Re-discussing the Integrity of Marxism

In his article “Karl Marx,” Lenin held that Marxism comprises three main components: Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. In China’s institutions of higher education, these three courses are typically taught by three different departments or faculties. Over a long period, this has produced a very harmful consequence: teachers and researchers of Marxist philosophy have little understanding of Marxist political economy and the theory of scientific socialism; those who study and teach political economy have little understanding of Marxist philosophy and the theory of scientific socialism; and those who study and teach the theory of scientific socialism have little understanding of Marxist philosophy and Marxist political economy. In this way, the integral scientific system of Marxism, composed of its various parts, has been fragmented into separate components for research and instruction. This practice greatly limits a complete and accurate understanding of Marxism. Most scholars engaged in Marxist teaching and research believe that Marx’s *Capital* is not only an economic work but also a philosophical and scientific socialist work, serving as a model that integrates the various components of Marxism into a whole. Since reform and opening up, some Chinese scholars have engaged in interdisciplinary research. For example, many scholars of Marxist philosophy have studied the philosophical issues in *Capital* and achieved certain research results. However, these results are often not recognized by scholars of Marxist political economy. Scholars studying different components of Marxism have relatively little exchange with each other, understand little of each other’s work, and fail to reach consensus on many issues. Therefore, scholars engaged in Marxist research and teaching face the important task of integrating the various components of Marxism into a whole. This article will discuss the integrity of Marxism from the following six aspects.

列宁在《卡尔·马克思》一文中，认为马克思主义包括马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说三个主要组成部分。在我国高等学校，这三门课程通常分别由三个不同的院系承担。长此以来，造成了一种十分不良的后果：研究和讲授马克思主义哲学的教师，不太了解马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说；研究和讲授政治经济学的教师，不太了解马克思主义哲学和科学社会主义学说；研究和讲授科学社会主义学说的教师，不太了解马克思主义哲学和马克思主义政治经济学。这样，就把由各个组成部分构成的整体的马克思主义科学体系，肢解为不同的组成部分进行研究，从事教学。这种做法，对于完整准确地理解马克思主义局限性很大。从事马克思主义教学和研究的学者，大都认为马克思的《资本论》不仅是一部经济学著作，而且也是一部哲学和科学社会主义著作，是把马克思主义各个组成部分结合为一个整体的典范。改革开放以来，我国有些学者从事跨学科研究。例如，研究马克思主义哲学的学者，有不少人研究《资本论》中的哲学问题，并且取得了一定的研究成果。但这些成果往往不被研究马克思主义政治经济学的学者所认同。研究马克思主义不同组成部分的学者之间，互相交流比较少，彼此不太了解，在很多问题上不能取得共识。因此，从事马克思主义研究和教学的学者，面临着把马克思主义的各个组成部分结合成为一个整体的重要任务。本文拟从以下六个方面论述马克思主义的整体性。

I. The Integrity of Marxism Viewed from the Socio-Historical Conditions of Its Emergence

一、从马克思主义产生的社会历史条件看马克思主义的整体性

The renowned Marxist Franz Mehring, in his 1893 work *On Historical Materialism*, profoundly pointed out: “The materialist conception of history is subject to the very law of historical movement that it itself has formulated. It is a product of historical development; in earlier epochs, it could not have been conceived by even the greatest genius. Only when humanity has reached a certain height can it unveil its own secret.” [1]1 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party* (1848), Chapter I. Not only historical materialism, but Marxism as a whole is also a product of its historical era.

著名的马克思主义者弗兰茨·梅林在1893 写作的《论历史唯物主义》一书中深刻地指出：“唯物主义历史观是服从于它自己所制定的那个历史运动规律的。它是历史发展的产物；在较早的时代，它是不会被任何最伟大天才的头脑虚构出来的。只有达到一定高度时，人类历史才能揭开它自己的秘密。” 不仅历史唯物主义，而且整个马克思主义也是历史时代的产物。

From the 1640s to the first half of the 19th century, major Western European countries such as Britain and France successively experienced bourgeois revolutions, overthrew feudal autocratic systems, removed obstacles to capitalist development, and saw rapid capitalist growth. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 1760s, opened the curtain on the transition of capitalist production from the stage of manufacture to that of large-scale machine industry. By the 1830s and 1840s, Britain had taken the lead in completing the first Industrial Revolution; all industrial sectors were basically mechanized, and a factory system based on large-scale machinery was established. At that time, Britain produced the vast majority of the world’s industrial products, becoming the “workshop of the world.” Although the development of the French capitalist economy lagged behind Britain by half a century, after the Great Bourgeois Revolution of 1789, and especially after the July Revolution of 1830, it also achieved significant growth and entered the stage of the Industrial Revolution. Germany lagged economically behind Britain and France; in the early 19th century it had only a few factories. However, during the Industrial Revolution that began in the 1830s and 1840s, its capitalist economy also experienced leapfrog development, and by the end of the 19th century it had become one of the world’s leading industrial nations.

从17 世纪40 年代到19 世纪上半叶，英国和法国等西欧主要国家相继发生了资产阶级革命，推翻了封建专制制度，清除了资本主义发展的障碍，资本主义得到迅速发展。18 世纪60 年代首先在英国开始的工业革命，拉开了资本主义生产从工场手工业向机器大工业阶段的过渡的序幕。到19 世纪三四十年代，英国率先完成了第一次工业革命，各个工业部门基本上实现了机械化，建立了大机器作业的工厂制。当时英国制造了全世界所需要的绝大部分工业产品，成为“世界工厂”。法国资本主义经济的发展虽然比英国落后了半个世纪，但从1789 年资产阶级大革命以后，特别是1830 年七月革命以后，也获得了很大发展，进入了工业革命阶段。德国在经济上落后于英、法两国，到19 世纪初只有少数工厂，但在三四十年代开始的工业革命中，资本主义经济也获得了飞跃性发展，到19 世纪末它已为世界上第一流的工业国。

The development of large-scale capitalist machine industry, on the one hand, greatly advanced productive forces and science and technology, raised labor productivity, and brought about an unprecedented increase in material wealth; on the other hand, it led to the intensification of capitalism’s inherent contradictions. The contradiction between the socialization of production and the private appropriation of the means of production is the basic contradiction of capitalism. This contradiction manifests itself as the contradiction between the organized nature of production in individual factories and the anarchy of production in society as a whole, and as the contradiction between the tendency of production to expand without limit and the relative contraction of the working people’s effective demand. These contradictions inevitably lead to periodic economic crises. Since Britain experienced its first nationwide economic crisis in 1825, capitalist countries have been frequently hit by periodic economic crises. This shows that the contradiction between capitalist relations of production and productive forces had already developed to a very acute degree, and that the constantly developing productive forces had begun to rebel against capitalist relations of production. Of course, because the capitalist system possesses a certain capacity for self-regulation, from the late 19th century onward, and especially after the Second World War, the bourgeoisie has alleviated these contradictions to some extent through partial adjustments to the relations of production and the superstructure, so that the capitalist system still has some rationality for its existence even today. However, as long as the capitalist system exists, its inherent contradictions cannot be eliminated.

资本主义机器大工业的发展，一方面大大发展了生产力和科学技术，提高了劳动生产率，带来了物质财富的空前增长；另一方面又导致了资本主义固有矛盾的尖锐化。生产的社会化和生产资料私人占有之间的矛盾是资本主义的基本矛盾，这个矛盾表现为个别工厂生产的有组织性和整个社会生产的无政府状态之间的矛盾，表现为生产无限扩大的趋势和劳动人民有支付能力的需求相对缩小的趋势之间的矛盾，这些矛盾必然导致周期性的经济危机。从1825 年英国发生第一次全国性的经济危机以来，资本主义国家频繁地受到周期性的经济危机的冲击。这表明，资本主义的生产关系和生产力之间的矛盾，已经发展到十分尖锐的程度，不断发展的生产力已经开始起来反对资本主义的生产关系。当然，由于资本主义制度具有一定的自我调节功能，从19 世纪后期开始，特别是在第二次世界大战以后，资产阶级通过对生产关系和上层建筑的局部调整，使这些矛盾有所缓和，资本主义制度至今也还有某种存在的合理性。但是只要资本主义制度存在，资本主义的固有矛盾就是不可消除的。

The intensification of the basic contradiction of capitalism manifested itself in class relations as the sharpening of the contradiction between the working class and the bourgeoisie. By the 1830s and 1840s, the principal contradiction in Western European society had shifted from that between the masses and feudal forces to that between the working class and the bourgeoisie. The working class had progressed from being an ally of the bourgeoisie in the struggle against feudal forces to stepping onto the political stage as an independent political force, launching struggles against the capitalist system and bourgeois rule. The working class’s struggle against the bourgeoisie was triggered by its extremely impoverished position and condition of exploitation and oppression. But the working class is not merely a suffering class; it is also an advanced, revolutionary class, bearing the historical mission of being the gravedigger of capitalism and the builder of socialism. Therefore, the working class urgently needed a revolutionary theory that could correctly elucidate its historical position and historical role, and point out for it the direction and path for overthrowing the old world of capitalism and building a new world of socialism and communism. It was precisely to meet the needs of the working class’s liberation struggle and the demands of the era that Marx and Engels created Marxism.

资本主义基本矛盾的激化，在阶级关系上表现为工人阶级和资产阶级之间的矛盾的尖锐化。到了19 世纪三四十年代，西欧社会的主要矛盾从人民大众与封建势力的矛盾转化为工人阶级与资产阶级之间的矛盾，工人阶级在政治斗争中已经从资产阶级反对封建势力的同盟者进展到以独立的政治力量登上历史舞台，展开了反对资本主义制度和资产阶级统治的斗争。工人阶级反对资产阶级的斗争，是由他们受剥削、受压迫的极端贫困的地位和状况引起的，但工人阶级不只是一个受苦受难的阶级，而且是一个先进的革命的阶级，肩负着资本主义的掘墓人、社会主义的建设者的历史使命。因此，工人阶级迫切要求一种革命理论，能够正确地阐明它的历史地位和历史作用，给它指明推翻资本主义旧世界、建设社会主义和共产主义新世界的方向和道路。马克思、恩格斯正是适应工人阶级解放斗争的需要和时代的需求，创立马克思主义的。

Under the conditions of capitalist large-scale socialized production, the speed of development of the productive forces greatly accelerated, social relations changed rapidly, enabling people to see clearly that no social system is eternal or fixed, but is in a process of development and change, thereby revealing the law that old social formations are inevitably replaced by new ones. Marx and Engels depicted this profoundly, vividly, and graphically in the *Communist Manifesto*. They pointed out: “The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.” [1]1 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party* (1848), Chapter I. From the socio-historical conditions of the emergence of Marxism, it can be seen that the development of capitalism and the sharpening of its internal contradictions, and the entry of the working class onto the historical stage as an independent political force, not only provided the necessity for effecting a transformation in philosophy, political economy, and socialist theory, but also provided the possibility of combining philosophy, political economy, and socialist theory into a complete and rigorous scientific system of unified Marxist doctrine. It was precisely the capitalist mode of production and the revelation of its internal contradictions, along with the development of the productive forces and science and technology, and the unceasing turmoil and change in society, that created the conditions for scientifically revealing the general laws of development of nature, society, and human thought, and for creating a scientific philosophical worldview and historical outlook, thereby realizing a revolutionary transformation in philosophy. At the same time, it was precisely the development of the capitalist mode of production and its internal contradictions that made it possible to theoretically reveal the essence of the capitalist mode of production, discover the theory of surplus value, and reveal the laws of development of the capitalist mode of production, thereby completing the critique of bourgeois political economy, founding Marxist political economy, and realizing a revolutionary transformation in political economy. It was precisely on the basis of the scientific worldview and historical outlook and the theory of surplus value that Marx and Engels resolved the theoretical problems that utopian socialism could not solve, turning socialism from a utopia into a science, and realizing a revolutionary transformation in socialist theory. Guided by the scientific worldview and historical outlook, and based on the economic analysis of the capitalist mode of production, Marx and Engels comprehensively analyzed the class situation in capitalist society and scientifically demonstrated the historical status and historical mission of the working class. Therefore, Marxism, as the science of the liberation of the working class and humanity, is a unified whole encompassing Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. That is to say, the birth of the various components of Marxism and the revolutionary transformations they realized share the same socio-historical conditions and epochal background, which inevitably makes these components constitute an internally unified and complete theoretical system.

在资本主义社会化大生产的条件下，生产力发展的速度大大加快，社会关系急剧变化，使人们清楚地看到，任何社会制度都不是永恒的、固定不变的，而是在发展变化的，从而揭示出旧的社会形态必然被新的社会形态所代替的规律。马克思、恩格斯在《共产党宣言》中对这一点描绘得很深刻、很生动、很形象。他们指出：“资产阶级除非对生产工具，从而对生产关系，从而对全部社会关系不断地进行革命，否则就不能生存下去。反之，原封不动地保持旧的生产方式，却是过去的一切工业阶级生存的首要条件。生产的不断变革，一切社会状况不停的动荡，永远的不安定和变动，这就是资产阶级时代不同于过去一切时代的地方。一切固定的僵化的关系以及与之相适应的素被尊崇的观念和见解都被消除了，一切新形成的关系等不到固定下来就陈旧了。一切等级的和固定的东西都烟消云散了，一切神圣的东西都被亵渎了。人们终于不得不用冷静的眼光来看他们的生活地位、他们的相互关系。”从马克思主义产生的社会历史条件可以看出，资本主义的发展及其内在矛盾的尖锐化，工人阶级以独立的政治力量登上历史舞台，不仅提供了在哲学、政治经济学和社会主义学说方面实行变革的必要性，而且提供了把哲学、政治经济学和社会主义理论结合为一个完整而严密的科学体系的统一的马克思主义学说的可能性。正是资本主义生产方式及其内在矛盾的显露以及生产力和科学技术的发展，社会不停顿地动荡和变化，为科学地揭示自然、社会和人类思维发展的一般规律、创立科学的哲学世界观和历史观创造了条件，实现了哲学上的革命变革；同时，正是资本主义生产方式及其内在矛盾的发展，使得从理论上揭示资本主义生产方式的本质、发现剩余价值理论、揭示资本主义生产方式的发展规律成为可能，从而完成了对资产阶级政治经济学的批判，创立了马克思主义的政治经济学，实现了政治经济学上的革命变革；马克思、恩格斯正是在科学的世界观和历史观以及剩余价值理论的基础上，解决了空想社会主义学说所不能解决的理论课题，使社会主义从空想变成了科学，实现了社会主义理论上的革命变革。马克思、恩格斯以科学的世界观和历史观为指导，以对资本主义生产方式的经济剖析为基础，全面分析了资本主义社会的阶级状况，科学地证明了工人阶级的历史地位和历史使命。因此，马克思主义作为工人阶级和人类解放的科学，是包括马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说在内的统一整体。这就是说，马克思主义各个组成部分的诞生和所实现的革命变革，有同一的社会历史条件和时代背景，这就必然使它的各个组成部分构成内在统一的完整的理论体系。

II. The Holistic Nature of Marxism Viewed from Its Theoretical Sources

二、从马克思主义的理论来源看马克思主义的整体性

The historical era in which Marx and Engels lived and the various tasks it posed only provided the objective conditions for the emergence of Marxism; these objective conditions could not automatically produce any new theory or doctrine. Any new theory or doctrine must critically inherit the intellectual achievements of predecessors, taking the endpoint of previous thought as the starting point for its own research. Engels pointed out: “Every philosophy, as a specific field of the division of labor, has as its premise specific intellectual materials transmitted to it by its predecessors, from which it starts.” [2]2 Friedrich Engels, *Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy* (1886), Part I. This is true of philosophy, and it is also true of political economy and the theory of scientific socialism. German classical philosophy, British classical political economy, and the utopian socialist doctrines of early 19th-century England and France represented the highest achievements of human thought up to the first half of the 19th century and are the direct theoretical sources of Marxism. Below, we briefly examine these several direct theoretical sources of Marxism.

马克思、恩格斯所处的历史时代及其提出的各项任务，只是为马克思主义的产生提供了客观条件，这些客观条件不会自动地产生任何新的理论和学说。任何新的理论和学说，都必须批判地继承前人的思想成果，以前人的思想所达到的终点作为自己研究的起点。恩格斯指出：“每一个时代的哲学作为分工的一个特定的领域，都具有由它的先驱传给它而它便由此出发的特定的思想材料作为前提。” 哲学如此，政治经济学和科学社会主义学说也是如此。德国古典哲学、英国古典政治经济学和19 世纪初英法两国的空想社会主义学说，代表了到19 世纪上半叶为止的人类思想的最高成就，是马克思主义的直接理论来源。下面分别简要地考察马克思主义的这几个直接理论来源。

First, consider German classical philosophy. German classical philosophy refers to the philosophy of the German bourgeoisie from the second half of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century, during its formation, growth, and preparation for the bourgeois revolution, including the philosophies of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Feuerbach, and others. The highest achievements of German classical philosophy were Kant’s theory of the “three critiques,” Hegel’s dialectics, and Feuerbach’s materialism. Hegel’s most outstanding contribution was dialectics; he was the first philosopher in the history of philosophy to systematically and consciously expound the basic laws of dialectics—the law of the unity of opposites, the law of the transformation of quantity into quality, and the law of the negation of the negation—in an idealist form. As Marx said in the Afterword to the second edition of *Capital*, Volume I, Hegel was “the first to present its general form of working in a comprehensive and conscious manner.” [3]3 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume I, Afterword to the Second Edition (1873). Hegel applied dialectics to the study of human social history, describing it as a progressive process from the lower to the higher, holding that historical development possesses inevitability and is not subject to the will of any individual. As Engels affirmed when acknowledging Hegel’s contribution to the philosophy of history: “He was the first to try to demonstrate a development and an inner connection in history... although much in his philosophy of history now seems rather strange to us, the grandeur of his fundamental conception is still admirable today, even when compared with his predecessors and with those who after him dared to make general reflections on history.” [4]4 Friedrich Engels, *Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy* (1886), Part I. “This epoch-making conception of history was the direct theoretical premise of the new materialist world outlook.” [5]5 Ibid. But Hegel’s dialectics and conception of history were idealist, possessed a distinctly mystical character, and could not carry the developmental viewpoint through to the end. Marx and Engels absorbed the rational ideas of Hegel’s dialectics and conception of history, thoroughly criticized their idealism and mysticism, fundamentally transformed them, and created materialist dialectics and the materialist conception of history.

先看德国古典哲学。德国古典哲学指18 世纪下半期至19 世纪上半期德国资产阶级在其形成、壮大和准备资产阶级革命时期的哲学，包括康德、费希特、谢林、黑格尔、费尔巴哈等人的哲学。德国古典哲学的最高成就是康德的“三大批判”理论、黑格尔的辩证法和费尔巴哈的唯物主义。黑格尔最卓越的贡献是辩证法，他是哲学史上第一个以唯心主义的形式系统地、有意识地叙述辩证法的基本规律即对立统一规律、质量互变规律、否定之否定规律的哲学家。正如马克思在《资本论》第一卷第二版跋中所说，黑格尔“第一个全面地有意识地叙述了辩证法的一般运动形式”。黑格尔把辩证法用于研究人类社会历史，把人类社会历史描述为由低级到高级的前进过程，认为历史的发展具有必然性，不以任何个人的意志为转移。正如恩格斯在肯定黑格尔对历史哲学的贡献时所说：“他是第一个想证明历史中有一种发展、有一种内在联系的人，尽管他的历史哲学中的许多东西现在在我们看来十分古怪，如果把他的前辈，甚至把那些在他以后敢于对历史作总的思考的人同他相比，他的基本观点的宏伟，就是在今天也还值得钦佩。”“这个划时代的历史观是新的唯物主义世界观的直接的理论前提”。 但黑格尔的辩证法和历史观是唯心主义的，具有明显的神秘主义色彩，而且不能把发展的观点贯彻到底。马克思、恩格斯吸取了黑格尔辩证法和历史观的合理思想，彻底批判了它的唯心主义和神秘主义，对它进行了根本改造，创立了唯物辩证法和唯物史观。

Feuerbach was the last representative of German classical philosophy and the intermediate link between Hegelian philosophy and Marxist philosophy. Feuerbach’s great merit lay in his unequivocal critique of religious theology and idealism, restoring the authority of materialism. However, Feuerbach’s materialism, like all old materialism, had serious defects; it was mechanical and metaphysical materialism, and it remained idealist in its conception of history. Marx and Engels never fully endorsed or accepted Feuerbach’s philosophical ideas; they only absorbed the basic ideas of his materialism, while simultaneously discarding his abstract humanism and naturalism, and eliminating the metaphysical and idealist impurities from his theory.

费尔巴哈是德国古典哲学的最后一位代表，是黑格尔哲学和马克思主义哲学的中间环节。费尔巴哈的伟大功绩在于，他旗帜鲜明地批判了宗教神学和唯心主义，恢复了唯物主义的权威。但是费尔巴哈的唯物主义和一切旧唯物主义一样有着严重的缺陷，它是机械的、形而上学的唯物主义，在历史观上仍然是唯心主义。马克思、恩格斯从来没有完全赞同和接受费尔巴哈的哲学思想，只是汲取了他的唯物主义的基本思想，同时摒弃了他的抽象的人本主义和自然主义，清除了他的理论中的形而上学和唯心主义杂质。

Of course, in a broader sense, the theoretical sources of Marxist philosophy are not limited solely to German classical philosophy but also include many other philosophical achievements. Marx and Engels conducted in-depth research on ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, and therefore it cannot be excluded from the scope of the theoretical sources of Marxist philosophy. Marx and Engels also studied modern European philosophy, particularly British philosophy represented by Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and others, and the philosophy of the French Encyclopedists represented by La Mettrie, Helvétius, Diderot, Holbach, and others. Therefore, we cannot exclude modern British and French philosophy from the scope of the theoretical sources of Marxist philosophy.

当然，从更广泛的意义上看，马克思主义哲学的理论来源不仅仅限于德国古典哲学，还包括其他很多哲学成果。马克思、恩格斯对古希腊罗马哲学有深入的研究，因而不能把它排除在马克思主义哲学理论来源的范围之外。马克思、恩格斯对欧洲近代哲学，特别是以培根、霍布斯、洛克、贝克莱、休谟等为代表的英国哲学，以拉美特利、爱尔维修、狄德罗、霍尔巴赫等为代表的法国百科全书派的哲学，都作了研究。因此，我们也不能把近代英法哲学排除在马克思主义哲学理论来源的范围之外。

In addition, the rational ideas in the historical views of the French Restoration historians Guizot, Mignet, Thierry, Thiers, and others also played an important role in promoting the formation of historical materialism. In short, the theoretical sources of Marxist philosophy include the positive content of all European philosophy before Marxist philosophy, among which German classical philosophy is the direct theoretical source of Marxist philosophy, while the influence of other philosophies on the emergence of Marxist philosophy is relatively more indirect.

此外，法国复辟时代的历史学家基佐、米涅、梯叶里、梯也尔等人的历史观中的合理思想，对历史唯物主义的形成也起了重要的推动作用。总之，马克思主义哲学的理论来源，包括马克思主义哲学以前欧洲的全部哲学的积极内容，其中德国古典哲学是马克思主义哲学的直接理论来源，其他哲学对马克思主义哲学产生的影响相对说来较为间接。

Before the emergence of Marxist philosophy, there existed two separations: first, the separation of materialism and dialectics, where Hegel had dialectics but not materialism; second, the separation of the materialist view of nature and the materialist view of history, where Feuerbach was materialist in his view of nature but remained idealist in his view of history. Marx and Engels overcame the one-sidedness of these two separations and achieved two integrations, namely, integrating materialism with dialectics, and integrating the materialist view of nature with the materialist view of history. They thereby created a complete and thorough materialist philosophy encompassing both nature and human society, thus realizing a revolutionary transformation in the field of philosophy.

马克思主义哲学产生以前的哲学存在两个分离：一是唯物主义和辩证法相分离，黑格尔有辩证法但没有唯物主义；二是唯物主义自然观和唯物主义历史观相分离，费尔巴哈在自然观上是唯物主义的，但在历史观上仍然是唯心主义的。马克思、恩格斯克服了这两个分离的片面性，实现了两个结合，即把唯物主义和辩证法、唯物主义自然观和唯物主义历史观结合起来，创立了包括自然界和人类社会在内的完备而彻底的唯物主义哲学，从而在哲学领域实现了革命变革。

Next, consider British classical political economy. British classical political economy was an economic theory representing the interests of the rising bourgeoisie during the period when the capitalist mode of production had been established but the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie had not yet developed. It emerged in the latter half of the 17th century, during the English bourgeois revolution, and was completed in the early 19th century after the British Industrial Revolution. Its founder was William Petty; it was developed through Adam Smith and concluded with David Ricardo. Classical political economy was an important theoretical weapon for the rising bourgeoisie in its struggle against backward feudalism and played a role in promoting the establishment and consolidation of the capitalist mode of production. As Marx said: "The classical economists, like Adam Smith and Ricardo, represent a bourgeoisie which is still struggling against the relics of feudal society, trying to purge economic relations of feudal filth, to increase productive forces, and to give new development to industry and commerce." [6]6 Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus-Value," in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 31 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1989), p. 554. Classical political economists put forward many valuable economic theories. However, due to the limitations of their era and class, classical political economy also had serious defects and errors, such as the view that the capitalist system was a natural and eternal system conforming to human nature, the idealist and metaphysical view that capitalist economic laws were natural laws, and the contradictions and confusion in the theory of value. Marx and Engels critically inherited the research achievements of classical political economy, collected and studied a large amount of historical data on the emergence and development of capitalism, analyzed in detail the economic structure of capitalism and its inherent contradictions, and revealed the essence of the capitalist mode of production and the laws of its emergence, development, and demise. Most importantly, they rigorously demonstrated the labor theory of value and, on this basis, founded the theory of surplus value, bringing about a revolutionary transformation in political economy.

再看英国古典政治经济学。英国古典政治经济学是资产阶级生产方式已经建立而无产阶级和资产阶级之间的斗争尚未发展时期的代表新兴资产阶级利益的经济理论。它产生于17 世纪后半期即英国资产阶级革命时期，完成于英国工业革命后的19 世纪初，创始人是威廉·配第，中间经过亚当·斯密的发展，到大卫·李嘉图结束。古典政治经济学是新兴资产阶级对落后的封建主义作斗争的重要理论武器，对于资本主义生产方式的确立和巩固起了促进作用。正如马克思所说：“古典派如亚当·斯密和李嘉图，他们代表着一个还在同封建社会的残余进行斗争、力图清洗经济关系上的封建污垢、提高生产力、使工商业获得新的发展的资产阶级。” 古典政治经济学家提出很多有价值的经济理论，但由于时代和阶级的局限，古典政治经济学也存在严重缺陷和错误，如关于把资本主义制度看成符合人性的、永恒不变的制度的观点，把资本主义经济规律看成自然规律的唯心主义和形而上学观点，以及价值理论中的矛盾和混乱等。马克思、恩格斯批判地继承了古典政治经济学的研究成果，收集和研究了关于资本主义产生和发展的大量历史资料，详细地分析了资本主义的经济结构及其固有矛盾，揭示了资本主义生产方式的本质和它产生、发展、灭亡的规律。最主要的是严密论证了劳动价值论，并在此基础上创立了剩余价值学说，使政治经济学发生了革命变革。

Finally, consider the utopian socialist doctrines of England and France. Since the utopian socialist Thomas More published *Utopia* in 1516, world socialism has had a history of over 500 years. The utopian socialism of England and France refers specifically to the doctrines of the three great utopian socialists of the first half of the 19th century, represented by Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen. German classical philosophy and British classical political economy, in terms of their class attributes and social functions, both represented the interests of the bourgeoisie and served to maintain the capitalist system. In contrast, the utopian socialist doctrines not only failed to praise and uphold the capitalist system but subjected it to sharp satire and relentless attack, and they put forward visions of a future society to replace capitalism. Saint-Simon called his envisioned future society the "industrial system," where people would use existing knowledge in science, art, and technology to meet human needs. Fourier called his envisioned future society the "harmonious system," under which people would live in harmony and the passions of all members of society would be fully satisfied. Owen's vision was more radical: while Saint-Simon's "industrial system" and Fourier's "harmonious system" still preserved private property, Owen sought to establish a union of communist labor communes based on public ownership, and also to abolish the state. The utopian socialists' visions of future society contained some rational elements, such as views on eliminating the old division of labor, eliminating the distinctions between town and country, between industry and agriculture, and between mental and manual labor, on the early combination of education with productive labor, on the transformation of social power from the rule of persons to the administration of things and the direction of the production process, and on the withering away of the state. These all provided valuable intellectual material for scientifically understanding future socialist and communist societies. Due to the limitations of their era, the theories of the three great utopian socialists also had many defects. For example, their views on reason governing the world, on geniuses creating history, and on denying class struggle and opposing violent revolution all belonged to an idealist conception of history. Their overly detailed descriptions of future society and their planning of social minutiae were highly utopian in nature. They failed to recognize the revolutionary power and historical mission of the proletariat and could not identify the social force to realize the future society. Marx and Engels, on the basis of historical materialism and the theory of surplus value, deeply studied the inherent contradictions and developmental trends of the capitalist system, summed up the practical experience of the working class's struggle, critically absorbed the positive achievements of utopian socialist doctrines, and made scientific predictions and conceptions of the basic features of future socialist and communist societies. They thereby founded the theory of scientific socialism, pointing the direction and path for the liberation of the working class and all humanity, and realizing a revolutionary transformation in socialist theory.

最后看英法两国的空想社会主义学说。自从空想社会主义者托马斯·莫尔在1516年发表《 乌托邦》这部著作以来，世界社会主义已经有500 年的历史。英法两国的空想社会主义指19 世纪上半叶以圣西门、傅立叶、欧文为代表的三大空想社会主义者的学说。德国古典哲学和英国古典政治经济学从阶级属性和社会功能上说，都是代表资产阶级利益和为了维护资本主义制度的，而空想社会主义学说不仅不是颂扬和维护资本主义制度的，而且对它进行了尖刻的讽刺和无情的抨击，提出了对代替资本主义社会的未来社会的设想。圣西门把设想的未来社会称为“实业制度”，人们运用科学、艺术和工艺的现有知识来满足人们的需要；傅立叶把设想的未来社会称为“和谐制度”，在这个制度下，人们和睦相处，全体社会成员的情欲都得到了充分的满足；欧文的设想更为激进，在圣西门和傅立叶的“实业制度”与“和谐制度”中，仍然保存着私有制，而欧文所要建立的则是一种以公有制为基础的共产主义劳动公社的联合体，并且废除了国家。空想社会主义者对未来社会的设想包含着一些合理因素，如关于消灭旧式分工，关于消灭城乡、工农、脑力劳动和体力劳动的差别，关于教育与生产劳动早期结合，关于社会权力由对人的统治变为对物的管理和对生产过程的领导，关于国家消亡等观点，都为科学地认识未来的社会主义社会和共产主义社会提供了宝贵的思想资料。三大空想社会主义者的理论，由于时代局限，也存在不少缺陷，如他们关于理性支配世界的观点，关于天才人物创造历史的观点，关于否认阶级斗争、反对暴力革命的观点，都属于唯心主义历史观；他们对未来社会的过于详细的描绘和对社会细节的规划，带有很大的空想性质；他们认识不到无产阶级的革命力量和历史使命，找不到实现未来社会的社会力量；等等。马克思、恩格斯以唯物史观和剩余价值学说为基础，深入研究资本主义制度的内在矛盾和发展趋势，总结工人阶级斗争的实践经验，批判地吸收了空想社会主义学说的积极成果，对未来社会主义社会和共产主义社会的基本特征作了科学的预测和设想，创立了科学社会主义理论，为工人阶级和全人类的解放指明了方向和道路，实现了社会主义理论的革命变革。

Above, we have separately discussed the influence of German classical philosophy on the emergence of Marxist philosophy, the influence of British classical political economy on the emergence of Marxist political economy, and the influence of the three great utopian socialist doctrines of England and France on the emergence of scientific socialism. It needs to be explained that, because the three direct theoretical sources of Marxism are products of the same historical era and are not isolated from or unrelated to each other, but are interconnected, interpenetrating, and mutually inclusive, their influence on the emergence of Marxism did not occur in isolation or separately, but comprehensively and interwovenly. Specifically, the emergence of Marxist philosophy not only inherited the positive achievements of German classical philosophy but was also inseparable from the influence of British classical political economy and the three great utopian socialist doctrines. Similarly, Marxist political economy not only originated from British classical political economy; the dialectics of German classical philosophy provided methodological inspiration for the emergence of Marxist political economy, while the transformation of the three great utopian socialist doctrines set the goals and direction for the study of Marxist political economy. As for the theory of scientific socialism, it did not originate solely from the doctrines of the three great utopian socialists. The reason Marx and Engels were able to transform socialism from utopia into science was inseparable from their critical transformation of German classical philosophy and British classical political economy. Thus, it can be seen that, from the perspective of the influence of Marxism's various theoretical sources on its emergence, Marxism is also a unified, complete system with internal connections, composed of Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism.

以上我们分别叙述了德国古典哲学对马克思主义哲学产生的影响，英国古典政治经济学对马克思主义政治经济学产生的影响，英法两国的三大空想社会主义学说对科学社会主义产生的影响。需要说明的是，因为马克思主义的三个直接理论来源，是同一历史时代的产物，它们之间不是彼此孤立、互不相干的，而是相互联系、相互渗透、相互包含的，所以它们对马克思主义产生的影响也不是各自孤立地、单独地发生的，而是综合地、相互交织地发生的。具体说来，马克思主义哲学的产生不仅继承了德国古典哲学的积极成果，而且也与英国古典政治经济学和三大空想社会主义学说的影响密不可分。同样，马克思主义政治经济学不仅来源于英国古典政治经济学，德国古典哲学的辩证法对马克思主义政治经济学的产生提供了方法论的启发，而对三大空想社会主义学说的改造则为马克思主义政治经济学的研究规定了目标和方向。至于科学社会主义理论，也不仅仅来源于三大空想社会主义者的学说，马克思、恩格斯之所以能把社会主义从空想变成科学，是同他们批判地改造德国古典哲学和英国古典政治经济学分不开的。由此可见，从马克思主义的各种理论来源对马克思主义产生的影响来看，也说明马克思主义是由马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说构成的一个有内在联系的统一的完整体系。

Apart from the three direct theoretical sources mentioned above, the emergence of Marxism was also closely related to the great advances in natural science at the time. Along with the establishment and development of the capitalist mode of production, modern natural science, liberated from the shackles of medieval theology, flourished vigorously. From the second half of the 18th century onward, especially entering the 19th century, modern natural science developed from being primarily a "science that collects materials," that is, "a science of finished things," into a "science that organizes materials," that is, "a science of processes, of the origin and development of these things, and of the connections that bind these natural processes into a great whole." [7]7 This quotation is from Friedrich Engels, *Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy*. In this process, some emerging disciplines, such as geology, embryology, animal and plant physiology, and organic chemistry, were successively established. In particular, the three great discoveries of natural science—cell theory, the law of conservation and transformation of energy, and the theory of biological evolution—had an especially immense impact on the emergence of Marxism. Plants and animals are all results of cells developing and growing according to definite laws, thereby elucidating the intrinsic unity of living organisms and dealing a heavy blow to the theological view of "divine creation" and the metaphysical notion of the immutability of species regarding the origin of life. The law of conservation and transformation of energy revealed that the various forms of energy at work in nature, such as mechanical energy, thermal energy, light energy, electromagnetic energy, and chemical energy, are all different manifestations of the motion of matter, which transform into one another according to definite quantitative relations, with the total energy being conserved during the transformation process. This proved that the motion of matter is objective, can neither be created nor destroyed, and can only be transformed from one form into another, and that the various forms of motion of matter possess an intrinsic unity. The theory of biological evolution revealed that the myriad forms of living things existing today, including humans, all evolved from primitive single-cell embryos according to the rules of "struggle for existence," "natural selection," and "survival of the fittest," thereby introducing the concept of change and development into the biological world. This shows that the development of natural science laid the theoretical foundation for the formation of the Marxist philosophical worldview. Natural science is productive forces in the form of knowledge; it transforms into material productive forces, promotes the development of material productive forces, serves as the scientific prerequisite for the industrial revolution, and plays a driving role in the transition from manufacture to large-scale machine industry. The development of natural science also directly or indirectly played a role in changing the social structure of capitalist society, altering relations of production, and promoting the growth, development, and ideological awakening of the proletariat. From this, it can be seen that the development of natural science not only laid the scientific foundation for the formation of Marxist philosophy but also provided the scientific prerequisite for the formation of Marxist political economy and the theory of scientific socialism, and provided the scientific basis for integrating the various components of Marxism into an internally connected unified whole. This also illustrates, to a certain extent, the holistic nature of Marxism.

除去上述三个直接理论来源外，马克思主义的产生也与当时自然科学的巨大进步密切相关。伴随着资本主义生产方式的确立和发展，从中世纪神学的束缚下解放出来的近代自然科学也蓬勃发展起来。从18 世纪下半叶开始特别是进入19 世纪，近代自然科学由主要是“搜集材料的科学”，即“关于既成事物的科学”，发展为“整理材料的科学”，即“关于过程、关于这些事物的发生和发展以及关于联系——把这些自然过程结合为一个大的整体——的科学”。 在这一过程中，一些新兴学科，如地质学、胚胎学、动植物生理学、有机化学等陆续建立起来。特别是细胞学说、能量守恒和转化定律与生物进化论这自然科学的三大发现，对马克思主义产生的影响尤为巨大。植物和动物都是细胞按照一定的规律发育和生长的结果，从而阐明了生命有机体的内在统一性，沉重地打击了生命起源问题上“上帝创造论”的神学观点和物种不变的形而上学观念。能量守恒和转化定律揭示出自然界中起作用的各种能，如机械能、热能、光能、电磁能、化学能等，都是物质运动的各种表现形式，它们之间按照一定的度量关系互相转化，而转化过程中总的能量是守恒的。这就证明，物质的运动是客观的，既不能创造也不能消灭，而只能由一种形式转化为另一种形式，各种物质运动形式具有内在统一性。生物进化论揭示出，今天存在的千姿百态的生物，包括人类在内，都是由原始单细胞胚胎按照“生存竞争”、“物竞天择”、“适者生存”的规则生长进化而来的，从而把变化发展的观念引入生物界。这说明，自然科学的发展为马克思主义哲学世界观的形成奠定了理论基础。自然科学是知识形态的生产力，它转化为物质生产力，推动物质生产力的发展，是产业革命的科学前提，为从工场手工业转变为机器大工业起了推动作用；自然科学的发展对资本主义社会社会结构的改变，生产关系的变化，无产阶级的发展壮大和思想觉悟的提高，也直接或间接地起了作用。由此可以看出，自然科学的发展不仅为马克思主义哲学的形成奠定了科学基础，也为马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说的形成提供了科学前提，为把马克思主义的各个组成部分结合成为一个有内在联系的统一整体提供了科学依据，这也从一定程度上说明了马克思主义的整体性。

III. The Holistic Nature of Marxism Viewed from the Content of the Marxist Theoretical System

三、从马克思主义理论体系的内容看马克思主义的整体性

Within the entire Marxist theoretical system, philosophy is the guiding principle of worldview and methodology; political economy is the analysis of the capitalist mode of production guided by the philosophical worldview and methodology; and scientific socialism is the conclusion drawn from applying philosophy to analyze economic facts. These three are mutually penetrating and complementary, constituting a unified and complete Marxist scientific theoretical system.

在整个马克思主义理论体系中，哲学是世界观和方法论的指导原则，政治经济学是以哲学世界观和方法论为指导对资本主义生产方式的剖析，科学社会主义则是运用哲学分析经济事实得出的结论。这三者之间相互渗透、相互补充，构成统一的完整的马克思主义科学理论体系。

First, from the perspective of the relationship between Marxist philosophy and Marxist political economy. Marxist political economy, under the guidance of dialectical materialism and by applying the basic principles of historical materialism to analyze the capitalist mode of production, was able to overcome the defects of classical British economics and achieve a revolutionary transformation in political economy. Marxist political economy is permeated throughout with the brilliance of dialectical materialism and historical materialism. For example, in Chapter 24 of Volume I of *Capital*, “The So-Called Primitive Accumulation,” when summarizing the historical process in which capitalist private property negates private property based on one’s own labor, and capitalist private property is in turn negated by social property, Marx closely integrates this process with the law of the negation of the negation in dialectical materialism, using the law of the negation of the negation as a guide to explain the entire process of primitive accumulation of capital. At the same time, the creation of Marxist political economy enriched and developed the basic concepts and basic principles of dialectical materialism, theoretically demonstrated the scientific nature of historical materialism, and provided historical materialism with extremely rich content. In his works on political economy, Marx applied the theory of time and space to analyze the development process of the capitalist economy and the essence of capitalist exploitation, applying the concepts of natural time and space commonly discussed in philosophy to the analysis of socio-economic issues, thereby endowing the concepts of time and space with social-historical character, greatly enriching the Marxist philosophical theory of time and space and their interrelationship. On the one hand, he sharply criticized the narrowness of workers’ activity space caused by the irrationality of the distribution of time under the capitalist system. During Marx’s lifetime, workers had long working hours, high labor intensity, and poor working conditions. Apart from time for eating and sleeping, they labored almost entirely beside machines in factory workshops, which greatly reduced their activity space, while simultaneously creating more wealth and free time for the capitalists. Regarding this situation, Marx indignantly pointed out: “Time is the space for human development. A man who has no free time to dispose of, apart from the purely physiological interruptions of sleep, meals, etc., and who is at the service of the capitalist for his entire life, is worse than a beast of burden.” [8]8 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Vol. I, Chapter 24, Section 4. On the other hand, only by abolishing the capitalist system can society rationally distribute labor time and time for people to engage in other social activities, so that everyone can have broad space to engage in activities beneficial to physical and mental health and to develop their own talents. Marx pointed out: After the abolition of the capitalist system, all people will have “‘disposable free time,’ that is, true wealth, time that is not absorbed by direct productive labor but is used for entertainment and rest, thereby opening up broad horizons for free activity and development. Time is the broad horizon for developing talents, etc.” [9]9 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*. “Time is actually the active existence of man. It is not only the measure of human life, but also the space for human development.” [10]10 Karl Marx, *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844*. Secondly, from the perspective of the relationship between Marxist philosophy and scientific socialism, the emergence of scientific socialism is inseparable from the guidance of Marxist philosophy. Engels provided a profound argument on this issue in the preface to the 1882 German first edition of *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*. He pointed out: “Scientific socialism is essentially a German product and could only arise in a country where classical philosophy still preserved a living tradition of conscious dialectics, that is, in Germany. The materialist conception of history and its particular application to the class struggle between the modern proletariat and the bourgeoisie were only possible with the help of dialectics. The German bourgeois pedants have drowned the memory of the great German philosophers and the dialectics they created in a swamp of boring eclecticism, to the extent that we are even forced to invoke modern natural science to prove that dialectics is confirmed in reality, while we German socialists are proud that we have inherited not only Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen, but also Kant, Fichte, and Hegel.” [11]11 Friedrich Engels, Preface to the 1882 German First Edition of *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*. In the works of the Marxist classics that primarily discuss scientific socialism, many basic principles of Marxist philosophy are discussed. For example, in the *Communist Manifesto* co-authored by Marx and Engels, many basic principles of historical materialism are discussed, such as productive forces determining relations of production, the economic base determining the superstructure, and social being determining social consciousness; in Marx’s article “The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850” and Lenin’s book *The State and Revolution*, many basic principles of dialectical materialism and historical materialism are discussed. Many basic concepts and basic principles of Marxist philosophy were not proposed and discussed in specialized philosophical works by the Marxist classics, but rather in their comprehensive works that discuss both Marxist philosophy and Marxist political economy and the theory of scientific socialism.

首先，从马克思主义哲学和政治经济学的关系来看。马克思主义政治经济学是在唯物辩证法的指导下，运用历史唯物主义的基本原理，分析资本主义的生产方式，才得以克服英国古典经济学的缺陷，在政治经济学上实现革命变革的。马克思主义的政治经济学中处处闪烁着唯物辩证法和历史唯物主义的光辉。例如，马克思在《资本论》第一卷第二十四章“所谓原始积累”中，在总结资本主义私有制否定以自己劳动为基础的私有制、资本主义私有制又被社会所有制所否定的历史过程时，把这个过程与唯物辩证法的否定之否定规律紧密结合起来，以否定之否定规律为指导，说明资本的原始积累的全过程。同时，马克思主义政治经济学的创立，又丰富和发展了唯物辩证法的基本概念和基本原理，从理论上论证了历史唯物主义的科学性，为历史唯物主义充实了极其丰富的内容。马克思在其政治经济学著作中，把时间与空间理论用于分析资本主义经济的发展过程和资本主义剥削的实质，把哲学上通常所讲的自然时空概念用于分析社会经济问题，使时间和空间概念带有了社会历史性，极大地丰富了马克思主义哲学关于时间和空间及其相互关系的理论。一方面，他强烈地批判了资本主义制度在时间分配上的不合理性所导致的工人活动空间的狭小。马克思在世时，工人的劳动时间长，劳动强度大，劳动条件差，除去吃饭、睡眠的时间，几乎都在工厂车间的机器旁边劳动，大大缩小了他们的活动空间，同时却为资本家创造了更多的财富和自由支配的时间。对这种情况，马克思激愤地指出：“时间是人类发展的空间。一个人如果没有自己处置的自由时间，一生中除睡眠饮食等纯生理上必需的间断以外，都是替资本家服务，那么，他就还不如一头役畜。” 另一方面，只有消灭资本主义制度，社会才能合理地分配劳动时间和人们从事其他社会活动的时间，每个人才能有广阔的空间去从事有益于身心健康的发展自己才能的活动。马克思指出：在资本主义制度消灭以后，所有的人都会有“‘可以自由支配的时间’，也就是有真正的财富，这种时间不被直接生产劳动所吸收，而是用于娱乐和休息，从而为自由活动和发展开辟广阔天地。时间是发展才能等等的广阔天地。”“时间实际上是人的积极存在，它不仅是人的生命的尺度，而且是人的发展的空间。”其次，从马克思主义哲学和科学社会主义的关系来看，科学社会主义的产生离不开马克思主义哲学的指导。恩格斯在《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》1882 年德文第一版序言中对这个问题作了深刻的论证。他指出：“科学社会主义本质上就是德国的产物，而且也只能产生在古典哲学还生气勃勃地保存着自觉的辩证法传统的国家，即在德国。唯物主义历史观及其在现代的无产阶级和资产阶级之间的阶级斗争上的特别应用，只有借助于辩证法才有可能。德国资产阶级的学究们已经把关于德国伟大的哲学家及其创立的辩证法的记忆淹没在一种无聊的折衷主义的泥沼里，这甚至使我们不得不援引现代自然科学来证明辩证法在现实中已得到证实，而我们德国社会主义者却以我们不仅继承了圣西门、傅立叶和欧文，而且继承了康德、费希特和黑格尔而感到骄傲。” 在马克思主义经典作家主要论述科学社会主义的著作中，论述了许多马克思主义哲学基本原理。例如，在马克思、恩格斯合写的《共产党宣言》中，论述了许多生产力决定生产关系、经济基础决定上层建筑、社会存在决定社会意识的历史唯物主义的基本原理；在马克思写的《1848 年至1850 年的法兰西阶级斗争》一文和列宁写的《国家与革命》一书中，论述了许多唯物辩证法和历史唯物主义的基本原理。马克思主义哲学的许多基本概念和基本原理，大都不是在马克思主义经典作家专门的哲学著作中提出和论述的，而是在他们既论述马克思主义哲学也论述马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义理论的综合性著作中提出和论述的。

Thirdly, from the perspective of the relationship between political economy and scientific socialism, Marxist political economy, through its scientific analysis of the capitalist mode of production, created the theory of surplus value, revealed the basic contradictions and laws of development of capitalism, demonstrated the historical inevitability of the demise of capitalism and the victory of socialism, enumerated many subjective and objective conditions created by capitalism for the realization of socialism, pointed out both the various defects of the capitalist system and affirmed the great civilizing role of capital, explained the class position and historical mission of the proletariat, made scientific predictions and assumptions about the basic features of the future socialist society and communist society, proposed a series of basic principles for building socialism, and pointed out the path and direction for the proletariat to overthrow capitalism and build socialism. Without a scientific understanding of the laws of capitalist economic development, the theory of scientific socialism could not have emerged. Therefore, Engels said in *Anti-Dühring*: It was due to these two great discoveries—the materialist conception of history and the revelation of the secret of capitalist production through the theory of surplus value—that socialism was transformed from a utopia into a science. [12]12 Friedrich Engels, *Anti-Dühring*, Part III, “Socialism,” Chapter 1.

再次，从政治经济学与科学社会主义的关系来看，马克思主义政治经济学通过对资本主义生产方式的科学分析，创立了剩余价值理论，揭示了资本主义的基本矛盾和发展规律，论证了资本主义灭亡、社会主义胜利的历史必然性，列举了许多资本主义为社会主义的实现创造的各种主客观条件，既指出了资本主义制度的种种弊端又肯定了资本的伟大文明作用，说明了无产阶级的阶级地位和历史使命，对未来社会主义社会和共产主义社会的基本特征作了科学的预测和设想，提出了一系列建设社会主义的基本原则，为无产阶级指明了推翻资本主义、建设社会主义的道路和方向。没有对资本主义经济发展规律的科学认识，不可能产生科学社会主义学说。所以恩格斯在《反杜林论》中说：由于唯物主义历史观和通过剩余价值学说揭开资本主义生产的秘密这两大发现，使社会主义由空想变成科学。

Finally, there are many basic concepts and basic principles of Marxism that are common to the three main component parts, such as: productive forces, relations of production, mode of production, science and technology as a productive force, the law that relations of production must conform to the nature of the productive forces; economic base, superstructure, the law that the superstructure must conform to the requirements of the development of the economic base; class, state, revolution, reform, the role of class struggle in social development; the role of revolution and reform in social development; society, social structure, social formation, the division and succession of social formations, the development of social formations as a natural historical process; capitalism, socialism, communism; the transitional period from capitalism to socialism and its basic features, the basic features of socialist society, the basic features of communist society; the growth of socialism into communism on the basis of its own development; human freedom, human emancipation, the all-round development of the human person, the association of free individuals, the leap from the realm of necessity to the realm of freedom, and so on. These basic concepts and basic principles must all be discussed by Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism, only from different perspectives. If Marxism is treated as an integrated whole, these basic concepts and basic principles should be discussed from the synthesis of Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. This would certainly be far more profound and comprehensive than discussing these basic concepts and basic principles solely from the perspective of Marxist philosophy, or Marxist political economy, or the theory of scientific socialism.

最后，有许多马克思主义的基本概念和基本原理是马克思主义三个主要组成部分所共有的，如生产力、生产关系、生产方式、科学技术是生产力、生产关系必须适合生产力性质的规律；经济基础、上层建筑、上层建筑必须适合经济基础发展要求的规律；阶级、国家、革命、改革、阶级斗争在社会发展中的作用；革命和改革在社会发展中的作用；社会、社会结构、社会形态、社会形态的划分和更替、社会形态的发展是自然历史过程；资本主义、社会主义、共产主义；从资本主义到社会主义的过渡时期及其基本特征、社会主义社会的基本特征、共产主义社会的基本特征；社会主义在自身发展的基础上成长为共产主义；人的自由、人的解放、人的全面发展、自由人联合体、从必然王国向自由王国的飞跃等等。这些基本概念和基本原理，马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说都要加以论述，只是论述的角度有所不同而已。如果把马克思主义作为一个整体来对待，就应该从马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说的综合上论述这些基本概念和基本原理，这肯定会比单独从马克思主义哲学或马克思主义政治经济学、科学社会主义学说上论述这些基本概念和基本原理，要深刻得多，全面得多。

IV. Viewing the Integrity of Marxism from the Historical Process of Its Development

四、从马克思主义发展的历史过程看马克思主义的整体性

Marxism emerged in the mid-1840s and has a history of 170 years to date. Since its emergence, in the process of responding to the various major theoretical questions raised by practice in each historical period, it has continuously enriched, enriched and developed itself, forming a vigorous and constantly innovating intellectual torrent, radiating a universal and enduring vitality. A history of the development of Marxism is a history of Marxism’s continuous innovation and development in keeping with the times. It can be said without exaggeration that no intellectual history to date has possessed the enduring vitality and inexhaustible source and driving force of development that the history of Marxist thought has.

马克思主义产生于19 世纪40 年代中期，至今已有170 年的历史。马克思主义产生以来，在回答各个历史时期的实践提出的各种重大的理论问题的过程中，不断充实、丰富和发展自己，形成了一个生机勃勃、不断创新的思想洪流，焕发出普遍而持久的生命力。一部马克思主义发展史，就是马克思主义不断创新、不断发展的与时俱进的历史。可以毫不夸张地说，迄今为止，还没有一部思想史像马克思主义思想史这样具有恒久的生命力和永不衰竭的发展源泉和动力。

Marx and Engels were not only the founders of Marxism but also its developers. Marx’s “Theses on Feuerbach,” written in the spring of 1845, and “The German Ideology,” co-authored by Marx and Engels in 1845–1846, are works marking the basic formation of Marxism; Marx’s “The Poverty of Philosophy,” published in July 1847, and the “Communist Manifesto,” co-authored by Marx and Engels and published in February 1848, mark the public advent of Marxism. Shortly after its birth, Marxism underwent the baptism of the 1848 European revolutions and later the test of the practice of the 1871 Paris Commune, achieving further development. In this process, through summarizing practical experience, theoretical research, and struggle against anti-Marxist viewpoints, Marx and Engels continuously advanced the theory they had founded. At the time Marxism first emerged, the task of Marx’s and Engels’ critique of political economy had not yet been completed; subsequently, after decades of dedicated research, Marx completed the magnum opus “Capital,” enriching and developing Marxism in many aspects. In the 1870s and 1880s, Engels systematically studied philosophical questions in nature and the natural sciences, writing the manuscript of “Dialectics of Nature,” opening up a new field of the Marxist view of nature. Works written by Engels after the mid-1870s, such as “Anti-Dühring” and “Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy,” comprehensively and systematically expounded the various components of Marxism. The writings of Marx and Engels in their later years on the path of social development in Russia greatly enriched and developed Marxism. Marx’s late writings, “Ethnological Notebooks” and “Historical Notebooks,” and Engels’ book “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” written based on these notebooks and other new materials on ancient history, examined various pre-capitalist social formations and comprehensively discussed the entire process and laws of development of human history. A series of letters by Engels in the 1880s and 1890s, as well as the “Prefaces” and “Introductions” he wrote for earlier works by Marx and Engels, deepened and developed Marxism in many aspects. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, some European Marxists—Mehring, Kautsky, Rosa Luxemburg, Lafargue, Labriola, Plekhanov, and others—also contributed to the development of Marxism to varying degrees.

马克思、恩格斯不仅是马克思主义的创立者，而且是马克思主义的发展者。马克思于1845 年春天写作的《关于费尔巴哈的提纲》和马克思、恩格斯于1845-1846 年合写的《德意志意识形态》，是标志马克思主义基本形成的著作；马克思1847 年7 月发表的《哲学的贫困》和马克思、恩格斯合写的于1848 年2 月发表的《共产党宣言》，标志着马克思主义的公开问世。马克思主义诞生不久，就接受了1848 年欧洲革命的洗礼，后来又接受了1871 年巴黎公社实践的检验，得到了进一步的发展。在这一过程中，马克思、恩格斯通过总结实践经验、理论研究以及同反马克思主义观点的斗争，不断把自己创立的理论推向前进。在马克思主义刚刚问世时，马克思、恩格斯政治经济学批判的任务尚未完成，此后又经过几十年的潜心研究，马克思写成了鸿篇巨制《资本论》，从多方面丰富和发展了马克思主义。19 世纪七八十年代，恩格斯系统地研究了自然界和自然科学中的哲学问题，写成了《自然辩证法》手稿，开辟了马克思主义自然观的新领域。 恩格斯在 19 世纪 70 年代中期以后写成的《 反杜林论》与《路德维希·费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》等著作，全面系统地阐述了马克思主义的各个组成部分。马克思、恩格斯晚年关于俄国社会发展道路的论著，极大地丰富和发展了马克思主义。马克思晚年写的《古代社会史笔记》、《历史学笔记》和恩格斯根据这些笔记以及关于上古史的其他新材料写作的《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》一书，考察了前资本主义的各个社会形态，全面地论述了整个人类历史的发展过程和发展规律。恩格斯在19 世纪八九十年代的一系列书信和为马克思、恩格斯以前的著作写的“序言”和“导言”，从多方面加深和发展了马克思主义。在19 世纪、20 世纪之交，欧洲的一些马克思主义者梅林、考茨基、罗莎· 卢森堡、拉法格、拉布里奥拉、普列汉诺夫等，也在不同程度上对马克思主义的发展作出了贡献。

After the deaths of Marx and Engels, Lenin, under the conditions of the era of imperialism and the proletarian revolution, in the practice of leading the Russian proletarian revolution and socialist transformation and construction, and in the struggle against the opportunism of the Second International, inherited, defended, and developed Marxism, advancing it to a new stage, namely the stage of Leninism. In works such as “Materialism and Empirio-Criticism” and “Philosophical Notebooks,” Lenin defended and developed Marxist philosophy; in works such as “The Development of Capitalism in Russia” and “Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism,” he defended and developed Marxist political economy; in works such as “The State and Revolution,” “On ‘Left-Wing’ Childishness and Petty-Bourgeois Mentality,” “On Our Revolution,” and “On Cooperation,” he defended and developed the theory of scientific socialism. Particularly worth mentioning are Lenin’s two essays, “On the Slogan for a United States of Europe” (1915) and “The Military Program of the Proletarian Revolution” (1916), which put forward the idea that, under specific historical conditions, socialist revolution might first achieve victory in one or several countries; on the eve of the October Revolution and after its victory, he repeatedly discussed ideas about backward countries transitioning to socialism through the form of state capitalism, and ideas about the “New Economic Policy,” etc. These ideas have very significant guiding significance for the socialist revolution and socialist construction of backward countries.

马克思、恩格斯逝世以后，列宁在帝国主义和无产阶级革命时代的条件下，在领导俄国无产阶级革命和社会主义改造与社会主义建设的实践中，在同第二国际机会主义的斗争中，继承、捍卫、发展了马克思主义，把马克思主义推进到一个新的阶段，即列宁主义阶段。列宁在《唯物主义和经验批判主义》、《哲学笔记》等著作中，捍卫和发展了马克思主义哲学；在《俄国资本主义的发展》、《帝国主义是资本主义的最高阶段》等著作中，捍卫和发展了马克思主义的政治经济学；在《国家与革命》、《论“左派”幼稚性和小资产阶级性》、《论我国革命》、《论合作社》等著作中，捍卫和发展了科学社会主义理论。特别值得提及的是，列宁在1915 年写的《论欧洲联邦口号》和1916 年写的《无产阶级革命的军事纲领》两篇论文，提出了在特定的历史条件下，社会主义革命有可能在一国或几国首先取得胜利的思想；在十月革命前夕和十月革命胜利以后，多次谈到落后的国家通过国家资本主义形式向社会主义过渡的思想，关于“新经济政策”的思想等，这些思想对落后国家的社会主义革命和社会主义建设具有非常重大的指导意义。

Marxism was introduced into China at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the process of guiding the Chinese revolution and construction, it gradually formed a sinicized Marxism, that is, a Marxism with Chinese characteristics, Chinese style, and Chinese manner. A history of the development of Marxism in China is a history of the integration of the basic principles of Marxism with China’s concrete reality. During the period of the New Democratic Revolution, the Chinese Communists represented by Mao Zedong, through repeated exploration and on the basis of both successful experiences and lessons from failures, found a revolutionary path suited to China’s reality, creatively developed Marxism, and formed Mao Zedong Thought. After the founding of New China, the leading collective represented by Mao Zedong conducted multifaceted explorations of the path of China’s socialist transformation and socialist construction, achieving original theoretical results and tremendous accomplishments, providing valuable experience, theoretical preparation, and material foundation for initiating socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new historical period. Since reform and opening up, our Party has blazed the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, established the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and formed the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. This theoretical system is a scientific theoretical system that includes major strategic thoughts such as Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of Three Represents, and the Scientific Outlook on Development. This theoretical system upholds and develops Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, embodies the wisdom and effort of several generations of Chinese Communists leading the people in unremitting exploration and practice, is the latest achievement in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context, is the Party’s most precious political and spiritual asset, and is the common ideological foundation for the united struggle of the people of all ethnic groups across the country. In contemporary China, upholding the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is truly upholding Marxism. Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, Comrade Xi Jinping has delivered a series of important speeches, profoundly answering a series of major theoretical and practical questions concerning the development of the Party and the state under the new circumstances, and putting forward many innovative new concepts, new ideas, and new strategies. The speeches cover all aspects of reform, development, and stability; internal affairs, foreign affairs, and national defense; and governance of the Party, the state, and the military. They are the action guide for our Party’s governance under the new historical conditions, the latest theoretical achievement in upholding and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, and a powerful ideological weapon for us to win new victories for socialism with Chinese characteristics and realize the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

马克思主义在19 世纪末20 世纪初传入中国，在指导中国革命和建设的过程中，逐步形成了中国化的马克思主义，即具有中国特点、中国风格和中国气派的马克思主义。一部中国的马克思主义发展史，就是一部马克思主义的基本原理和中国的具体实际相结合的历史。在新民主主义革命时期，以毛泽东为代表的中国共产党人经过反复探索，在成功经验和失败教训的基础上，找到了符合中国实际的革命道路，创造性地发展了马克思主义，形成了毛泽东思想。新中国建立以后，以毛泽东为代表的领导集体，又对中国社会主义改造和社会主义建设道路进行了多方面的探索，取得了独创性理论成果和巨大成就，为新的历史时期开创中国特色社会主义提供了宝贵经验、理论准备、物质基础。改革开放以来，我们党开辟了中国特色社会主义道路，建立了中国特色社会主义制度，形成了中国特色社会主义理论体系。这个理论体系就是包括邓小平理论、“三个代表”重要思想、科学发展观等重大战略思想在内的科学理论体系。这个理论体系，坚持和发展了马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想，凝结了几代中国共产党人带领人民不懈探索实践的智慧和心血，是马克思主义中国化的最新成果，是党最可宝贵的政治和精神财富，是全国各族人民团结奋斗的共同思想基础。在当代中国，坚持中国特色社会主义理论体系，就是真正坚持马克思主义。党的十八大以来，习近平同志发表系列重要讲话，深刻回答了新形势下党和国家事业发展的一系列重大理论和现实问题，提出了许多富有创见的新理念新思想新战略。讲话涉及改革发展稳定、内政外交国防、治党治国治军各个方面，是新的历史条件下我们党治国理政的行动纲领，是坚持和发展中国特色社会主义的最新理论成果，是我们夺取中国特色社会主义新胜利、实现中华民族伟大复兴中国梦的强大思想武器。

The development of Marxism is a tortuous process of advance. Viewed in terms of its overall trend, Marxism constitutes a continuous history of forward development, but this does not mean that there are no twists and turns or reversals in the course of its development. In the process of its development, Marxism inevitably encounters resistance and distortion from old forces and old ideas; it may also suffer setbacks due to the low ebb of the socialist movement, or even temporary regression; and it may give rise to certain incorrect viewpoints owing to errors in practice and understanding. Therefore, the development process of Marxism is a unity of progressiveness and tortuosity. In studying the history of the development of Marxism, it is necessary both to reveal the basic trend of its forward and upward movement and to concretely analyze the mistakes, twists and turns, and temporary regressions in its development process, along with their causes, so as to draw lessons from them, overcome and eliminate incorrect viewpoints, and enable its healthy development. Looking back over the 170-year history of Marxism since its inception, it can be clearly seen that Marxism is a complete scientific theoretical system founded and developed by its founders Marx and Engels and their successors Lenin, Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and others in various historical periods. Removing any one of its component parts would dismember Marxism, rendering it fragmented and incomplete. Marxism is a developing theory, so the holistic nature of Marxism must be viewed from a developmental perspective. In both domestic and international theoretical circles, some people fabricate an opposition between the young Marx and the old Marx, an opposition between Marx and Engels, an opposition between Marx and Engels and Lenin, and a negation of Mao Zedong Thought, in an attempt to sever the history of Marxism's development and deny the great achievements made in socialist practice under the guidance of Marxism.

马克思主义的发展是一个曲折前进的过程。从总的发展趋势上看，马克思主义是一部持续向前的发展史，但这并不是说在它的发展过程中没有曲折和反复。马克思主义在其发展过程中，不可避免地会受到来自旧势力和旧观念的抵制、歪曲，也可能因为社会主义运动处于低潮而遭受挫折，甚至出现暂时的倒退，还可能因为实践和认识的错误而产生某种不正确的观点。因此，马克思主义的发展过程是前进性与曲折性的统一。研究马克思主义发展史，既要揭示出其前进上升运动的基本趋势，也要具体分析其发展过程中的失误、曲折和暂时的倒退及其原因，从中吸取经验教训，克服和清除不正确的观点，使其健康发展。纵观马克思主义产生以来一百七十年的发展史，可以清楚地看出，马克思主义是由它的创始人马克思、恩格斯和它的后继者列宁、毛泽东、邓小平等在各个历史时期创立和发展的完整的科学理论体系，去掉其中的任何一个组成部分，都会肢解马克思主义，使马克思主义变得支离破碎、残缺不全。马克思主义是发展着的理论，所以必须用发展的观点看待马克思主义的整体性。在国内外理论界，都有人制造所谓的早年马克思和晚年马克思的对立，马克思和恩格斯的对立，马克思和恩格斯与列宁的对立以及对毛泽东思想的否定，妄图割断马克思主义发展的历史，否定在马克思主义指导下的社会主义实践中所取得的伟大成就。

V. Viewing the Holistic Nature of Marxism from the Actual Situation of Marxist Classical Works

五、从马克思主义经典著作的实际情况看马克思主义的整体性

Many Marxist classical works closely integrate philosophy, political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. Even some works that are specialized philosophical or economic or scientific socialist works often discuss many issues by combining the theories of the three main components together.

马克思主义经典著作很多都是把哲学、政治经济学和科学社会主义学说紧密结合在一起的。即使有些是专门的哲学著作或经济学著作、科学社会主义著作，其中不少问题也是把三个主要组成部分的理论结合在一起论述的。

Marx's *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844* (hereinafter referred to as the *Manuscripts*), written during the formative period of Marxism, is a work that integrates philosophy, political economy, and communist theory. This work criticizes bourgeois political economy, i.e., national economy, from multiple aspects, expounds a series of basic concepts and viewpoints of political economy, and lays an initial foundation for Marx's further critique of political economy. The *Manuscripts* is the work among Marx and Engels's writings that expounds the scientific view of practice most profoundly and concretely. This work defines practice as the objective activity of human beings and reveals the meaning and content of objective activity from multiple aspects: (1) Human beings take themselves and their own lives as objects and possess self-consciousness; (2) human beings not only take their own lives as objects but also take the surrounding environment as objects; human activity is activity with external objects, and human beings have object-consciousness; (3) human beings not only take themselves and their own lives as objects and have objects outside themselves, but one person can serve as an object for another person, and people can be objects for each other; human beings have group consciousness; (4) as objective activity, human beings are both active and passive, a unity of activity and passivity; (5) practice is the objective activity of human beings, meaning that practice is a sensuous, real, and material activity with human beings as the subject and objective things as the object. The product of labor is labor fixed in an object, materialized as an object; it is the objectification of labor, and the realization of labor is the objectification of labor; (6) it emphasizes the unity of theory and practice, criticizes the erroneous view of old philosophy that severs the connection between theory and practice and opposes them to each other, and holds that the resolution of theoretical oppositions themselves is possible only through a practical mode, only through the practical power of human beings. Starting from economic facts, through a critique of national economy and Hegelian philosophy and an exposition of the theory of alienated labor, the *Manuscripts* puts forward and discusses a series of basic viewpoints of Marxist philosophy and the theory of scientific socialism on the basis of the scientific view of practice: (1) It discusses that productive labor is the fundamental mark of the formation of human beings and human society and of the distinction between humans and animals, and is the basis for the existence and development of human beings themselves and human society; (2) it discusses the idea of relations of production, approaching the core concept of historical materialism, i.e., relations of production; (3) it applies the general materialist view that being determines consciousness to the analysis of social-historical problems, approaching the basic historical materialist viewpoint that social being determines social consciousness and the economic base determines the superstructure; (4) it discusses that social revolution is the inevitable product of the contradictory movement of private property itself, explains the opposition between labor and capital in capitalist society, and points out that the proletariat is the basic class force for realizing communism; (5) it examines and criticizes various theoretical forms of socialism and communism, expounds its own view of communism, and discusses the path to realizing communism and socialism and the basic characteristics of communist society. *The German Ideology*, which marks the basic formation of Marxism, is also a work that comprehensively discusses Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. This work systematically discusses a series of basic concepts and basic principles of historical materialism. In one paper, the author summarized these basic concepts and basic principles into nine aspects, [16]16 The author refers to his own earlier paper, which is not specified in the source text. initially forming the disciplinary system of historical materialism. However, this work also expounds many basic concepts and basic principles of Marxist political economy and the theory of scientific socialism. Therefore, this work is not only a work marking the basic formation of historical materialism but also a work marking the basic formation of Marxism as a whole. People (including the author) usually only say that this work is a work marking the basic formation of historical materialism. This is certainly not wrong, but it is not accurate enough and should be corrected. We summarize the basic principles of political economy expounded by Marx and Engels in this work into the following aspects: (1) It reveals and criticizes the nature of bourgeois political economy; (2) it expounds the economic structure and social structure of feudal society; (3) it explains the process of the emergence of the capitalist mode of production; (4) it examines the historical process of the emergence and formation of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The basic principles of the theory of scientific socialism developed by Marx and Engels in this work can be summarized into the following aspects: (1) It discusses the two basic prerequisites for realizing communism: first, the high development and enormous growth of productive forces; second, the transformation of regional history into "world history"; (2) it discusses that the proletariat is a "social-historical existence" and communism is a "world-historical cause," criticizing "regional communism"; (3) it discusses the characteristics of the communist revolution that distinguish it from other revolutions; (4) it discusses the basic characteristics of communist society; (5) it criticizes Germany's "true socialism."

马克思在马克思主义形成时期写的《1844 年经济学哲学手稿》（以下简称《手稿》），就是一部把哲学、政治经济学和共产主义理论融为一体的著作。这部著作从多方面批判了资产阶级政治经济学即国民经济学，阐述了一系列政治经济学的基本概念和基本观点，为马克思进一步进行政治经济学批判奠定了初步基础。《手稿》是马克思、恩格斯著作中对科学实践观阐述得最深刻、最具体的一部著作。这部著作把实践界定为人的对象性活动，从多方面揭示了对象性活动的含义和内容：（1）人们把自己和自己的生活当作对象，具有自我意识；（2）人不仅把自己的生活当作对象，而且把周围环境当作对象，人的活动是有外部对象的活动，人有对象意识；（3）人不仅把自己和自己的生活当作对象，不仅在人之外有对象，而且一个人可以作为另一个人的对象，人与人之间可以互为对象，人有群体意识；（4）人作为对象性活动，既是能动的又是受动的，是能动与受动的统一；（5）实践是人的对象性活动，是说实践是以人为主体、以客观事物为对象的感性的、现实的、物质性的活动。劳动的产品就是固定在某个对象中、物化为对象的劳动，就是劳动的对象化，劳动的实现就是劳动的对象化；（6）强调理论和实践的统一，批判了旧哲学割裂理论和实践的联系、把理论和实践对立起来的错误观点，认为理论的对立本身的解决只有通过实践方式，只有借助于人的实践力量才是可能的。《手稿》从经济事实出发，通过批判国民经济学和黑格尔哲学以及对异化劳动理论的阐述，在科学实践观的基础上，提出和论述了一系列马克思主义哲学和科学社会主义学说的基本观点：（1）论述了生产劳动是人类与人类社会形成和人区别于动物的根本标志，是人类自身与人类社会存在和发展的基础；（2）论述了生产关系思想，接近于提出生产关系这一历史唯物主义的核心概念；（3）把存在决定意识的一般唯物主义观点用于分析社会历史问题，接近于提出社会存在决定社会意识、经济基础决定上层建筑的历史唯物主义基本观点；（4）论述了社会革命是私有制自身矛盾运动的必然产物，说明了资本主义社会中劳动和资本之间的对立，指出了无产阶级是实现共产主义的基本阶级力量；（5）考察和批判了各种社会主义和共产主义的理论形态，阐述了自己的共产主义观，论述了实现共产主义和社会主义的道路及共产主义社会的基本特征。标志马克思主义基本形成的《德意志意识形态》也是综合论述马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说的一部著作。这部著作系统地论述了一系列历史唯物主义的基本概念和基本原理，笔者在一篇论文中把这些基本概念和基本原理归纳为九个方面， 初步形成了历史唯物主义的学科体系。但是，这部著作同时也阐述了很多马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说的基本概念和基本原理，因此，这部著作不仅是标志历史唯物主义基本形成的著作，而且是标志整个马克思主义基本形成的著作。人们（包括笔者在内）通常只是说这部著作是标志历史唯物主义基本形成的著作，这当然不错，但是不够准确，应该加以修正。我们把马克思、恩格斯在这部著作中阐述的政治经济学基本原理概括为以下几个方面：（1）揭示并批判了资产阶级政治经济学的性质；（2）阐述了封建社会的经济结构和社会结构；（3）说明了资本主义生产方式的产生过程；（4）考察了资产阶级和无产阶级产生和形成的历史过程。马克思、恩格斯在这部著作中阐发的科学社会主义学说的基本原理可以归纳为以下几个方面：（1）论述了实现共产主义的两个基本前提，一是生产力的高度发展和巨大增长，二是地域性的历史转变为“世界历史”；（2）论述了无产阶级是“社会历史性的存在”，共产主义是“世界历史性事业”，批判了“地域性的共产主义”；（3）论述了共产主义革命不同于其他的特点；（4）论述了共产主义社会的基本特征；（5）批判了德国的“真正的社会主义”。

Marx’s *Capital* is a great work of economics, but it is also a work of philosophy and of scientific socialism. In expounding the basic principles of political economy, many passages possess a profound philosophical implication and contain deep philosophical thought. For example, the theory of the dual character of the commodity and the dual character of labor contains a profound dialectical thought; in the exposition of commodities, money, capital, and interest, the ideas of commodity fetishism, money fetishism, and capital fetishism are profoundly revealed, combining economic theory and philosophical theory in a very complete manner; in the theory of the law of the average rate of profit, the nature of the laws of social-historical development is profoundly elucidated, explaining that “in the whole of capitalist production, the general law prevails as a dominant tendency only in a very complicated and approximate way, as a never ascertainable average of perpetual fluctuations.” [17]17 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 3, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, Vol. 37, p. 195. When Engels expounded the philosophical implication of the theory of the law of the average rate of profit, he pointed out even more profoundly: the law of the average rate of profit “has no other reality than that of an approximation, a tendency, an average, but not a direct reality.” [18]18 Friedrich Engels, letter to Conrad Schmidt, March 12, 1895, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, Vol. 50, p. 79. The purpose of Marx’s writing *Capital* was to elucidate the laws of development of the capitalist mode of production, that is, to reveal the law that capitalism will inevitably perish and socialism will inevitably triumph, and to explain that because of its own development, capitalist society will inevitably be replaced by socialism. This is precisely the main content of scientific socialism. *Capital* is a model of combining the various component parts of Marxism into an organic whole.

马克思的《资本论》是一部伟大的经济学著作，同时也是一部哲学著作和科学社会主义著作。《资本论》在论述政治经济学的基本原理时，很多地方具有深刻的哲学意蕴，蕴含着深刻的哲学思想，如关于商品的二重性和劳动的二重性理论中，蕴含着深刻的辩证法思想；在关于商品、货币、资本、利息的论述中，深刻地揭示了商品拜物教、货币拜物教、资本拜物教思想，把经济理论和哲学理论十分完好地结合在一起；在关于平均利润率规律理论中，深刻地阐明了社会历史发展规律的性质，说明了“在整个资本主义生产中，一般规律作为一种占统治地位的趋势，始终只是以一种极其错综复杂和近似的方式，作为从不断波动中得出的、但永远不能确定的平均数来发生作用。” 恩格斯在阐述平均利润率规律理论的哲学意蕴时，更加深刻地指出：平均利润率规律“全都没有任何其他的现实性，而只是一种近似值，一种趋势，一种平均数，但不是直接的现实”。马克思写作《资本论》的目的在于阐明资本主义生产方式的发展规律，即揭示资本主义必然灭亡、社会主义必然胜利的规律，说明由于资本主义社会自身的发展它必然被社会主义所代替，这正是科学社会主义的主要内容。《 资本论》是把马克思主义的各个组成部分结合为一个有机整体的典范。

Engels’s *Anti-Dühring* is divided into three parts: Philosophy, Political Economy, and Socialism, which respectively discuss the three main component parts of Marxism, and everywhere embodies the inner connections among these three component parts. For example, in the three chapters on the “Theory of Force” in the second part, i.e., the “Political Economy” part, Engels deeply and systematically expounds the principle that the economic base determines the superstructure. This is the only place in the works of Marx and Engels that argues why it is the economic base that determines the superstructure and not the superstructure that determines the economic base. [19]19 See Friedrich Engels, *Anti-Dühring*, Part II, Chapters 2–4, “Theory of Force.” This shows that, in Engels’s view, the principle that the economic base determines the superstructure is not only an important content of Marxist philosophy but also an important content of Marxist political economy. For another example, in the second chapter, “Theory,” of the third part, i.e., the “Socialism” part, Engels outlines the basic viewpoint of historical materialism: “The materialist conception of history starts from the proposition that the production of the means to support human life and, next to production, the exchange of things produced, is the basis of all social structure; that in every society that has appeared in history, the manner in which wealth is distributed and society divided into classes or orders is dependent upon what is produced, how it is produced, and how the products are exchanged. From this point of view, the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men’s brains, not in men’s better insights into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the *philosophy*, but in the *economics* of each particular epoch.” [20]20 Friedrich Engels, *Anti-Dühring*, Part III, Chapter 2, “Theory,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, Vol. 25, p. 259. This shows that, in Engels’s view, the doctrine of scientific socialism takes historical materialism as its theoretical foundation.

恩格斯的《反杜林论》一书，分哲学、政治经济学和社会主义三编，分别论述马克思主义的三个主要组成部分，又处处体现了这三个组成部分之间的内在联系。例如，恩格斯是在第二编即“政治经济学”编的“暴力论”三章中，深入系统地论述了经济基础决定上层建筑的原理，这是马克思、恩格斯的著作中唯一一处论证为什么是经济基础决定上层建筑而不是上层建筑决定经济基础。 这说明，在恩格斯看来，经济基础决定上层建筑的原理，既是马克思主义哲学的重要内容，也是马克思主义政治经济学的重要内容。再如，恩格斯在第三编即“社会主义”编的第二章“理论”中，概述了历史唯物主义的基本观点：“唯物主义历史观从下述原理出发：生产以及随生产而来的产品交换是一切社会制度的基础；在每个历史地出现的社会中，产品分配以及和它相伴随的社会之划分为阶级或等级，是由生产什么、怎样生产以及怎样交换产品来决定的。所以，一切社会变迁和政治变革的终极原因，不应当到人们的头脑中，到人们对永恒的真理和正义的日益增进的认识中去寻找，而应当到生产方式和交换方式的变更中去寻找；不应当到有关时代的哲学中去寻找，而应当到有关时代的经济中去寻找。” 这说明，在恩格斯看来，科学社会主义学说是以历史唯物主义为其理论基础的。

Furthermore, many other works by Marx and Engels, such as *The Holy Family*, *The Condition of the Working Class in England*, *The Poverty of Philosophy*, *Wage Labour and Capital*, *The Communist Manifesto*, *The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850*, *The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte*, *Wages, Price and Profit*, *The Civil War in France*, *Critique of the Gotha Programme*, *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State*, *Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy*, and *Notes on Ancient Social History* (also known as the *Anthropological Notes* or *Ethnological Notes*), although each has its own emphasis in terms of disciplinary focus, are all works that combine the various component parts of Marxism into an organic whole.

此外，马克思、恩格斯的其他许多著作，如《神圣家族》、《英国工人阶级状况》、《哲学的贫困》、《雇佣劳动与资本》、《共产党宣言》、《1848 年至1850 年的法兰西阶级斗争》、《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》、《工资、价格和利润》、《法兰西内战》、《哥达纲领批判》、《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》、《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》、《路德维希·费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》、《古代社会史笔记》（又称《人类学笔记》或《民族学笔记》）等，虽然在学科的重点上各有侧重，但也都是把马克思主义的各个组成部分结合为一个有机整体的著作。

Lenin’s works such as *What the “Friends of the People” Are and How They Fight the Social-Democrats*, *The Development of Capitalism in Russia*, *Materialism and Empirio-Criticism*, *Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism*, and *The State and Revolution* are all expositions that integrate the three component parts of Marxism into one. Mao Zedong’s brilliant works such as *Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society*, *Problems of Strategy in China’s Revolutionary War*, *On Protracted War*, *On New Democracy*, *On the Ten Major Relationships*, and *On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People* also fully embody that the various component parts of Marxism constitute an organic whole. As for the expositions of Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao, and Xi Jinping on the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, it is even more difficult to distinguish whether they are philosophical works, economic works, or works of scientific socialism; rather, they very naturally and closely combine these three component parts together.

列宁的《什么是“人民之友”以及他们如何攻击社会民主党人？》、《俄国资本主义的发展》、《唯物主义和经验批判主义》、《帝国主义是资本主义的最高阶段》、《国家与革命》等著作，都是把马克思主义的三个组成部分融为一体论述的。毛泽东的《中国社会各阶级的分析》、《中国革命战争的战略问题》、《论持久战》、《新民主主义论》、《论十大关系》、《关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》等光辉著作，也充分体现了马克思主义的各个组成部分是一个有机的整体。至于邓小平、江泽民、胡锦涛、习近平等关于中国特色社会主义理论体系的论述，更是很难分清它们究竟是哲学著作还是经济学或科学社会主义的著作，而是十分自然地把这三个组成部分紧密结合在一起的。

VI. The Basic Path to Grasping the Holistic Nature of Marxism and the Basic Method of Applying the Holistic Nature of Marxism

六、掌握马克思主义整体性的基本途径和运用马克思主义整体性的基本方法

The organic integration of “history,” “theory,” and “works” is the basic pathway to grasping the holistic nature of Marxism. “History” refers to the history of the development of Marxism, “theory” refers to the basic principles of Marxism, and “works” refers to the classical works of Marxism. Only by organically integrating “history,” “theory,” and “works” can one grasp the holistic nature of Marxism. For example, the author published an academic paper in the *Journal of Beijing Administrative College*, Issue 4, 2012, titled “The Historical Process of the Gestation, Formation, and Development of the Principle of ‘Two Inevitabilities.’” [21]21 The “two inevitabilities” (两个决不会) is a principle from Marx’s 1859 “Preface” to *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*, stating that a social formation perishes only after all its productive forces are developed, and new relations of production emerge only after their material conditions have matured in the old society. The principle of “two inevitabilities” refers to the following passage Marx wrote in 1859 in the “Preface” to *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*: “No social formation is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society.” To write this paper, the author, following the chronological order of the relevant works published by Marx and Engels, read Marx’s “Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right,” published in the *Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher* in early 1844; *The German Ideology*, co-authored by Marx and Engels in 1845–1846; *The Poverty of Philosophy*, published by Marx in July 1847; “Moralizing Criticism and Critical Morality,” written by Marx in October 1847; *The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850*, written by Marx in 1849–1850; “The Real Cause of the Relative Passivity of the French Proletarians in December Last,” written by Engels in early February to early April 1852; “Revolution in China and in Europe,” written by Marx in May 1853; the *Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858*, completed by Marx in 1858; the “Preface” to *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*, written by Marx in January 1859; *The Civil War in France*, written by Marx in April–May 1871; “On the Social Question in Russia,” written by Engels in 1874–1875; the preface to the German edition of *The Condition of the Working Class in England*, written by Engels in 1892; the introduction to Marx’s *The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850*, written by Engels in February–March 1895, shortly before his death; and the correspondence of Marx and Engels with Lassalle, Danielson, and others on this issue. Through a systematic reading of these relevant works by Marx and Engels, the author not only provided a profound exposition of the basic principle of the “two inevitabilities” but also discussed the historical process of the gestation, formation, and development of this basic principle. Without organically integrating “history,” “theory,” and “works,” this effect could not have been achieved.

“史”、“论”、“著”有机结合是掌握马克思主义整体性的基本途径。“史”是指马克思主义发展史，“论”是指马克思主义基本原理，“著”是指马克思主义经典著作。只有把“史”、“论”、“著”有机结合起来，才能掌握马克思主义的整体性。例如，笔者在《北京行政学院学报》2012 年第4 期上发表一篇题为《“两个决不会”原理的孕育、形成和发展的历史过程》的学术论文。“两个决不会”原理即马克思1859 年在《< 政治经济学批判> 序言》中所讲的下面一段话：“无论哪一个社会形态，在它所能容纳的全部生产力发挥出来以前，是决不会灭亡的；而新的更高的生产关系，在它的物质存在条件在旧社会的胎胞里成熟以前，是决不会出现的。” 为了撰写这篇论文，笔者按照马克思、恩格斯发表的有关论著的时间顺序，阅读了马克思 1844 年初在《德法年鉴》上发表的《〈黑格尔法哲学批判〉导言》，马克思、恩格斯在1845-1846 年合写的《德意志意识形态》，马克思1847 年7 月发表的《哲学的贫困》，马克思在1847 年10 月写的《道德化的批评和批评化的道德》，马克思在1849-1850 年写的《1848 年至1850 年的法兰西阶级斗争》，恩格斯在1852 年2-4 月初写的《去年12 月法国无产者相对消极的真正原因》，马克思在1853 年5 月写的《中国革命和欧洲革命》，马克思在1858 年写成的《1857-1858 年经济学手稿》，马克思在1859 年1 月写的《〈政治经济学批判〉序言》，马克思在1871年 4、5 月间写的《法兰西内战》，恩格斯在1874-1875 年写的《论俄国的社会问题》，恩格斯在1892年写的《英国工人阶级状况》一书的德文版序言，恩格斯在逝世前夕即1895 年2、3 月间为马克思的《1848 年至1850 年的法兰西阶级斗争》一文写的导言，以及马克思论述有关这个问题的与恩格斯、拉萨尔、丹尼尔逊等人的通信。通过系统阅读马克思、恩格斯的这些有关论著，既深刻论述了“两个决不会”这个基本原理，而且论述了这个基本原理孕育、形成和发展的历史过程。不把“史”、“论”、“著”有机结合起来，是无法达到这个效果的。

Another example is the book *A Historical Investigation and Contemporary Significance of Marx’s Theory of Oriental Society*, co-authored by the author and Professor Feng Ziyi. On the basis of a systematic reading of the works, essays, and letters of Marx and Engels from the mid-1840s to their respective deaths—spanning half a century—on the “Asiatic mode of production,” the book is divided into four periods: the period before 1853, the mid-to-late 1850s, the period represented by *Capital*, and the period after the publication of Morgan’s *Ancient Society*. It discusses the historical evolution of the meaning of the concept of the “Asiatic mode of production” and its place in the sequence of social development in the works of Marx and Engels. This not only provides a comprehensive exposition of the Marxist theory of the five forms of society but also systematically discusses the history of the formation and development of this theory. It enables people to fully understand the meaning of Marx and Engels’ concept of the “Asiatic mode of production” and the theory of the five forms of society through the organic integration of “history,” “theory,” and “works,” thereby clarifying some misreadings and misunderstandings on this issue in academic and theoretical circles.

再如，笔者和丰子义教授合写的《马克思东方社会理论的历史考察和当代意义》一书，在系统阅读马克思、恩格斯从19 世纪40 年代中期到他们先后逝世为止这半个世纪有关论述“亚细亚生产方式”的著作、论文和书信的基础上，分1853 年以前的时期、19 世纪50 年代中后期、以《资本论》为代表的时期、摩尔根《古代社会》一书发表以后的时期四个时期，论述了“亚细亚生产方式概念”的含义及其在社会发展序列中的地位在马克思、恩格斯著作中的历史演变情况， 既全面地论述了马克思主义的五种社会形态划分理论，又系统地论述了这个理论形成和发展的历史，使人们能够在“史”、“论”、“著”的有机结合上，全面理解马克思、恩格斯的“亚细亚生产方式”概念的含义和五种社会形态划分理论，澄清了学术理论界在这个问题上的一些误读和误解。

Yet another example is the author’s academic paper titled “The Debate on ‘Whether Socialism Can Be Built in One Country,’” published in the *Journal of Guizhou Normal University*, Issue 1, 2016. This paper, on the basis of a systematic reading of the vast majority of Lenin’s and Stalin’s relevant works on this debate, is divided into four periods: from the 1905 Revolution to before the October Revolution, the early period after the victory of the October Revolution, from the turn of spring and summer 1918 to the end of 1920, and from the end of 1920 to Lenin’s death. It provides an in-depth and systematic exposition of the correctness of Lenin’s theory that “socialism cannot be built in one country” and offers a relatively comprehensive review of Stalin’s relevant expositions on “socialism can be built in one country,” pointing out where Stalin’s thinking went astray. In recent years, some authoritative textbooks in China’s academic and theoretical circles, on this issue, mostly discuss only the debates and differences between Stalin and Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, and others, without discussing Lenin’s idea that “socialism cannot be built in one country,” and explicitly express approval of Stalin’s viewpoint. This practice of evading Lenin’s correct ideas on this issue while endorsing Stalin’s incorrect ideas will have a very negative impact on people’s thinking.

又如，笔者在《贵州师范大学学报》2016 年第1 期上发表了一篇题为《关于“一国能否建成社会主义”的论争》的学术论文，这篇论文在系统阅读列宁和斯大林有关这个争论的绝大部分论著的基础上，分1905 年革命至十月革命以前、十月革命胜利初期、1918 年春夏之交至1920 年底、1920 年底至列宁逝世四个时期，深入系统地论述了列宁关于“一国不能建成社会主义”的理论的正确性，并且较为全面地梳理了斯大林关于“一国可以建成社会主义”的有关论述，指明了斯大林思想的失误之所在。我国学术理论界近些年出版的一些权威性的教材，在这个问题上，大多只谈斯大林与托洛茨基、季诺维也夫和加米涅夫等人之间的争论和分歧，而不谈列宁关于“一国不能建成社会主义”的思想，并且明确表示赞成斯大林的观点。这种回避列宁在这个问题上的有关正确思想而赞成斯大林的不正确思想的做法，将在人们的思想上造成极不好的影响。

Here, the author wishes to discuss the relationship between studying Marxist classical works and learning the basic principles of Marxism. Marxist classical works and the basic principles of Marxism are closely connected yet each has its own characteristics. Marxist classical works discuss basic concepts and basic principles of Marxism in a concrete, profound, vivid, and rich manner, with a broad vision, multiple perspectives, strong pertinence, and close connection with reality, embodying the personal characteristics, style, and manner of the classical writers, thus possessing strong persuasiveness and appeal. The basic principles of Marxism are abstracted, generalized, refined, and sublimated from Marxist classical works. In the process of abstraction, generalization, refinement, and sublimation, it is necessary to discard the specific social-historical background, academic background, and context of the writing in the classical works, to discard the pertinence of the exposition of some basic concepts and basic principles, to discard the exchanges, interactions, and even clashes and critiques between the classical writers and different viewpoints of their time, and it is difficult to take into account the multiple explanations of the same concept and principle from different angles and different aspects in different periods and different works, nor can it fully reflect the rigorous logical argumentation, link by link, of certain basic principles in the classical works, and even less can it embody the different characteristics, styles, and manners of different classical writers. Therefore, although the exposition of concepts and principles in textbooks on the basic principles of Marxism highlights key points, is concise and clear, and is well-organized and easy for beginners to grasp, it is not as concrete, profound, vivid, or rich as the exposition in the classical works, does not possess the same persuasiveness and appeal as the classical works, and cannot achieve a comprehensive argumentation of the same concept and principle from different angles and different aspects. Taking the concept of productive forces as an example, textbooks on the basic principles of Marxism generally only give a general definition of productive forces, point out that productive forces include several basic elements and the interconnections among these elements, and, going deeper, treat productive forces as a system to grasp, but they cannot fully reflect the many concepts of productive forces discussed in Marxist classical works. In *Capital* and its manuscripts, Marx discussed many concepts of productive forces, such as concrete productive forces and general productive forces, the natural productive forces of labor and the social productive forces of labor, the productive forces of capital and the productive forces of labor, material productive forces and spiritual productive forces, combined productive forces and individual productive forces, subjective productive forces and objective productive forces, and so on. Textbooks on the basic principles of Marxism cannot fully reflect these concepts of productive forces. Therefore, to study Marxism well, in addition to learning the basic principles of Marxism, one must also deeply and systematically study and research Marxist classical works. Studying and researching Marxist classical works and studying and researching the basic principles of Marxism complement each other’s strengths. Without studying and researching Marxist classical works, and only learning the basic principles of Marxism, it is easy to cause a simplistic and dogmatic understanding of the basic principles of Marxism, and may even lead to misunderstanding and distortion; only studying and researching Marxist classical works, without studying and researching the basic principles of Marxism, makes it difficult for beginners to grasp and comprehend the basic concepts and basic principles discussed in Marxist classical works in a focused, concise, and well-organized manner. Therefore, the study and research of Marxist classical works and the study and research of the basic principles of Marxism must be closely integrated. Moreover, to study and research both aspects in depth, it is also necessary to study and research the history of the development of Marxism. This is what we usually refer to as the combination of “history,” “theory,” and “works” in studying and researching Marxism. The method of studying and researching Marxism through the combination of “history,” “theory,” and “works” embodies the principle of the unity of logic and history, theory and practice, ideal and reality, and inheritance and innovation.

在这里，笔者想谈一谈学习研究马克思主义经典著作与学习马克思主义基本原理之间的关系。马克思主义经典著作和马克思主义基本原理紧密相连而又各有特点。马克思主义经典著作对马克思主义基本概念和基本原理的论述具体、深刻、生动、丰满，视野广、角度多、针对性强、与实际联系紧密，具有经典作家个人的特点、风格和气派，因而具有很强的说服力和感染力。马克思主义基本原理是从马克思主义经典著作中抽象、概括、提炼、升华出来的。在抽象、概括、提炼、升华的过程中，需要舍弃经典著作中写作的特定社会历史背景、学术背景和语境，舍弃对一些基本概念和基本原理阐述的针对性，舍弃经典作家与当时的不同观点的交流、互动以致冲撞和批判，并且难以顾及到在不同时期、不同著作中对同一概念和原理从不同角度、不同侧面所作的多种解释，也难以全面反映经典著作中对某些基本原理的一环扣一环的严密的逻辑论证，更难以体现不同经典作家各自的特点、风格和气派。因此，马克思主义基本原理教材中对概念和原理的论述，虽然重点突出、简明扼要、条分缕析、便于初学者掌握，但却不如经典著作中的论述那样具体、深刻、生动、丰满，没有经典著作那样强的说服力和感染力，无法做到对同一概念和原理从不同角度、不同侧面进行全面论证。以生产力概念为例，马克思主义基本原理教材一般只对生产力下一个一般的定义，指出生产力包括几个基本要素以及各个要素之间的相互联系，再深入一些就是把生产力作为一个系统来把握，不可能全面反映马克思主义经典著作中论述的诸多生产力概念。马克思在《资本论》及其手稿中，论述了许多生产力概念，如具体生产力和一般生产力、劳动的自然生产力和劳动的社会生产力、资本的生产力和劳动的生产力、物质生产力和精神生产力、联合生产力和个人生产力、主体的生产力和客体的生产力等等。 马克思主义基本原理的教材中不可能全面反映这些生产力概念，因此，要学好马克思主义，除去学习马克思主义基本原理外，还要深入系统地学习、研究马克思主义经典著作。学习、研究马克思主义经典著作与学习、研究马克思主义基本原理优势互补。不学习、研究马克思主义经典著作，只学习马克思主义基本原理，容易造成对马克思主义基本原理的简单化、教条化理解，而且可能造成误解和曲解；只学习、研究马克思主义经典著作，不学习、研究马克思主义基本原理，对于初学者来说，难以重点突出、简明扼要、条分缕析地掌握和领会马克思主义经典著作中论述的基本概念和基本原理。所以要把学习、研究马克思主义经典著作和学习、研究马克思主义基本原理紧密结合起来。而且，为了把这两个方面都学习、研究深入，还要学习和研究马克思主义发展史。这就是我们通常所说的，学习研究马克思主义要“史”、“论”、“著”相结合。“史”、“论”、“著”相结合学习、研究马克思主义的方法，体现了逻辑和历史、理论和实践、理想和现实、继承和创新相统一的原则。

Integrating theory with practice is the basic method for studying and applying Marxism, and it is also the basic method for grasping Marxism as a whole. It must be upheld for a long time and must not be violated or shaken under any circumstances or at any time. This is beyond doubt. However, it cannot be simplified or vulgarized because of this. At present, the shadow of the “thirty-character guideline” [22]22 The “thirty-character guideline” (三十字方针) refers to a slogan popularized during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) that promoted a narrowly utilitarian approach to studying Mao Zedong Thought, demanding immediate practical application of each theoretical point. The author criticizes its lingering influence. for integrating theory with practice — “study with problems in mind, learn and apply flexibly, combine learning with application, prioritize what is urgently needed, achieve immediate results, and make great efforts in application” — has still not dissipated. People always consciously or unconsciously demand of themselves and others that, upon learning a theoretical viewpoint, they must directly explain and solve a practical problem. In fact, the relationship between theory and practice is very complex, and it is not a simple one-to-one correspondence.

理论联系实际是学习和运用马克思主义的基本方法，也是从整体上掌握马克思主义的基本方法，必须长期坚持，在任何时候、任何情况下都不能违背和动摇，这是毫无疑义的。但是，不能因此而把它简单化、庸俗化。现在，“要带着问题学，活学活用，学用结合，急用先学，立竿见影，在用字上狠下功夫”的理论联系实际的“三十字方针”的阴影仍然驱之未散。人们总是自觉或不自觉地要求自己和别人，学习一个理论观点，就要直接去说明和解决一个实际问题。事实上，理论与实际之间的关系是十分复杂的，并非简单的一一对应关系。

First, to use Marxism as a guide to study and solve practical problems, the most fundamental thing is to grasp the basic standpoints, viewpoints, and methods of Marxism at the holistic level of the internal unity and close connection of its various components. Only by analyzing and studying the practical problems faced from the height of the basic standpoints, viewpoints, and methods of Marxism can one grasp the essence of the problem, propose ideas for solving the problem as a whole, formulate specific methods for solving the problem, and effectively solve practical problems.

首先，要用马克思主义为指导研究和解决实际问题，最根本的是要在马克思主义的各个组成部分内在统一、紧密联系的整体上掌握马克思主义基本的立场、观点和方法，从马克思主义基本的立场、观点和方法的高度，分析和研究面对的实际问题，才能抓住问题的实质，从总体上提出解决问题的思路，拟定解决问题的具体方法，有效地解决实际问题。

Second, practical problems, especially complex ones, cannot be solved by using just one or two basic principles from a single discipline of Marxism. Instead, it is often necessary to comprehensively apply multiple basic principles from the various disciplines of Marxist philosophy, political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism to effectively analyze and solve practical problems. In social reality, there is simply no situation where a single basic principle of Marxism can solve a practical problem.

其次，对于实际问题，特别是复杂的实际问题，不是用马克思主义的某一个学科中的一两个基本原理为指导就可以解决的。而是往往需要马克思主义哲学、政治经济学和科学社会主义学说各个学科的多个基本原理的综合运用，才能有效地分析和解决实际问题。在社会现实中，根本不存在用马克思主义的某一个基本原理就可以解决一个实际问题的情况。

Third, a single basic principle of Marxism can be used not only to analyze and solve one particular practical problem but also to analyze and solve many practical problems. Many basic theories and basic methods in materialist dialectics, such as the law of the unity of opposites and the method of contradiction analysis, the law of the mutual transformation of quality and quantity and the method of the principle of appropriateness, the law of the negation of the negation and the method of dialectical negation, the method of combining the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory,” the method of combining general calls with individual guidance, the method of concrete analysis of concrete conditions, and the method of the unity of logic and history, must all be applied in the process of studying and solving many practical problems. Without these theories and methods, it is impossible to clearly analyze and effectively solve any practical problem.

再次，一条马克思主义的基本原理，不仅可以用于分析和解决某一个实际问题，而且可以用于分析和解决许多实际问题。唯物辩证法中的很多基本理论和基本方法，如对立统一规律和矛盾分析法，质量互变规律和适度小则的方法，否定之否定规律和辩证否定的方法，“两点论”和“重点论”相结合的方法，一般号召和个别指导相结合的方法，具体问题具体分析的方法，逻辑和历史相统一的方法，在研究和解决许多实际问题的过程中都必须应用，离开这些理论和方法，任何实际问题都难以分析清楚和有效解决。

Summary

小 结

The three main component parts of Marxism—Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism—constitute a unified whole, and we must therefore study and grasp them as such. Since 2004, China has established Marxist theory as a first-level academic discipline, many institutions of higher learning have set up schools of Marxism, and the relevant departments have organized the compilation of textbooks on the basic principles of Marxism. One of the aims of these efforts is to study and grasp the various component parts of Marxism as a whole and to implement this approach in teaching. This intention is highly commendable and should be upheld and continuously improved. However, although the textbooks on the basic principles of Marxism we have compiled subjectively aim to present the various component parts of Marxism as a unified and complete disciplinary system, in practice they still expound Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism separately. They are a “patchwork” of these three components and do not integrate them into a whole for exposition. For a long time, our teaching and research on Marxism have been conducted by separating the three main component parts of Marxism, and these three components are housed in different departments and institutes. Teachers engaged in Marxist teaching mostly specialize in only one of these components and cannot grasp Marxism as a whole. To truly study and grasp the various component parts of Marxism as a whole, we must cultivate a group of teachers capable of understanding and grasping Marxism in its entirety. This is a long-term and arduous task. But we cannot wait until such teachers are cultivated before undertaking the work of integrating Marxism. In fact, we have already begun this work since the establishment of Marxist theory as a first-level academic discipline. In recent years, the author has also made some explorations in this regard. On the basis of in-depth research on *Capital* and its manuscripts, I have written over a dozen academic papers that expound the three main component parts of Marxism as a whole, and I have also written several academic papers reflecting the holistic nature of Marxism based on other classic Marxist works. As for how to write a textbook that truly embodies Marxism as a whole, I do not yet have a mature view. The purpose of this article is to offer a modest spur to induce others to come forward with valuable contributions, hoping that scholars engaged in Marxist teaching and research will work together to advance the work of integrating Marxism.

马克思主义的三个主要组成部分，即马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说，既然是一个统一的整体，我们就要把它当做整体来研究和把握。2004 年以来，我国设置了马克思主义一级学科，很多高等学校都建立了马克思主义学院，有关部门组织编写了马克思主义基本原理教材，其目的之一在于把马克思主义的各个组成部分作为一个整体来研究和把握，并且贯彻到教学中去。这个意图是十分可贵的，应该坚持和不断完善。但是，我们编写的马克思主义基本原理教材，虽然主观意图是把马克思主义的各个组成部分作为一个统一的完整的学科体系展示出来，但实际上仍然是分别阐述马克思主义哲学、马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义学说，是这三个组成部分的“拼盘”，并没有把三者结合成为一个整体加以阐述。长期以来，我们的马克思主义教学和研究，都是把马克思主义的三个主要组成部分分割开来进行的，而且这三个组成部分分别设在不同的院系，从事马克思主义教学的教师，也大都只对其中的一个组成部分有所研究，不能从整体上把握马克思主义。要真正把马克思主义的各个组成部分作为一个整体来研究和把握，必须培养一批能够在整体上理解和把握马克思主义的教师，这是一个长期而艰巨的任务。但我们不能等待这样的教师培养出来以后，再从事马克思主义整体化的工作。实际上，我们从设置马克思主义一级学科开始，就已经从事这项工作了。这几年来，笔者在这方面也作了一些探讨，在深入研究《资本论》及其手稿的基础上，写了十几篇把马克思主义三个主要组成部分作为一个整体阐述的学术论文，还根据其他马克思主义经典著作撰写了几篇体现马克思主义整体性的学术论文。如何撰写一部真正从整体上体现马克思主义的教材，笔者还没有成熟的看法。这篇文章的目的，在于抛砖引玉，希望从事马克思主义教学和研究的学者共同努力，把马克思主义整体化的工作推向前进。

Web Editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗