with the unprecedented elevation of people’s political consciousness and scientific and cultural level, and when all of humanity gradually comes to understand the laws of development of nature and society… when all of humanity has completely cast off the state of being enslaved by natural and social forces.” Only when the social roots and class basis on which religion depends for its survival have disappeared will religion gradually die out. However, considering the stage of development of our country’s socialist society, the most fundamental national condition at present is that we are still and will long remain in the primary stage of socialism. Ya Hanzhang believed that at this stage, the level of productive forces is not yet sufficiently developed, and there still exists the domination of people by natural forces, especially the frequent occurrence of natural disasters afflicting people. At the same time, there still exists the domination of people by social forces, and the class basis on which religion depends for its survival still exists. Any attempt to prematurely or artificially “eliminate” religion cannot succeed. This important judgment determines that the core of religious work in socialist China is by no means the elimination of religion. In particular, the painful lessons of the “Cultural Revolution” period [1]1 The “last kilometer” (最后一公里) is a common Chinese political metaphor referring to the final, often most difficult, stage of implementing a policy or reaching a target, especially at the grassroots level., when temples were smashed and political campaigns replaced atheism education, reveal that propaganda and education of atheism must and can only be carried out in the form of ideological education. Ya Hanzhang’s scientific grasp of the laws of religious development and his profound insight into the process of social and historical development provide an important theoretical basis for people to correctly understand and comprehend religious phenomena.

第三，在宗教消亡问题上，作为马克思主义者的牙含章既坚定宗教消亡的最终判断，又根据我国社会主义社会发展水平的现状指出，“社会主义社会不是宗教消亡的时期”。牙含章认为，宗教消亡建立在“当共产主义在世界范围内胜利以后，随着阶级和阶级斗争的消灭，随着社会生产力和科学技术的巨大发展，随着人们的政治觉悟和科学文化水平的空前提高，人类全体逐渐认识了自然和社会的发展规律……全人类在自然力量和社会力量面前完全摆脱了被奴役的状态”的基础上，只有当宗教所赖以生存的社会根源和阶级基础消失，宗教才会逐渐消亡。而根据我国社会主义社会发展阶段来看，当前我国最大的基本国情就是仍处于并将长期处于社会主义初级阶段，牙含章认为，这一阶段生产力水平还不够发达，还存在着自然力量对人们的支配，特别是自然灾害对人们的侵袭屡屡发生。同时，还存在着社会力量对人们的支配，宗教赖以生存的阶级基础还存在，任何企图过早地、人为地“消灭”宗教，都不可能成功。这一重要判断决定了社会主义中国宗教工作的核心绝非消灭宗教，特别是“文革”时期打砸寺庙、以政治运动代替无神论教育的惨痛教训，揭示了必须且只能以思想教育的形式开展无神论宣传教育。牙含章对宗教发展规律的科学把握和对社会历史发展进程的深刻洞察，为人们正确认识和理解宗教现象提供了重要的理论依据。

Fourth, on the attitude of the proletariat and the proletarian party towards religion, or the Party’s religious policy, Ya Hanzhang wrote our Party’s first authoritative theoretical article comprehensively elaborating the policy of freedom of religious belief – “On Freedom of Religious Belief.” In the article, Ya Hanzhang argued: “Freedom of religious belief is the basic policy of our Party and state towards religious issues, and it is also a long-term policy.” Our country’s Constitution stipulates: “Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. No state organ, social organization, or individual may compel citizens to believe in or not believe in religion, nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in or do not believe in religion. The state protects normal religious activities.” Ya Hanzhang believed that implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief is, on the one hand, based on the fact that religion is a worldview and outlook on understanding formed by the broad masses of the people over a long period. Before the birth of Marxism, because people could not understand the laws of development of the universe and humanity itself, and religion could provide direct answers to people’s perplexities, offer spiritual solace for the hardships of life, and even “happiness in the afterlife,” Marx called religion “the opium of the people.” On the other hand, it is conducive to uniting the broadest masses of the people, rallying both religious and non-religious believers around the Party, and facilitating “jointly carrying out the democratic revolution and socialist revolution, jointly consolidating the dictatorship of the proletariat, and jointly building socialism and communism.” As long as they accept the Party’s leadership and abide by state laws and regulations, they should be allowed to continue their original religious beliefs. Furthermore, when this article was first published in 1959, it not only powerfully refuted the slander by hostile foreign forces that our country’s democratic reform of religion and the reform of the serf system in Tibet at that time were “eliminating religion,” but also answered the confusion of the vast number of Party cadres and the people: why would the Communist Party of China, guided by Marxist theory, and the new China under the socialist system, allow citizens to believe in religion.

第四，在无产阶级及无产阶级政党对待宗教的态度，或者说党的宗教政策上，牙含章撰写了我们党首篇全面阐释宗教信仰自由政策的权威理论文章——《论宗教信仰自由》。文中，牙含章认为：“宗教信仰自由，是我们党和国家对待宗教问题的基本政策，也是一项长期的政策。”我国宪法规定：“中华人民共和国公民有宗教信仰自由。任何国家机关、社会团体和个人不得强制公民信仰宗教或者不信仰宗教，不得歧视信仰宗教的公民和不信仰宗教的公民。国家保护正常的宗教活动。”牙含章认为，实行宗教信仰自由政策，一方面基于宗教是广大人民群众长期形成的世界观、认识观。在马克思主义诞生前，由于人们无法理解宇宙和人类自身的发展规律，而宗教能为人们的困惑提供直接的答案，为生活中的困苦提供心灵慰藉乃至“来世幸福”,因此马克思将宗教称为“人民的鸦片”。另一方面，有利于团结最广大的人民群众，把信教群众和不信教群众都团结在党的周围，有利于“共同进行民主革命和社会主义革命，共同巩固无产阶级专政，共同建设社会主义和共产主义”,只要他们接受党的领导，遵守国家法律法规，就应当允许他们继续原有的宗教信仰。此外，这篇文章最初在1959年发表时，不但有力回击了境外敌对势力对我国当时开展宗教民主改革和西藏农奴制改革是在“消灭宗教”的污蔑，更解答了广大党员干部和人民群众的困惑，即为何以马克思主义理论为指导的中国共产党和社会主义制度的新中国会允许公民信仰宗教这一疑惑。

Correspondingly, Ya Hanzhang deeply analyzed the long-standing phenomenon of feudal superstition in Chinese society. He believed that the prevalence of superstition was, on the one hand, due to people’s lack of scientific knowledge and inability to explain various strange phenomena, and on the other hand, due to the promotion and exploitation by successive reactionary ruling classes, combined with fatalistic thought. Based on this understanding, Ya Hanzhang emphasized that religion and feudal superstition must be strictly distinguished and treated differently: for normal religious belief activities, freedom should be guaranteed according to law, and religious believers should be united; for activities that harm people and defraud money, such as feudal superstition, they should be combated and banned. This distinction helps prevent “prescribing the wrong remedy” in the struggle against superstition, avoiding the simple and crude prohibition of normal religious beliefs as if they were superstition, thereby ensuring the correct implementation of religious policy. This theoretical distinction reflects his principle of adhering to the Marxist standpoint and analyzing problems by seeking truth from facts.

与此相应地，牙含章深入剖析了中国社会源远流长的封建迷信现象，认为迷信盛行一方面是由于人们科学知识匮乏，无力解释各种奇异现象，另一方面也由于历代反动统治阶级的提倡、利用，并与宿命论思想相结合。基于这种认识，牙含章强调必须将宗教与封建迷信严格区分对待：针对正规宗教信仰活动，应依法保障其自由，坚持团结信教群众；对于封建迷信等害人骗财的活动，则应当予以打击和取缔。这种区分有助于防止在反迷信斗争中“抓错药方”,避免把正常的宗教信仰当作迷信一样简单粗暴地加以禁止，从而确保宗教政策的正确实施。这一理论区分体现了其坚持马克思主义立场、实事求是分析问题的原则。

(II) Emphasis on the Collation and Study of the Heritage of Atheism at Home and Abroad

(二)重视国内外无神论遗产的整理与研究

Promoting theoretical research on atheism and collating the intellectual heritage of atheism are important components of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism. He advocated making full use of the precious heritage of atheism left behind in human history to serve the work of propaganda and education of atheism. The specific contents are as follows.

推动无神论理论研究、整理无神论思想遗产，是牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的重要内容之一。他主张充分利用人类历史上遗留下来的宝贵无神论遗产来服务于无神论宣传教育工作。具体有以下内容。

First, in the collation and study of foreign atheist thought, Ya Hanzhang followed the views of Engels and Lenin, advocating for the translation and publication of the works of the 18th-century French militant atheists, and analyzing and criticizing them from a Marxist perspective, discarding the dross and selecting the essential, so that they could better serve as vivid and powerful propaganda materials for the masses. He listed the translation and introduction of representative works of French Enlightenment atheist thinkers such as Meslier, La Mettrie, Helvétius, Diderot, and Holbach in our country, emphasizing that these world classics played a positive role in awakening the masses to break free from the religious mirage. At the same time, Ya Hanzhang also pointed out that these 18th-century atheist works have certain limitations and are “unscientific and naive,” advocating for adapting them to conform to the scientific spirit of Marxism through abridgment, annotation, and critical inheritance.

其一，在国外无神论思想的整理和研究中，牙含章遵循恩格斯和列宁的观点，提倡翻译出版18世纪法国战斗无神论者的著作，并以马克思主义观点加以分析批判，取其精华、去其糟粕，使之更好地为人民群众提供生动有力的无神论宣传材料。他列举了梅叶、拉美特里、爱尔维修、狄德罗、霍尔巴赫等法国启蒙时代无神论思想家的代表作在我国的译介情况，强调这些世界名著对唤醒民众冲破宗教迷梦有积极作用。同时，牙含章也指出这些18世纪无神论著作存在一定的局限和“不科学、幼稚”之处，主张通过删节、注释和批判继承的方式，使其符合马克思主义的科学精神。

Among ancient atheisms, Ya Hanzhang believed that the ancient Greek atheism represented by the Epicurean school naively denied the existence of ghosts and gods. Although they failed to explain the reasons for the emergence of the concept of ghosts and gods, they demonstrated progressiveness in an era when belief in ghosts and gods was widespread.

在古代无神论中，牙含章认为，以伊壁鸠鲁学说为代表的古希腊无神论朴素地否定鬼神的存在，尽管他们没能回应鬼神观念出现的原因，但他们在普遍相信鬼神观念的时代体现了进步性。

In the article “Spinoza’s ‘Theologico-Political Treatise’,” Ya Hanzhang pointed out that Spinoza, under the constraints of over a thousand years of Christian domination of the Western world and the threat of death from the “Inquisition,” courageously stated that besides the existing entity of nature itself, there is nothing supernatural, and that God is nature, and nature is God. Although Spinoza affirmed the existence of God, under the historical conditions of the time, being able to deny supernatural existence including God – this weak atheism with a certain degree of compromise rekindled the flame of atheism in Western society at that time. Ya Hanzhang believed that the 18th-century old atheists represented by the French “Encyclopédistes” inherited the path of atheism restarted by Spinoza. In terms of stance, they “directly and completely denied the existence of the soul, ghosts, gods, and God.” Regarding the essence of religion, they pointed out that “all theistic concepts and religious superstitions are lies fabricated by ‘swindlers’ to anesthetize people’s minds.” Ya Hanzhang called this group of 18th-century old atheists “outstanding great warriors of the democratic revolution” to highlight their revolutionary achievements in opposing feudal autocracy through the struggle against religion.

在《斯宾诺莎的〈神学政治论〉》一文中，牙含章指出，斯宾诺莎在基督教支配西方世界一千多年的禁锢背景和“宗教裁判所”的死亡威胁之下，勇敢地说出除了自然界本身这一存在的实体外不存在任何超自然的东西，而神就是自然界，自然界就是神，尽管斯宾诺莎肯定了神的存在，但在当时的历史条件下能否定包括上帝在内的超自然存在，这种具有一定妥协性的弱无神论为彼时的西方社会重新点燃了无神论的火苗。牙含章认为，以法国“百科全书派”为代表的18世纪老无神论者继承了斯宾诺莎重启的无神论道路，他们在立场上“直截了当地、完完全全地否定了灵魂、鬼神、上帝的存在”,在宗教本质上指出“一切有神论观念和宗教迷信，都是‘骗子们’为了麻醉人民的思想而编造出来的谎言”。牙含章将这一批18世纪的老无神论者称为“杰出的民主主义革命的伟大战士”,以突出他们通过反宗教斗争表达的反对封建专制主义的革命功绩。

Second, Ya Hanzhang placed greater emphasis on excavating and utilizing China’s rich indigenous heritage of atheist thought. Ya Hanzhang believed that “China is a country with a rich historical heritage of atheism” and “Chinese atheism is a component of world atheism; the history of Chinese atheism is naturally also a component of the history of world atheism.” He detailed the important atheist thoughts and classics from various historical periods since the pre-Qin period in China, such as Gongmengzi’s [2]2 Gongmengzi (also known as Gongmeng) was a figure from the Warring States period (c. 5th century-221 BCE) associated with the Mohist school of thought, known for his explicit denial of the existence of ghosts and spirits. theory of “no ghosts or gods” during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, Xunzi’s “Discourse on Heaven” and “Dispelling Obsession” from the Warring States period, chapters like “On Death” and “Investigating Ghosts” from Wang Chong’s “Balanced Discourses” of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Fan Zhen’s “On the Extinction of the Soul” from the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Liu Zongyuan and Liu Yuxi’s “Discourse on Heaven” from the Tang Dynasty, and Xiong Bolong’s “Collected Works on Non-Existence” from the Qing Dynasty. He considered these immortal works to constitute the extremely precious heritage of atheism of the Chinese nation.

其二，牙含章更加强调要发掘和利用中国本土丰富的无神论思想遗产。牙含章认为“中国是一个具有丰富的无神论历史遗产的国家”“中国无神论是世界无神论的一个组成部分，中国无神论史，当然也是世界无神论史的一个组成部分”,他详述了中国先秦以来各个历史时期的重要无神论思想及典籍，例如春秋战国时公孟子的“无鬼神”论、战国时荀子的《天论》《解蔽》、东汉王充《论衡》中的《论死》《订鬼》等篇、南北朝范缜的《神灭论》、唐代柳宗元和刘禹锡的《天说》《天论》、清代熊伯龙的《无何集》等，认为这些不朽著作构成了中华民族极为珍贵的无神论遗产。

Third, Ya Hanzhang was also the first to emphasize “making full use of China’s own precious historical heritage of atheism” to carry out atheist education. He broke free from the previous content limitations of conducting atheist research and propaganda and education based on “foreign models,” and pioneered a new orientation toward the Sinicization and localization of atheist research in China. Ya Hanzhang advocated for the systematic collection and collation of atheist historical materials scattered throughout classical texts and historical records, and on this basis, to compile a *History of Chinese Atheism* as a textbook for conducting atheist propaganda and education among the masses. He asserted that the Chinese atheist heritage thus organized would be in no way inferior in propaganda effect to the 18th-century atheist works of the West. This proposition was later implemented in practice. In articles such as “A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism,” Ya Hanzhang comprehensively reviewed the developmental history of atheism in China from dimensions including the periodization of the history of Chinese atheism, the research objects (representative figures) of the history of Chinese atheism, and the characteristics of Chinese atheist doctrine, and proposed basic standards for the study of the history of Chinese atheism. Regarding the periodization of the history of Chinese atheism, Ya Hanzhang divided it into five stages: the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, the Han dynasties, the Wei-Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties period, the Tang-Song-Yuan-Ming-Qing period, and the period from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement [16]16 The May Fourth Movement (1919) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal cultural and political movement in China, often regarded as a watershed in modern Chinese history.. Regarding the research objects (representative figures) of the history of Chinese atheism, Ya Hanzhang innovatively proposed: “Confucius was also a great atheist in ancient China; Chinese atheist thought actually developed by inheriting Confucius’s atheist doctrine.” Furthermore, Ya Hanzhang believed that when selecting figures in the history of Chinese atheism, one should judge whether they possessed atheist thought based on the historical conditions of their time. Regarding the characteristics of Chinese atheist doctrine, Ya Hanzhang believed that three pairs of struggle relationships should be grasped: the struggle between “no ghosts” and “having ghosts,” the struggle over the “Heaven-Man” relationship, and the struggle against various forms of secular superstition. In his later years, Ya Hanzhang still personally took charge of the compilation and revision work of the *History of Chinese Atheism*, pouring his efforts into the study of the history of Chinese atheism and making outstanding contributions. Under his leadership and in cooperation with colleagues, the two-volume *History of Chinese Atheism* and the multi-volume *Selected Materials on the History of Chinese Atheism* were published successively.

其三，牙含章还是第一个强调“要充分利用中国自己的无神论的珍贵历史遗产”来开展无神论教育的人，他摆脱过往“以洋为本”开展无神论研究和宣传教育的内容局限，开创性地引领了我国无神论研究的中国化本土化新取向。牙含章主张将散见于经史典籍中的无神论史料加以系统搜集整理，并在此基础上编写一部《中国无神论史》,作为面向人民群众进行无神论宣传教育的教材。他断言这样整理出来的中国无神论遗产，在宣传效果上完全不亚于西方18世纪无神论著作。这一主张后来也在实践中得到落实，牙含章在《中国无神论史初探》等文章中，从中国无神论史分期、中国无神论史的研究对象(代表人物)、中国无神论学说的特征等维度整体梳理了我国无神论的发展历史，并提出了中国无神论史研究的基本标准。在中国无神论史的分期上，牙含章将其分为春秋战国时期、两汉时期、魏晋南北朝时期、唐宋元明清时期及鸦片战争到“五四运动”时期五个阶段；在我国无神论史的研究对象(代表人物)上，牙含章开创性地提出：“孔子也是一位中国古代的伟大的无神论者，中国的无神论思想，实际上就是继承了孔子的无神论学说而发展下来的。”此外，牙含章认为，选择中国无神论史上的人物时，应以当时所处的历史条件来评判其是否具有无神论思想；在中国无神论学说的特征上，牙含章认为，应当抓住三对斗争关系，分别是“无鬼”与“有鬼”的斗争、“天人”关系的斗争以及与各种世俗迷信的斗争。晚年牙含章仍然亲自负责《中国无神论史》的编撰和修订工作，为中国无神论史研究倾注心血，作出了卓越贡献。在他的主持和与同仁的合作下，两卷本的《中国无神论史》以及多卷本的《中国无神论史资料选编》等陆续出版。

Thus it can be seen that being adept at inheriting the ideological heritage of atheism both at home and abroad and conducting systematic research was the foundation and prerequisite of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on propaganda and education of atheism. He emphasized enriching propaganda content with solid theoretical and historical research to enhance the persuasiveness and scientific nature of atheist propaganda and education.

由此可见，善于继承国内外无神论思想遗产并开展系统研究，是牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的基础和前提。他强调以扎实的理论和史实研究来丰富宣传内容，以提高无神论宣传教育的说服力和科学性。

(3) Proposing the Principles and Methods of Propaganda and Education of Atheism

(三)提出无神论宣传教育的原则与方法

Regarding the practical strategy of propaganda and education of atheism, Ya Hanzhang proposed a series of principles and methods aimed at improving the effectiveness and targeting of propaganda and education.

在无神论宣传教育的实践策略上，牙含章提出了一系列原则和方法，旨在提高宣传教育的有效性和针对性。

First, Ya Hanzhang emphasized paying attention to methods and means when propagating atheism, avoiding hurting the feelings of religious believers. Ya Hanzhang, citing Lenin’s instruction when leading the anti-religious struggle in Soviet Russia, pointed out: “Care must be taken to avoid hurting the feelings of believers, because hurting their feelings will only consolidate blind faith in religion.” Thus, he advocated avoiding simple and crude or condescending approaches in propaganda, instead persuading people with facts and scientific reasoning; he opposed replacing atheist education with political movements to eliminate religion, and adhered to Lenin’s principle of “using purely ideological weapons, and only ideological weapons, our books, our publications, our speeches to struggle against the religious fog.” In this way, he firmly opposed the previous practice of treating religious believers as hostile forces, emphasizing the need to grasp the nature of ideological struggle among the people, achieving both adherence to criticism and unity through education. This is a political principle that must be followed in atheist propaganda.

第一，牙含章强调宣传无神论时要注意方式方法，避免伤害信教群众的感情。牙含章引用列宁在领导苏俄反宗教斗争时的教导指出：“必须注意避免伤害信教者的感情，因为伤害他们的感情只会巩固对宗教的盲目信仰。”由此可见，他主张在宣传中避免简单粗暴和居高临下，而要以事实和科学道理说服人；反对以政治运动消灭宗教替代无神论教育,坚持列宁提出的“用纯粹的思想武器，而且仅仅是思想武器，用我们的书刊、我们的言论来跟宗教迷雾进行斗争”。如此，他坚决反对以往那种将信教群众视作敌对势力的做法，强调要把握好人民内部思想斗争的性质，做到既坚持批判又团结教育，这是无神论宣传必须遵循的政治原则。

Second, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that the key targets of propaganda and education of atheism should be the broadest masses of working people, especially the peasant masses. He recalled that for a considerable period after the founding of New China, atheist education was mainly carried out in cities, with the educated being mostly cadres, students, intellectuals, and workers, while the vast numbers of peasants and herders in rural and pastoral areas had little access to atheist education. However, peasants and herders constitute the vast majority of the religious population in China, and religious activities are most active in rural and pastoral areas. Therefore, he proposed that the strategic focus of atheist education must be gradually shifted from cities to rural and pastoral areas, to seize and consolidate propaganda positions at the grassroots level. This thought is consistent with the actual conditions of China’s socialist construction in different periods. Especially after reform and opening up, the Party and government placed greater emphasis on popular science in rural areas and eradicating feudal superstition, which also reflects the practical significance of Ya Hanzhang’s proposition of “shifting the propaganda front downward.”

第二，牙含章指出，无神论宣传教育的重点对象应是最广大的劳动群众，特别是农民群众。他回顾新中国成立后相当一段时期内无神论教育主要在城市展开，受教育者多为干部、学生、知识分子和工人，农村和牧区的广大农民牧民很难接触到无神论教育。但我国信教人口中农民牧民占绝大多数，宗教活动在农村和牧区最为活跃。因此，他提出必须将无神论教育的战略重心由城市逐步转向农村和牧区，在广大基层夺取和巩固宣传阵地。这一思想与我国社会主义建设不同时期的实际情况相符合。特别是改革开放以后，党和政府更加重视农村科普和扫除封建迷信工作，也体现了牙含章“宣传阵地下移”这一主张的现实意义。

Third, Ya Hanzhang advocated for diverse forms of propaganda and education, making full use of all available communication media and cultural forms to carry out atheist education. He pointed out that the “ideological weapons” Lenin spoke of include not only traditional opinion tools such as books, newspapers, periodicals, report meetings, and lectures, but also artistic means such as drama, film, novels, poetry, radio, cartoons, and even slides; historically, the ruling class had extensively used theatrical performances to propagate religious superstition (such as various “ghost plays” and “god plays”), while atheists had also created plays on the theme of eradicating superstition (such as the story of Ximen Bao opposing the “River God taking a wife”) to enlighten the people. Ya Hanzhang paid particular attention to the role of literary and artistic propaganda. In the 1960s, he participated in and witnessed the debate within the theatrical world about whether to stage “ghost plays.” He believed that in a socialist society, traditional plays that the masses enjoyed could be appropriately performed, but there should be even more creation and performance of literary and artistic works that promote the scientific spirit and propagate atheism.

第三，牙含章倡导丰富多样的宣传教育形式，充分利用一切可用的传播媒介和文化形式来开展无神论教育。他指出，列宁所说的“思想武器”不仅包括书籍、报刊、报告会、讲演等传统舆论工具，还应当包括戏剧、电影、小说、诗歌、广播、漫画以至幻灯片等文艺手段；历史上，统治阶级曾大量借助戏剧演出宣扬宗教迷信(如各类“鬼戏”“神戏”),无神论者也创作过以破除迷信为题材的戏剧(如西门豹反对“河神娶妻”的故事)来启发民智。牙含章特别关注文艺宣传的作用，他在20世纪60年代参与和见证了戏剧界关于是否上演“鬼戏”的争论。他认为，在社会主义社会可以适当演出群众喜闻乐见的传统戏剧，但更应创作和上演弘扬科学精神、宣传无神论的文艺作品。

Fourth, Ya Hanzhang advocated for the institutionalization and long-term nature of propaganda and education work on atheism, avoiding a campaign-style approach that comes and goes in a flash. He believed that atheist education in China is a long-term, meticulous, and arduous ideological task; therefore, certain specialized institutions should be established to oversee the nationwide propaganda and education work on atheism, ensuring the sustained progress of this work in a planned and guided manner. Ya Hanzhang, citing Lenin’s warning, stated that if one mistakenly believes that “propagating atheism is just a small matter, requiring only a few articles, a few books, and a short burst of activity, then one would commit what Lenin called ‘the biggest and worst mistake’,” emphasizing that atheist education is a major matter concerning the socialist ideological sphere and requires a long-term strategy and organizational guarantee, not just temporary enthusiasm. He suggested establishing specialized departments or research associations within the government or scientific research system to coordinate theoretical research and propaganda and education resources on atheism, forming a sustained driving force. His writings and appeals also prompted sustained attention and project establishment on atheist issues in universities and research institutions. Through organized promotion, propaganda and education of atheism can truly be persistently pursued and penetrate the masses, continuing to play a positive role in uniting people’s hearts and transforming social customs in the New Era. Through Ya Hanzhang’s active advocacy and promotion, the Chinese Atheism Society was established in 1978, and Ya Hanzhang was elected as its vice-chairman, providing an important organizational and exchange platform for atheist education and academic research on atheism in China. After stepping down as vice-chairman of the society, he long served as an advisor to the Chinese Atheism Society, witnessing and participating in the organizational construction of propaganda and education work on atheism in China. In 1999, the journal of the Chinese Atheism Society, *Science and Atheism*, was first published, and starting in 2000, regular academic annual conferences were held, providing a solid academic support platform and ideological propaganda front for the in-depth development of atheist education.

第四，牙含章主张将无神论宣传教育工作制度化、长期化，避免一阵风式的运动式作法。他认为，我国的无神论教育是一项长期、细致、艰苦的思想工作;因此，应当建立一定的专门机构来主管全国的无神论宣传教育工作，以保证这项工作有计划、有领导地持续推进。牙含章引用列宁的话警示道，如果错误地认为“宣传无神论只是小事，只需写几篇文章、出几本书，搞一阵子就行了，那就将犯下列宁所说的‘最大的而且是最坏的错误’”,强调无神论教育是关系社会主义思想领域的大事，必须有长期战略和组织保障，而不能靠临时热情。他建议在政府或科研体系中设立专门部门或研究会，统筹无神论理论研究和宣传教育资源，形成持续动力。他的著作和呼吁也促成了高校和科研机构对无神论问题的持续关注与课题立项。通过组织化推动，无神论宣传教育才能真正做到常抓不懈、深入群众，在新时代继续发挥凝聚人心、移风易俗的积极作用。在牙含章的积极倡导和推动下，1978年中国无神论学会成立，牙含章被推举为副理事长，这为我国无神论教育和无神论学术研究提供了一个重要的组织与交流平台。从学会副理事长卸任后，他仍长期担任中国无神论学会顾问，见证并参与了我国无神论宣传教育工作的组织建设。1999年，中国无神论学会会刊《科学与无神论》创刊，2000年开始固定举行学术年会，为无神论教育的深入发展提供了坚实的学术支撑平台和思想宣传阵地。

Fifth, Ya Hanzhang believed that atheist education in China must be closely linked with science popularization education. Ya Hanzhang believed that, on the one hand, although conducting science popularization education cannot directly propagate Marxist atheism, the knowledge of natural and social sciences covered by scientific thought—such as the structure and laws of motion of celestial bodies, the formation and evolutionary history of the Earth, the origin and evolutionary laws of life (including humans), and the laws of development of human society—are all conducive to the propaganda and education of Marxist atheism. On the other hand, science education that reveals the objective existence and laws of motion of the world belongs, on a broader level, to the category of atheist education.

第五，牙含章认为我国无神论教育必须与科学普及教育密切联系起来。牙含章认为，一方面，虽然进行科学普及教育不能直接宣传马克思主义无神论，但是科学思想中涵盖的天体构造和运行规律、地球的形成及其演变历史、生命(包括人类)的起源及其进化规律、人类社会发展规律等自然科学和社会科学知识，都有利于马克思主义无神论的宣传和教育。另一方面，揭示世界客观存在和运行规律的科学教育在更广泛的层面上都属于无神论教育范畴。

III. The Contemporary Enlightenment of Ya Hanzhang’s Thought on Propaganda and Education of Atheism

三、牙含章无神论宣传教育思想的当代启示

Ya Hanzhang’s atheist thought and his concept of atheist education are important achievements in the Sinicization of Marxist atheism, and also a valuable asset in the development of China’s atheist cause. They provide scientific theoretical guidance and rich practical experience for us to correctly understand and handle religious issues and to carry out atheist education.

牙含章的无神论思想及其无神论教育理念，是马克思主义无神论中国化的重要成果之一，也是我国无神论事业发展过程中的宝贵财富，为我们正确认识和对待宗教问题、开展无神论教育提供了科学的理论指导和丰富的实践经验。

First, adhere to the simultaneous pursuit of Marxist guidance and atheist education.

第一，坚持马克思主义指导与无神论教育并举。

Ya Hanzhang profoundly elucidated the relationship between the policy of freedom of religious belief and the propaganda and education of atheism, emphasizing that the two are not contradictory but complement each other. The Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief should be interpreted from two aspects: on the one hand, it recognizes that everyone has the freedom to believe in a religion; on the other hand, it recognizes that everyone has the freedom not to believe in a religion and to propagate atheism. He clearly stated: “Conducting atheist education among the masses is not only not contradictory to the Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief, but is precisely the comprehensive implementation of that policy.” This judgment cleared up ideological confusion and provided a legitimate basis for the propaganda and education of atheism. Its contemporary enlightenment lies in the fact that in the New Era, we must still uphold the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological domain, and treat the propaganda and education of atheism as an inherent part of implementing the basic policy on religious work, thereby both guaranteeing citizens’ freedom to believe or not believe in religion and confidently carrying out the propaganda of scientific atheism. In fact, the report of the 20th National Congress of the CPC emphasized the continued advancement of theoretical arming with Marxism and ideological work, requiring the use of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era to consolidate minds and forge souls, which is entirely consistent with the requirement to strengthen education in materialism and atheism. In July 2021, the “Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political Work in the New Era” issued by the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council clearly stated: “Education in Marxist materialism and atheism must be strengthened.” It can be said that upholding the propaganda and education of atheism in the New Era is not only an inheritance of the propaganda and education concepts of Ya Hanzhang and others, but also an objective need to consolidate the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological domain. Only by strengthening theoretical propaganda and policy guidance, and integrating atheist education into the ideological and political work system of the New Era, can the Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief be fully and completely implemented, and a scientific and rational ideological foundation be consolidated throughout society.

牙含章深刻阐明了宗教信仰自由政策与无神论宣传教育之间的关系，强调二者并不矛盾，而是相辅相成。党的宗教信仰自由政策应当从两方面解读：一方面承认任何人都有信仰宗教的自由，另一方面承认任何人都有不信仰宗教、宣传无神论的自由。他明确提出：“向人民群众进行无神论教育，这同党的宗教信仰自由政策不仅没有丝毫矛盾，而且正是全面地贯彻执行宗教信仰自由政策。”这一论断廓清了思想迷雾，为无神论宣传教育提供了正当性基础。其当代启示在于：新时代依然要坚持马克思主义在意识形态领域的指导地位，将无神论宣传教育作为落实宗教工作基本方针的应有之义，做到既保障公民信教与不信教的自由，又理直气壮地开展科学无神论宣传。事实上，党的二十大报告强调持续推进马克思主义理论武装和意识形态工作，要求用习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想凝心铸魂，这与加强唯物论和无神论教育的要求是完全一致的。2021年7月，中共中央国务院印发的《关于新时代加强和改进思想政治工作的意见》明确指出：“要加强马克思主义唯物论和无神论教育。”可以说，在新时代坚持无神论宣传教育，既是对牙含章等人无神论宣传教育理念的继承，也是巩固马克思主义在意识形态领域指导地位的客观需要。通过加强理论宣传和政策引导，把无神论教育融入新时代思想政治工作体系之中，才能真正实现党的宗教信仰自由政策的完整全面落实，在全社会筑牢科学理性的思想根基。

Second, confront the phenomenon of superstition in new media and consolidate grassroots atheist propaganda.

第二，直面新媒体迷信现象，夯实基层无神论宣传。

In analyzing the relationship between religion and superstition, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that religion is a worldview with a complete doctrine and organizational system, whereas feudal superstition lacks a system and is merely a means for some people to defraud others for profit. Therefore, feudal superstition is not religion, and there is no issue of freedom of belief regarding it. A socialist country must never tolerate those who use superstition to swindle money. This idea has strong practical significance for the present. First, in the era of rapid development of new media, various forms of feudal superstition and pseudo-science have made a comeback by riding on online platforms. Fortune-telling, feng shui, and divination under the banners of “national studies” or “metaphysics” have gained a considerable market among young people, and there are even phenomena of spreading feng shui and various feudal superstitions through live-streamed fortune-telling, WeChat public accounts, short videos, and short dramas. If these dregs of superstition are allowed to resurface, they will erode the scientific and rational spirit of society and impact the mainstream ideology. Therefore, it is necessary to counter the resurgence of superstition from a scientific atheist standpoint, and to intensify the criticism of feudal superstition and the popularization of science. We must use new media methods that the masses enjoy to expose the harms of superstition and disseminate scientific knowledge, and use the online public opinion battlefield to promptly debunk rumors, break down superstitions, and clarify the source, in order to resist the spread of online superstitious trends. Second, we must strengthen the construction of grassroots positions to prevent the growth and spread of superstition and religion at the grassroots level. Currently, grassroots atheist education is relatively weak, especially in rural areas. In some places, religious and superstitious activities are still prevalent, and religious infiltration, illegal proselytizing, and feudal superstition are intertwined in some grassroots areas, becoming a difficult point in ideological work. In 2018, the “Opinions on Implementing the Rural Revitalization Strategy” issued by the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council clearly stated: “Strengthen the propaganda and education of atheism, enrich the spiritual and cultural life of the peasant masses, and resist feudal superstitious activities.” This fully demonstrates that strengthening scientific atheist education at the grassroots level, especially in rural areas, is already an inherent requirement of religious work in the New Era. We must both integrate atheist propaganda into grassroots cultural construction and mass activities for cultural-ethical progress, support grassroots efforts to change outdated customs and eradicate superstition through civilized practice; and strengthen the role of grassroots Party organizations as fighting fortresses in the ideological domain, enhancing the scientific literacy of rural grassroots cadres and Party members so that they can shoulder the responsibility of propagating materialism and criticizing feudal superstition. Through policy support and institutional guarantees, we must deepen atheist education to the “last kilometer” at the grassroots level.

牙含章在剖析宗教与迷信关系时指出，宗教是具有完整教义和组织体系的世界观，而封建迷信则缺乏体系，仅是一部分人骗财牟利的手段。因此，封建迷信不是宗教，不存在信仰自由的问题，对于以迷信诈财者，社会主义国家决不能听之任之。这一思想对当下具有强烈的现实启迪意义。一是，在新媒体快速发展的时代，各种封建迷信和伪科学现象搭乘网络平台卷土重来，一些打着“国学”“玄学”旗号的算命、风水、占卜在年轻群体中颇有市场，甚至出现通过网络直播算命、微信公众号、短视频、短剧等传播风水与各种封建迷信的现象。如果听任这些迷信沉渣泛起，将侵蚀社会的科学理性精神，冲击主流意识形态。因此，必须以科学无神论立场迎击迷信回潮，加大对封建迷信的批判和科普力度。要运用群众喜闻乐见的新媒体手段来揭露迷信危害、传播科学知识，利用互联网舆论阵地及时辟谣破迷、正本清源，以抵制网络迷信思潮的蔓延。二是，我们要加强基层阵地建设，防止迷信和宗教在基层滋长蔓延。当前基层无神论教育相对薄弱，农村地区尤为突出，一些地方宗教迷信活动仍然盛行，宗教渗透、非法传教与封建迷信在部分基层地区交织，成为意识形态工作的难点。2018年，中共中央国务院印发的《关于实施乡村振兴战略的意见》明确指出：“加强无神论宣传教育，丰富农民群众精神文化生活，抵制封建迷信活动。”这充分表明，加强基层特别是农村的科学无神论教育已是新时代宗教工作的题中应有之义。我们既要将无神论宣传融入基层文化建设和群众精神文明创建活动，扶持基层开展移风易俗、破除迷信的文明实践；又要强化基层党组织在意识形态领域的战斗堡垒作用，提升乡村基层干部和党员的科学素养，使其能够担当起宣传唯物论、批判封建迷信的职责。通过政策扶持和体制保障，把无神论教育深入到基层“最后一公里”。

Third, focus on guiding youth belief and innovate methods of atheist propaganda and education.

第三，聚焦青年信仰引领，创新无神论宣传教育方法。

Youth are the future of the Party and the country, and the belief status of young people directly determines the ideological direction of future society. Ya Hanzhang and other older generation of atheist propaganda and education workers recognized early on that scientific worldview education must be strengthened for young people. This experience has even greater reference value in the contemporary era. Currently, under the influence of the market economy and diverse ideological trends, a small number of young people, including students from key universities, have developed an interest in religion, and a few have even “embraced religion.” Some Western religious forces and local extremist groups also target young people as a focus of infiltration, spreading religious and superstitious ideas through channels such as online communities and campus clubs, attempting to influence the values of young people. In response, we must proactively strengthen the propaganda and education of atheism for young people, keeping pace with the times and innovating in both content and form. On the one hand, strengthen the elements of atheism in school ideological and political theory courses and extracurricular activities, integrating the basic principles of Marxist atheism into the main channel of education and teaching. In primary and secondary schools, focus on scientific common sense and materialist enlightenment; at the university level, offer elective courses or special lectures on scientific atheism, prompting university students to systematically master the Marxist view on religion and atheist theory. On the other hand, be adept at using new media and cultural forms favored by young people to carry out propaganda. For example, use short videos, short dramas, animation, popular reading materials, and other carriers to explain scientific atheism, integrating atheist thought into cultural products so that young people can receive the baptism of materialism in a subtle and imperceptible way. At the same time, strengthen the construction of the discipline of Marxist atheism and scientific research platforms, produce more theoretical achievements that are oriented towards young people and close to reality, and provide solid academic support and vivid teaching materials for atheist education.

青年是党和国家的未来，青少年的信仰状况直接决定着未来社会的思想走向。牙含章等老一辈无神论宣传教育工作者早就认识到，必须面向青少年加强科学世界观教育。这一经验在当代更具有借鉴价值。当前在市场经济和多元思潮影响下，少数青年包括重点高校学生对宗教产生兴趣，个别人甚至“投入了宗教的怀抱”。一些西方宗教势力和本土极端团体也把青年作为渗透重点，通过网络社群、校园社团等渠道传播宗教和迷信观念，企图影响青年价值观。对此，要主动加强对青少年的无神论宣传教育，在内容和形式上与时俱进、推陈出新。一方面，强化学校思想政治理论课和课外活动中的无神论元素，将马克思主义无神论基本原理融入教育教学主渠道。在小学、中学阶段注重科学常识和唯物主义启蒙，高校阶段开设科学无神论相关选修课程或专题讲座，促使大学生系统掌握马克思主义宗教观和无神论理论。另一方面，善于运用新媒体和青年喜爱的文化形式开展宣传。例如，通过短视频、短剧、动漫、通俗读物等载体阐释科学无神论，将无神论思想融入文化产品，使青年在润物无声中接受唯物论的洗礼。同时，加强马克思主义无神论学科和科研平台建设，推出更多面向青年、贴近现实的理论成果，为无神论教育提供坚实的学理支撑和鲜活的教材。

In summary, Ya Hanzhang’s thought on the propaganda and education of atheism provides valuable enlightenment for promoting scientific atheism in the New Era: adhere to the guiding position of Marxism, guarantee the legality and legitimacy of atheist propaganda and education; resolutely struggle against feudal superstition and unhealthy religious tendencies, focus on consolidating grassroots ideological positions; pay close attention to the ideological and belief status of young people, strengthen Marxist atheist education for young people, innovate the content and forms of education, and cultivate steadfast successors of atheist belief. Today, when social ideological trends are complex and diverse and ideological struggle is increasingly complicated, systematically reviewing the atheist propaganda and education thought of Ya Hanzhang and other older generation scholars has dual value of theoretical enlightenment and practical guidance for strengthening the academic research and propaganda education of Marxist atheism in the New Era.

综上所述，牙含章的无神论宣传教育思想为新时代推进科学无神论提供了宝贵启示，即坚持马克思主义指导地位，保障无神论宣传教育的合法性与正当性；坚决同封建迷信和不良宗教倾向作斗争，注重夯实基层思想阵地；关注青少年思想和信仰状况，加强青少年马克思主义无神论教育，创新教育内容和形式，培育坚定的无神论信仰接班人。在社会思潮纷繁复杂和意识形态斗争愈加复杂的今天，系统梳理牙含章等老一辈学者的无神论宣传教育思想，对于新时代加强马克思主义无神论的学术研究和宣传教育，具有理论启迪和实践指导的双重价值。