The Renewal of Marx’s “World History” Thesis and Theoretical Innovation in the New Era

The “world history” thesis that Marx put forward in the mid-1840s received an important supplement in the 1870s through the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” The possibility and actuality of “crossing the Caudine Forks” were verified in the socialist development processes of relatively economically and culturally backward countries such as Russia and China in the twentieth century, thereby elevating the ideological content of the “world history” thesis. At the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the failure of socialist reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries, together with the successful practice of the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, highlighted the breakthrough answer that the Communist Party of China had given to the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks” and the innovative exploration it had made of Marx’s “world history” thesis.

马克思19世纪40年代中期提出的“世界历史”命题，在19世纪70年代“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题中得到重要补充。“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”的可能性和现实性问题，在20世纪俄国和中国这样一些经济文化相对落后国家的社会主义发展过程中得到验证，提升了“世界历史”命题的思想内涵。20世纪21世纪之交，苏联东欧国家社会主义改革失败和中国特色社会主义道路成功实践，凸显了中国共产党对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题作出的突破性回答，对马克思“世界历史”命题作出的创新性探索。

Entering the twenty-first century, the successful practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era has not only provided a new answer to the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks” but has also endowed Marx’s “world history” thesis with connotations of the New Era. The innovative theories in Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, whose essential elements include the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, the socialist “grand historical” perspective, the new development philosophy, a community with a shared future for mankind, Chinese-path modernization, and a new form of human civilization, constitute a new “world history” thesis for the New Era and have become a notable hallmark of the new leap in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times.

进入21世纪，新时代中国特色社会主义的成功实践，不仅对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题作出新的回答，而且还赋予马克思“世界历史”命题以新时代内涵。习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想中以中华民族伟大复兴、社会主义“大历史”观、新发展理念、人类命运共同体、中国式现代化、人类文明新形态等为要义的创新性理论，构成新时代“世界历史”新命题，成为马克思主义中国化时代化新的飞跃的显著标志。

I. Marx’s “World History” Thesis and “Crossing the Caudine Forks”

一、马克思“世界历史”命题与“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”

“World history” is an important thesis that Marx and Engels jointly put forward when they founded historical materialism. In the manuscript of *The German Ideology*, Marx and Engels argued that, with the tremendous growth and high development of social productive forces, “the more the original isolation of separate nationalities is destroyed by the developed mode of production and intercourse and the division of labour between various nations naturally brought forth by these, the more history becomes world history.” They envisioned that, under these circumstances, “the world-historical existence of individuals, i.e., existence which is directly linked with world history,” would already be an “empirical existence,” and the development of capitalism would become a worldwide phenomenon.

“世界历史”是马克思恩格斯共同创立唯物史观时提出的重要命题。在《德意志意识形态》手稿中，马克思恩格斯提出，随着社会生产力的巨大增长和高度发展，“日益完善的生产方式、交往以及因交往而自然形成的不同民族之间的分工消灭得越是彻底，历史也就越是成为世界历史”。他们设想，在这一背景下，“人们的世界历史性的而不是地域性的存在”已经是一种“经验的存在”，资本主义的发展成为一种世界性现象。

(1) The Initiation of “World History” and Its Distinctive Features

（一）“世界历史”的开创及其显著特征

Capitalism “first created world history.” Marx and Engels believed that the distinctive features of the development of this “world history” were: first, in terms of relations of intercourse, “the need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere”; in this relationship, natural science becomes subordinated to capital, “it has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his ‘natural superiors,’ and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous ‘cash payment’”; second, in terms of the urban-rural relationship, the modern large industrial city “has created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural life. Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilized ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West”; third, in terms of the relationship between private property and the development of productive forces, the industrial “automatic system” causes the rapid growth of productive forces but also becomes a “fetter” on their development; “under the rule of private property, these productive forces have only a one-sided development, and for the majority they become destructive forces”; fourth, in terms of class relations, “large-scale industry not only makes the worker’s relation to the capitalist, but also labor itself, unbearable for the worker.” The intensification of the internal contradictions of capitalist society, especially class contradictions, becomes the “world-historical force” driving this society toward a future communist society.

资本主义“首次开创了世界历史”，马克思恩格斯认为，这种“世界历史”发展的显著特征在于：第一，在交往关系上，“每个文明国家以及这些国家中的每一个人的需要的满足都依赖于整个世界，因为它消灭了各国以往自然形成的闭关自守的状态”；在这种关系上，自然科学从属于资本，在“把自然形成的性质一概消灭掉……还把所有自然形成的关系变成货币的关系”；第二，在城乡关系上，现代的大工业城市“代替自然形成的城市……破坏手工业和工业的一切旧阶段。它使城市最终战胜了乡村”；第三，在私有制和生产力发展关系上，工业“自动体系”造成生产力急速增长，也成为生产力发展的“桎梏”，“在私有制的统治下，这些生产力只获得了片面的发展，对大多数人来说成了破坏的力量”；第四，在阶级关系上，“大工业不仅使工人对资本家的关系，而且使劳动本身都成为工人不堪忍受的东西”。资本主义社会的内在矛盾特别是阶级矛盾的激化，成为这一社会向未来共产主义社会演进的“世界历史性的力量”。

This unique thesis of “world history” is closely related to and organically integrated with historical materialism and the theory of communism. On the one hand, the thesis is based on historical materialism and at the same time proves it. Marx and Engels argued that “this transformation of history into world history is not a mere abstract act of the ‘self-consciousness,’ the world spirit, or of any other metaphysical specter, but a quite material, empirically verifiable act, an act which every individual who is actually living, eating, drinking, and clothing himself can prove.” On the other hand, this thesis reveals the historical inevitability of capitalism being replaced by a future communism. Marx and Engels believed that the process of “world history” would achieve “the world-historical existence of individuals, i.e., existence which is directly linked with world history,” and would thus inevitably evolve toward a communism of the all-round development of the individual. Marx’s “world history” thesis is theoretically and ideologically characterized by the historical inevitability of capitalism’s existence and the transitional nature of its historical development. This is the fundamental standpoint and core essence for understanding Marx’s “world history” thesis.

“世界历史”这一独特命题同唯物史观和共产主义学说密切相关，并有机地结合在一起：一方面，这一命题以唯物史观为基础，同时又对唯物史观作出证明，马克思恩格斯认为，“历史向世界历史的转变，不是‘自我意识’、世界精神或者某个形而上学幽灵的某种纯粹的抽象行动，而是完全物质的、可以通过经验证明的行动，每一个过着实际生活的、需要吃、喝、穿的个人都可以证明这种行动”；另一方面，这一命题揭示了资本主义被未来共产主义取代的历史必然性。马克思恩格斯认为：“世界历史”进程将达成“各个人的世界历史性的存在，也就是与世界历史直接相联系的各个人的存在”，由此而必然向人的全面发展的共产主义演进。马克思“世界历史”命题是以资本主义历史存在的必然性和历史发展的过渡性为理论基础与思想特征的。这是理解马克思“世界历史”命题的根本立场和核心要义。

(2) The Expansion of Marx’s “World History” Thesis

（二）马克思“世界历史”命题的拓展

Marx consistently regarded the “world history” thesis as an important part of his theoretical research. In the mid-1870s, thirty years after the founding of historical materialism and the theory of communism, Marx provided a new interpretation of the “world history” thesis, particularly making new explorations into the unity and universality of the “world history” process.

马克思一直把“世界历史”命题作为自己理论研究的重要内容。19世纪70年代中期，在唯物史观和共产主义学说创立30年之际，马克思对“世界历史”命题作出新的阐释，特别是对“世界历史”进程的统一性和普遍性问题作出新的探索。

Before the 1870s, Marx’s “world history” thesis focused on exploring the unity and universality of the development path of capitalism on a world scale and its inevitable transition to a future communism. In the *Communist Manifesto* published in 1848, Marx and Engels stated: “The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilization. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.” Volume 1 of *Capital*, published in 1867, took the typical form of capitalist economic relations in England as its object and provided a scientific demonstration of the capitalist mode of production and its corresponding relations of production and exchange. Marx pointed out pointedly: “The country that is more developed industrially only shows, to the less developed, the image of its own future.” That is to say, the history of developed countries is the reality of underdeveloped countries; the more industrially developed country shows the less developed country the image of its future development; underdeveloped countries must traverse the path that developed countries have historically taken.

19世纪70年代之前，马克思的“世界历史”命题，集中探索了世界范围内资本主义的发展道路及其必然向未来共产主义过渡的统一性和普遍性。在1848年发表的《共产党宣言》中，马克思恩格斯提出：“资产阶级，由于开拓了世界市场，使一切国家的生产和消费都成为世界性的了”，同样“资产阶级，由于一切生产工具的迅速改进，由于交通的极其便利，把一切民族甚至最野蛮的民族都卷到文明中来了。”1867年出版的《资本论》第1卷以英国资本主义经济关系典型形态为对象，对资本主义生产方式及其相应的生产关系和交换关系作出科学论证。马克思有针对性地提出：“工业较发达的国家向工业较不发达的国家所显示的，只是后者未来的景象。”这就是说，发达国家的历史就是不发达国家的现实，工业较发达的国家向较不发达的国家展示了后者未来发展的景象，不发达国家要经历发达国家历史上曾经走过的道路。

After the early 1870s, through in-depth research on Eastern societies, primarily Russian economic and social relations, while affirming the unity and universality of “world history,” Marx paid more attention to the issues of difference and diversity in “world history.” In a speech at a mass meeting in Amsterdam in September 1872, Marx, mentioning that “the workers will one day have to conquer political supremacy in order to establish the new organization of labor,” stated: “We do not assert that the means to achieve this end are everywhere the same. We know that we must take into account the institutions, customs, and traditions of the different countries, and we do not deny that there are countries, such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I might also add Holland, where the workers may attain their goal by peaceful means. If that is true, we must also recognize that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal in order to establish the rule of labor.” In the mid-1870s, Marx further realized that, due to differences in economic, social, and historical-cultural conditions, various countries would follow diversified and unique development paths in the “world history” process, paths adapted to their actual conditions.

19世纪70年代初之后，通过对东方社会主要是俄国经济社会关系的深入研究，马克思在肯定“世界历史”的统一性和普遍性的同时，更多地关注“世界历史”的差异性和多样性问题。1872年9月，在阿姆斯特丹群众大会的演讲中，马克思在提到“工人总有一天必须夺取政权，以便建立一个新的劳动组织”时指出：“我们从来没有断言，为了达到这一目的，到处都应该采取同样的手段”；相反的是，“必须考虑到各国的制度、风俗和传统”，可能用和平的或者暴力的不同手段，“最终地建立劳动的统治”。19世纪70年代中期，马克思进一步意识到，各个国家由于经济社会和历史文化条件的差异，在“世界历史”进程中将出现与各个国家实际相适应的多样化的、独特的发展道路。

In a letter to the editors of *Otechestvennye Zapiski* in October–November 1877, Marx pointed out: “Events strikingly analogous but taking place in different historical surroundings led to totally different results. By studying each of these evolutions separately, and then comparing them, we can easily find the clue to this phenomenon, but one will never arrive there by using as one’s master key a general historico-philosophical theory, the supreme virtue of which consists in being super-historical.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “Letter to the Editorial Board of *Otechestvennye Zapiski*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 24, p. 201. [2] Karl Marx, “Drafts of the Letter to Vera Zasulich,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 24, p. 346. [3] “Caudine Forks” (Latin: Furculae Caudinae) refers to a narrow mountain pass in ancient Samnium where the Roman army was forced to surrender in 321 BCE. Marx uses it as a metaphor for the ordeal of passing through the capitalist mode of production. [4] Karl Marx, “Drafts of the Letter to Vera Zasulich,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 24, pp. 349–350. [5] Ibid., p. 350. [6] Ibid., p. 353. [7] Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “Preface to the Russian Edition of the *Communist Manifesto*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 24, p. 426. [8] V. I. Lenin, *Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism*, in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 22, p. 266. [9] V. I. Lenin, “On the Slogan for a United States of Europe,” in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 21, p. 342. [10] V. I. Lenin, “Left-Wing Childishness and the Petty-Bourgeois Mentality,” in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 27, p. 335. [11] V. I. Lenin, “The New Economic Policy and the Tasks of the Political Education Departments,” in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 33, p. 62. [12] V. I. Lenin, “The Tax in Kind,” in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 32, p. 341. [13] V. I. Lenin, “The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government,” in *Lenin Collected Works*, vol. 27, p. 259. In the process of “world history,” the spatial coexistence of developed and underdeveloped countries makes it entirely possible for underdeveloped or non-capitalist countries to take a path of development that coexists with that of developed countries. Underdeveloped countries can fully achieve their own leapfrog development, giving rise to the diversity of the “world history” process and presenting the problem of the general laws of social development and the choice of diverse paths of leapfrog development.

1877年10—11月，马克思在给《祖国纪事》杂志编辑部的信中指出：“极为相似的事变发生在不同的历史环境中就引起了完全不同的结果。如果把这些演变中的每一个都分别加以研究，然后再把它们加以比较，我们就会很容易地找到理解这种现象的钥匙；但是，使用一般历史哲学理论这一把万能钥匙，那是永远达不到这种目的的，这种历史哲学理论的最大长处就在于它是超历史的。”在“世界历史”进程中，发达国家和不发达国家空间上的并存性，使得不发达国家或者非资本主义国家完全有可能走出一条同发达国家发展并存的道路，不发达国家完全有可能实现自身的跨越式发展，形成“世界历史”进程的多样性，出现社会发展道路的一般规律性和跨越式发展多样化路径选择的问题。

In February–March 1881, in his reply to Vera Zasulich, Marx again mentioned that in the development of “world history,” the diversity of paths of social formation evolution would inevitably emerge. For example, historical research on primitive commune forms shows that “it is a mistake to lump all primitive communes together; just as in geological formations, so in historical formations there is a series of types: primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.” [2]2 “Grand historical” perspective (大历史观): A term in Chinese Marxist discourse referring to a long-term, broad view of history that situates current developments within the overall trajectory of human civilization and socialist progress. In the process of “world history,” the diversity and difference of social development paths will inevitably appear; even within the same social formation, due to the diversity of “primary,” “secondary,” and “tertiary” types, specific social development forms with their own characteristics may emerge.

1881年2—3月，马克思在给查苏利奇的复信中再次提到，“世界历史”发展中必将出现社会形态演进道路的多样性问题，比如，对原始公社形态的历史研究就表明，“把所有的原始公社混为一谈是错误的；正像在地质的层系构造中一样，在历史的形态中，也有原生类型、次生类型、再次生类型等一系列的类型”。在“世界历史”进程中，必将出现社会发展道路多样性和差异性问题；即使在同一种社会形态中，也可能由于“原生类型”“次生类型”“再次生类型”上的多样性，出现具有各自特色的具体的社会发展样式。

(III) The Question of “Crossing the Caudine Forks” in Marx’s “World History” Thesis

（三）马克思“世界历史”命题中“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的提出

In his exploration of the nature of the Russian rural commune and the historical conditions in which it was situated, Marx raised the question of “crossing the Caudine Forks” [3]3 New development philosophy (新发展理念): A set of five development concepts—innovation, coordination, green, openness, and sharing—promoted by the CPC since the 18th National Congress. within the “world history” thesis. He argued: on the one hand, “Russia is the only European country in which the ‘agricultural commune’ has been preserved on a national scale,” but it is “not, like the East Indies, the prey of a foreign conqueror”; on the other hand, Russia does not exist in isolation from the modern world; it coexists “simultaneously with Western production, which dominates the world market.” [4]4 New form of human civilization (人类文明新形态): A term in Xi Jinping Thought referring to the form of civilization created by Chinese-path modernization, distinct from both capitalist and traditional socialist models. The question Marx posed was: “Does Russia have to go through a long period of gestation of machine industry, as the West did, in order to adopt machinery, steamships, railways, etc.?” His own answer was: “Russia can avoid the Caudine Forks of the capitalist system and apply to the commune all the positive achievements created by the capitalist system.” [5]5 The “three-step” strategy refers to the plan for China’s modernization, formally proposed in 1987, with steps targeting the late 20th century, 2000, and the mid-21st century. In the process of “world history,” a country like Russia can take a path that avoids the “terrible vicissitudes” of capitalist production while appropriating its “all positive achievements.” This is the essence of what Marx considered the “crossing the Caudine Forks” question.

在对俄国农村公社性质及其所处历史条件的探索中，马克思提出了“世界历史”命题中的“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题。他认为：一方面，“俄国是在全国范围内把‘农业公社’保存到今天的唯一的欧洲国家”，但又“不像东印度那样，是外国征服者的猎获物”；另一方面，俄国不是脱离现代世界孤立生存的,它和“控制着世界市场的西方生产同时存在”。马克思提出的问题就是：“俄国为了采用机器、轮船、铁路等等，是不是一定要像西方那样先经过一段很长的机器工业的孕育期呢？”他自己的回答是：“俄国可以不通过资本主义制度的卡夫丁峡谷,而把资本主义制度所创造的一切积极的成果用到公社中来”。在“世界历史”进程中，像俄国这样的国家可以走出一条不经受资本主义生产的“可怕的波折”而又占有它的“一切积极的成果”的道路，这就是马克思认为的“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的实质所在。

Of course, what Marx raised here was only the theoretical possibility of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” For this possibility to be transformed into reality, certain internal and external conditions were necessary: the internal condition was mainly that Russia itself must undergo a social revolution. “If revolution occurs at the opportune moment, if it can concentrate all its forces to ensure the free development of the rural commune, then the rural commune will soon become an element of Russia’s social regeneration, an element superior to other countries still enslaved by the capitalist system.” [6]6 The Four Cardinal Principles are the four political principles upheld in China since 1979: the socialist path, the people’s democratic dictatorship, the leadership of the CPC, and Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. The external condition was mainly that for Russia to achieve this “crossing,” it must obtain the support of the Western proletarian revolution. “If the Russian revolution becomes the signal for a workers’ revolution in the West, so that both complement each other, then the present Russian common ownership of land may serve as the starting point for a communist development.” [7]7 The "two inevitables" (两个必然) refers to the thesis from the *Communist Manifesto* that the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. The "two never will be" (两个决不会) refers to the thesis from Marx's *Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* that a social order never perishes before all its productive forces have developed, and new relations of production never appear before their material conditions have matured. The three "whys" (三个为什么) refers to the questions: why capitalism has not completely perished, why socialism experienced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, and why communism requires a long historical development to be realized.

当然，马克思这里提出的只是“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”在理论上的可能性,要使这种可能性转化为现实性,还必须具备一些内部的和外部的条件：内部条件主要是，俄国自身必须发生社会革命，“如果革命在适当的时刻发生,如果它能把自己的一切力量集中起来以保证农村公社的自由发展,那么,农村公社就会很快地变为俄国社会新生的因素,变为优于其他还处在资本主义制度奴役下的国家的因素”；外部条件主要是，俄国要实现“跨越”，必须取得西方无产阶级革命的支援,“假如俄国革命将成为西方工人革命的信号而双方互相补充的话，那么现今的俄国公有制便能成为共产主义发展的起点”。

Marx’s new elaboration of the “crossing the Caudine Forks” question in his later years was a refinement and expansion of the “world history” thesis. The “crossing the Caudine Forks” question revealed the core issue of the epochal themes of Marxism in the 20th century and exerted a major theoretical influence and ideological appeal on the exploration of Marxist social revolution and paths of social development in the 20th century.

马克思晚年对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的新阐释，是对“世界历史”命题的完善和拓展。“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题揭示了20世纪马克思主义时代课题发展的核心问题，对20世纪马克思主义社会革命和社会发展道路的探索，发挥着重大的理论影响力和思想感召力。

II. The Breakthrough of the “Crossing the Caudine Forks” Question in the 20th-Century “World History” Thesis

二、20世纪“世界历史”命题中“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的突破

The 20th century was the first complete century in the historical development of Marxism. In this century, the development of scientific socialism was centered on Marx’s “crossing the Caudine Forks” question, and its characteristic was also manifested in the major breakthroughs achieved in exploring this question.

20世纪是马克思主义历史发展中第一个完整的世纪。在这一世纪中，科学社会主义的发展以马克思“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题为主题，其特征也体现为在探索“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题上取得重大突破。

(I) Lenin’s Pioneering Exploration of the “Crossing the Caudine Forks” Question

（一）列宁对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的开创性探索

At the beginning of the 20th century, Lenin confronted the actual economic and social development of Russia, deeply understood the new changes and new characteristics of the historical development of world capitalism, firmly grasped the “basic economic fact” of “the replacement of capitalist free competition by capitalist monopoly” in the changes of “world history,” and founded the Marxist theory of imperialism. [8]8 Xi Jinping, “Working Together to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind,” speech at the United Nations Office at Geneva, January 18, 2017. The classical quotation “All things are nurtured together without harming one another, and all paths run parallel without contradicting each other” is from the *Doctrine of the Mean* (Zhongyong), a Confucian classic. Lenin revealed that “the unevenness of economic and political development is an absolute law of capitalism,” forming the new theoretical judgment that “socialism may first triumph in a few or even in a single capitalist country taken separately.” [9]9 "Crossing the Caudine Forks" (跨越卡夫丁峡谷) is a metaphor Marx used in his later years, referring to the possibility of a society bypassing the capitalist stage of development to directly transition to socialism, drawing on the ancient Roman military defeat at the Caudine Forks. This steered the “crossing the Caudine Forks” question raised by Marx toward the strategy, tactics, and practice of the Russian revolution. Lenin’s exploration of the “crossing the Caudine Forks” question focused on the following three aspects.

20世纪初，列宁直面俄国经济社会发展的实际，深刻理解世界资本主义历史发展的新变化和新特征，牢牢把握“世界历史”变化中“资本主义的自由竞争为资本主义的垄断所代替”的“经济上的基本事实”，创立了马克思主义的帝国主义理论。列宁揭示了“经济和政治发展的不平衡是资本主义的绝对规律”，形成“社会主义可能首先在少数甚至在单独一个资本主义国家内获得胜利”这一新的理论判断，把马克思提出的“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题导向俄国革命的战略和策略及其实践。列宁对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的探索，集中于以下三个方面。

First, for economically and culturally relatively backward countries to achieve “crossing,” they must undergo a “special period” and “special stage” characterized by “transition.” In the half year after the October Revolution, Lenin insisted that the nascent Soviet regime must undergo a process of “a series of gradual changes” and “a relatively cautious transition to the new system.” He put forward the idea that “state capitalism” serves as “the ante-chamber of socialism, the condition for the reliable victory of socialism.” [10]10 Xi Jinping, "Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Strive in Unity to Build a Modern Socialist Country in All Respects," Report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC, October 16, 2022. Lenin’s conception of “transition” was a concrete exploration of the path and method of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” After May 1918, when the Soviet regime faced the military threat of international imperialism, Lenin was forced to turn to “War Communism,” characterized by a wartime command economy, but he did not abandon the strategic and tactical thinking of “a relatively cautious transition to the new system.”

第一，经济文化相对落后国家实现“跨越”，要经历一个以“过渡”为特征的“特殊时期”和“特殊阶段”。十月革命之后的半年，列宁坚持认为，新生的苏维埃政权要经历一个发生“一系列渐进的改变”、需要“比较慎重地向新制度过渡”的过程；提出“国家资本主义”作为“社会主义的前阶，是社会主义取得可靠的胜利的条件”的思想。列宁提出的“过渡”构想，是对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”的道路和方式的具体探索。1918年5月之后，苏维埃政权面临国际帝国主义的军事威胁，列宁不得不转向以战时统制经济为特征的“战时共产主义”，但并没有放弃“比较慎重地向新制度过渡”的战略和策略思想。

Second, achieving “crossing” requires institutional design and systemic arrangements for “the intermediate paths, methods, means, and auxiliary measures” in the “transition.” By the end of 1920, Lenin had realized that “the attempt to implement the principles of socialist production and distribution in the simplest, quickest, and most direct way had failed… it was necessary to retreat to the positions of state capitalism.” [11]11 Xi Jinping, The New Economic Policy became the institutional design and systemic arrangement Lenin made for “indirect transition” in exploring the “crossing” question. Lenin believed that, whether in “direct transition” or “indirect transition,” “we have not yet gone beyond the first stages of the transition from capitalism to socialism; the peculiarities of Russia make this transition even more complex.” [12]12 The “five civilizations” refer to material civilization, political civilization, cultural-ethical progress, social civilization, and ecological civilization, which together constitute the overall layout of socialism with Chinese characteristics. In this process, “if our proletarian party does not learn from the first-class experts of capitalism the skill of organizing large-scale production like a trust, it will never acquire this skill.” [13]13 The five basic features of Chinese-path modernization are: a huge population, common prosperity for all, material and cultural-ethical advancement, harmony between humanity and nature, and peaceful development. Drawing on and absorbing all the excellent achievements of human civilization in the development of capitalism became an important issue in this “transition.”

第二，实现“跨越”需要对“过渡”中“经过哪些中间的途径、方法、手段和辅助办法”作出制度设计和体制安排。1920年末，列宁已经意识到，“用最简单、迅速、直接的办法来实行社会主义的生产和分配原则的尝试已告失败……必须退到国家资本主义的阵地上去”，新经济政策成为列宁在探索“跨越”问题时对“间接过渡”作出的制度设计和体制安排。列宁认为，无论是在“直接过渡”还是在“间接过渡”中，“我们还没有超出从资本主义向社会主义过渡的最初几个阶段，俄国的特点使这一过渡更加复杂”。在这一过程中，“我们无产阶级政党，如果不去向资本主义的第一流专家学习组织托拉斯式的即像托拉斯一样的大生产的本领，那便无从获得这种本领”。借鉴和吸收资本主义发展中人类文明进步的一切优秀成果，成为这一“过渡”中的重要问题。

Third, in the exploration of the theory and practice of the New Economic Policy, the view was put forward that “our entire view of socialism has fundamentally changed.” The core issue of this “fundamental change” lay in shifting the “focus” of the Party’s work from previous political struggle, revolution, and seizure of power to “cultural transformation.” Lenin believed: “Our political and social transformation has become the precursor of the cultural transformation, the cultural revolution, that we now face. Now, as long as this cultural revolution is realized, our country can become a completely socialist country. But this cultural revolution, whether in purely cultural terms (because we are illiterate) or in material terms (because to become cultured people, we need a fairly developed production of material means of subsistence, a fairly solid material foundation), is exceptionally difficult for us.” Lenin’s response to Marx’s problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks” became an important element in the innovative development of scientific socialism in Russia.

第三，在对新经济政策的理论和实践的探索中，提出“我们对社会主义的整个看法根本改变了”的观点。这种“根本的改变”的核心问题在于，把党的工作“重心”从以前的政治斗争、革命、夺取政权等方面转到“文化变革”方面来。列宁认为：“我们的政治和社会变革成了我们目前正面临的文化变革，文化革命的先导。现在，只要实现了这个文化革命，我们的国家就能成为完全社会主义的国家了。但是这个文化革命，无论在纯粹文化方面（因为我们是文盲）或物质方面（因为要成为有文化的人，就要有相当发达的物质生产资料的生产，要有相当的物质基础），对于我们说来，都是异常困难的。”列宁对马克思“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的回答，成为科学社会主义在俄国创新性发展的重要内容。

(II) Autonomous Exploration of the Problem of “Crossing the Caudine Forks” in the Chinese Revolution and Construction

（二）中国革命和建设中对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的自主性探索

China’s national conditions differed markedly from those of Russia. At the beginning of the 20th century, China had become “the prey of foreign conquerors,” suffering from the aggression and plunder of imperialist powers for over half a century. China had been reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Marx’s basic conception of the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks” and Lenin’s exploration of the path of the Russian social revolution did not provide us with ready-made answers. In May 1943, at the time of the dissolution of the Third International, the Communist Party of China, summing up the experience of its own revolutionary path, pointed out: “For a long time now, Chinese Communists have been able to decide their own political policies, guidelines, and actions completely independently, based on the specific conditions and special circumstances of their own nation.”

中国的国情同俄国有着显著差异。20世纪初，中国已经成为“外国征服者的猎获物”，遭受了帝国主义列强长达半个多世纪的侵略和掠夺。中国已经沦为半殖民地半封建社会。马克思对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的基本设想和列宁对俄国社会革命道路的探索，没能为我们提供现成的答案。1943年5月，在第三国际解散之际，中国共产党在总结自己革命道路的经验时指出：“很久以来，中国共产党人即已能够完全独立地根据自己民族的具体情况和特殊条件，决定自己的政治方针、政策和行动。”

In July 1922, the Party’s Second National Congress put forward the path of “democratic revolution” and its main objectives and tasks; in January 1925, the Party’s Fourth National Congress raised the issues of the proletariat’s leadership in the democratic revolution and the worker-peasant alliance. In particular, Mao Zedong’s article “Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society,” published in December 1925, applied the Marxist method of class analysis to make a scientific analysis of the economic status and political attitudes of the various classes in Chinese society, forming the basic conception of the theory and general line of the new-democratic revolution, and opening up the theory and practice of the Chinese revolutionary path in a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, insisted on integrating Marxism-Leninism with China’s concrete reality. They not only pioneered a unique path of social revolution for China but also formed a systematic theory of the new-democratic revolution, clarifying the truth that “the socialist revolution is the inevitable trend of the democratic revolution.”

1922年7月，党的第二次代表大会提出了“民主主义革命”道路和主要目标任务；1925年1月，党的第四次代表大会提出无产阶级在民主革命中的领导权和工农联盟问题。特别是，1925年12月毛泽东发表的《中国社会各阶级的分析》一文，运用马克思主义阶级分析方法，对中国社会各阶级的经济地位和政治态度作出科学分析，形成了新民主主义革命理论和总路线的基本设想，开辟了半殖民地半封建社会的中国革命道路的理论和实践。以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人，坚持把马克思列宁主义与中国的具体实际相结合，不仅开创了中国独特的社会革命道路，而且还形成了系统的新民主主义革命理论，阐明了“社会主义革命是民主主义革命的必然趋势”的道理。

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the people of all ethnic groups across the country. On the basis of rapidly healing the wounds of war and restoring the national economy, and in accordance with China’s specific national conditions, it put forward the Party’s general line for the transition period, realizing the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts, and capitalist industry and commerce. The uniquely Chinese path of socialist transformation, created independently by the Communist Party of China, was a creative response to the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks,” imbued with Chinese characteristics.

中华人民共和国成立后，中国共产党带领全国各族人民，在迅速医治战争创伤、恢复国民经济的基础上，根据中国的具体国情，提出了党在过渡时期的总路线，实现了对农业、手工业、资本主义工商业的社会主义改造。中国共产党独创的具有中国特色的社会主义改造道路，是对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题作出的富有中国特点的创造性回答。

During the period of socialist construction, Mao Zedong made the judgment that China was in the stage of “underdeveloped socialism,” defining the Chinese situation of the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” In December 1959, Mao Zedong pointed out: “The stage of socialism may itself be divided into two stages. The first stage is underdeveloped socialism, and the second stage is relatively developed socialism. The latter stage may require a longer period than the former.” “Underdeveloped socialism” is “a long process,” and in its development it “must necessarily pass through a transitional period of continuous quantitative change and many partial qualitative changes.”

在社会主义建设时期，毛泽东作出中国处在“不发达的社会主义”阶段的判断，定义了“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的中国境况。1959年12月，毛泽东指出：“社会主义这个阶段，又可能分为两个阶段，第一个阶段是不发达的社会主义，第二个阶段是比较发达的社会主义。后一阶段可能比前一阶段需要更长的时间。”“不发达的社会主义”是“一个长过程”，在其发展中“一定经过不断的量变和许多的部分质变”的过渡时期。

Mao Zedong’s theory of the “Three Worlds” made an important expansion of Marx’s “world history” proposition. In February 1974, Mao Zedong, when meeting with foreign friends, proposed: “In my view, the United States and the Soviet Union are the First World. The middle elements, such as Japan, Europe, Australia, and Canada, are the Second World”; “Asia, except for Japan, is all the Third World. The whole of Africa is the Third World, and Latin America is also the Third World.” The “Three Worlds” theory was a strategic and tactical conception of the state of “world history” under the pattern of US-Soviet hegemony at the time. In particular, it made autonomous innovations in Marx’s “world history” proposition in two aspects: first, it offered a new interpretation of the single subject of capitalism in Marx’s “world history” proposition, putting forward the view of the coexistence of the diversity of “three worlds” within the subject of “world history”; second, it proposed that in the new pattern of “world history,” “the world actually consists of three aspects, three worlds that are interconnected yet mutually contradictory.” In the pattern of coexistence of the “three worlds,” there is both “interconnection” implying cooperation and exchange, and “mutual contradiction” implying confrontation and conflict, thereby raising the issue of the dialectical relationship of the dual nature within the pattern of “coexistence” of the subjects of “world history” in the present era.

毛泽东创立的“三个世界”理论，对马克思“世界历史”命题作出重要拓展。1974年2月，毛泽东在会见外国朋友时提出：“我看美国、苏联是第一世界。中间派，日本、欧洲、澳大利亚、加拿大是第二世界”；“亚洲除了日本，都是第三世界。整个非洲都是第三世界，拉丁美洲也是第三世界”。“三个世界”理论是对当时美苏争霸格局下“世界历史”状态作出的战略和策略构想，特别是对马克思“世界历史”命题作出了两个方面的自主性创新：一是对马克思“世界历史”命题中资本主义单一主体作出新的阐释，提出了“世界历史”主体中“三个世界”多样性并存的观点；二是提出“世界历史”新格局中，“世界实际上存在着互相联系又互相矛盾着的三个方面、三个世界”。在“三个世界”并存的格局中，既“互相联系”有合作交流，又“互相矛盾”有对抗冲突，由此提出了现时代“世界历史”主体“并存”格局中两面性的辩证关系问题。

(III) Breakthrough Exploration of the Problem of “Crossing the Caudine Forks” in the New Period

（三）新时期对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的突破性探索

During the new period of reform and opening up, Chinese academic circles conducted relatively extensive research on Marx’s “world history” proposition and the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” The Communist Party of China creatively combined the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks” with the practical exploration of the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics. In grasping the dialectical relationship of the dual nature within the pattern of “coexistence” between socialism and capitalism, it made creative inquiries into the path of social development for countries like China, which are relatively backward economically and culturally.

改革开放新时期，中国学术界对马克思“世界历史”命题和“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题做了较为广泛的研究。中国共产党创造性地把“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题同中国特色社会主义道路探索实际相结合，在把握社会主义同资本主义“并存”格局中两面性的辩证关系中，对像中国这样经济文化相对落后国家的社会发展道路问题作出创造性的探讨。

First, it provided an answer to the institutional stipulations and essential characteristics of the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” The Communist Party of China made the judgment that China is in and will long remain in the primary stage of socialism, put forward that the essence of socialism is to liberate and develop the productive forces, abolish exploitation and eliminate polarization, and ultimately achieve common prosperity, and formed new ideas and viewpoints such as the socialist market economy being the inevitable choice for the development of the theory and practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics.

第一，对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的制度规定和本质特征作出回答。中国共产党作出我国正处于并将长期处于社会主义初级阶段的判断，提出社会主义的本质是解放生产力，发展生产力，消灭剥削，消除两极分化，最终达到共同富裕，形成社会主义市场经济是中国特色社会主义理论和实践发展的必然选择等新思想新观点。

Second, it provided an answer to the core essence of the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” Adhering to reform and opening up as the basic state policy, and adhering to the principle of development for the people, by the people, and with the fruits of development shared by the people, based on the theme of the times and the principal contradiction in the primary stage of socialism, it established the Party’s basic line and basic program for the primary stage of socialism, and put forward innovative theories and carried out unique practices such as the strategic steps of the “three-step” [5]5 The “three-step” strategy refers to the plan for China’s modernization, formally proposed in 1987, with steps targeting the late 20th century, 2000, and the mid-21st century. approach to basically achieving modernization.

第二，对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的核心要义作出回答。坚持以改革和对外开放为基本国策，坚持发展为了人民、发展依靠人民、发展成果由人民共享的宗旨，依据当今时代主题、社会主义初级阶段社会主要矛盾，确立了党在社会主义初级阶段的基本路线和基本纲领，提出分“三步走”基本实现现代化的战略步骤等创新性理论并展开独创性实践。

Third, it provided an answer to the fundamental requirements of the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” The Communist Party of China closely integrated the advancement of the great new project of Party building with the advancement of the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Focusing on the historic issues of improving the Party’s leadership and governance capacity and enhancing its ability to resist corruption, prevent degeneration, and withstand risks, it adhered to the principle that the Party must supervise itself and govern itself strictly, ensuring that the Party always stays at the forefront of the times in the historical process of profound changes in the world economic and political landscape, and always remains the strong leading core of the entire Chinese people in the historical process of responding to various domestic and international risks and tests.

第三，对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的根本要求作出回答。中国共产党把推进党的建设新的伟大工程和推进中国特色社会主义事业紧密结合起来，围绕提高党的领导水平和执政能力与增强拒腐防变、抵御风险能力的历史性课题，坚持党要管党、从严治党，确保党在世界经济政治格局深刻变化的历史进程中始终走在时代前列，在应对国内外各种风险和考验的历史进程中始终成为全国人民的主心骨。

Fourth, it provided a new interpretation of the historical dialectical relationship of the dual nature of the “coexistence” of socialism and capitalism in the problem of “crossing the Caudine Forks.” Taking economic construction as the central task, adhering to reform and opening up and the Four Cardinal Principles [6]6 The Four Cardinal Principles are the four political principles upheld in China since 1979: the socialist path, the people’s democratic dictatorship, the leadership of the CPC, and Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought., it both boldly drew upon and absorbed all the achievements of civilization from the development of capitalism, and firmly prevented and resisted all the disastrous consequences of the development of capitalism, clearly recognizing that “our struggle with various hostile forces at home and abroad over infiltration and counter-infiltration, subversion and counter-subversion will be long-term and complex.”

第四，对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题中社会主义和资本主义“并存”的两面性的历史辩证关系作出新的阐释。以经济建设为中心，坚持改革开放和坚持四项基本原则，既大胆地借鉴和吸收资本主义发展中的一切文明成果，又坚定地防止和抵制资本主义发展中的一切灾难性的后果，清醒地认识到“我们同国内外各种敌对势力在渗透和反渗透、颠覆和反颠覆上的斗争将是长期的、复杂的”。

Fifth, from the grasp of “epochal features” and “world configuration,” enrich and perfect the contemporary significance of Marx’s “world history” thesis. In 1985, Deng Xiaoping proposed: “The truly major issues in the world today, the global strategic issues, are one, the issue of peace, and the other, the issue of economics, or the issue of development.” The 14th National Congress of the CPC summarized the two major issues of peace and development as the “epochal theme” and “epochal features.” The two themes of peace and development complement each other; China is an important force for maintaining world peace and development. “China, as a socialist country and the world’s largest developing country, occupies a position and plays a role in the process of multipolarization that is fundamentally different from that of Western powers.” In the new period, the CPC, starting from the issue of “crossing the Caudine Forks,” extended its exploration to Marx’s “world history” thesis. [7]7 The "two inevitables" (两个必然) refers to the thesis from the *Communist Manifesto* that the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. The "two never will be" (两个决不会) refers to the thesis from Marx's *Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* that a social order never perishes before all its productive forces have developed, and new relations of production never appear before their material conditions have matured. The three "whys" (三个为什么) refers to the questions: why capitalism has not completely perished, why socialism experienced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, and why communism requires a long historical development to be realized.

第五，从对“时代特征”和“世界格局”的把握上，丰富和完善马克思“世界历史”命题的当代意义。1985年，邓小平就提出：“现在世界上真正大的问题，带全球性的战略问题，一个是和平问题，一个是经济问题或者说发展问题。”党的十四大把和平与发展两大问题概括为“时代主题”和“时代特征”。和平与发展两大主题相辅相成，中国是维护世界和平与发展的重要力量，“中国作为一个社会主义国家和世界上最大的发展中国家，在多极化进程中所处的地位和发挥的作用，与西方大国迥然不同”。新时期，中国共产党从“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题入手，延伸到对马克思“世界历史”命题的拓展性探讨。

III. The Innovation of Marx’s “World History” Thesis in the New Era

三、马克思“世界历史”命题在新时代的拓新

Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a New Era, and Marx’s “world history” thesis has been significantly innovated in the New Era. This innovation, based on the great achievements of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era, returns the exploration of the “crossing the Caudine Forks” issue to Marx’s “world history” thesis, making groundbreaking research on the “world history” thesis of the New Era. This innovation manifests as, with the systematic development of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, the “world history” thesis of the New Era gradually evolves into a systematic doctrine. The period from the 18th National Congress of the CPC to the 19th National Congress was the period of formation of the basic theoretical viewpoints of the “world history” thesis of the New Era; the period from the 19th National Congress to the 20th National Congress was the period of development of the systematic doctrine of the “world history” thesis of the New Era.

党的十八大以来，中国特色社会主义进入新时代，马克思“世界历史”命题在新时代得到显著拓新。这一拓新，以新时代中国特色社会主义取得的伟大成就为基础，对“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题的探索回归马克思“世界历史”命题，对新时代“世界历史”命题作出开创性研究。这一拓新表现为，随着习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想的系统发展，新时代“世界历史”命题也逐渐向系统化学说演进。党的十八大之后到党的十九大，是新时代“世界历史”命题基本理论观点形成时期，党的十九大之后到党的二十大，是新时代“世界历史”命题系统化学说的发展时期。

(I) The Grand Conception of the Chinese Dream of the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation Highlights the New Foundation for Exploring the “World History” Thesis of the New Era

（一）中华民族伟大复兴中国梦的恢弘构思，彰显新时代“世界历史”命题探索的新基点

In November 2012, shortly after the 18th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping, while visiting

2012年11月，党的十八大后不久，习近平在参观《复兴之路》展览时提出：“实现中华民族伟大复兴，就是中华民族近代以来最伟大的梦想。这个梦想，凝聚了几代中国人的夙愿，体现了中华民族和中国人民的整体利益，是每一个中华儿女的共同期盼。”“中国梦”是对中华民族近代以来追求“国家富强、民族振兴、人民幸福”崇高理想的跃升，是对中国共产党百年来不懈奋斗的历史追求和时代担当的表达，也是对中国共产党走向世界历史舞台中央的历史自觉和思想境界的宣示。

The Chinese Dream expresses the common vision of every son and daughter of the Chinese nation, and the Chinese Dream is intimately connected with the beautiful dreams of people of all countries. Xi Jinping points out: “The Chinese Dream we want to realize not only benefits the Chinese people, but also benefits the people of all countries.” The profound conception of the Chinese Dream fundamentally changes the subject and theme of the “world history” that Marx confronted in the mid-19th century, establishing a reliable subject and a credible theme for the proposition of “world history” in the New Era, thereby forming the foundational theory of the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

中国梦表达了每一个中华儿女的共同愿景，中国梦与世界各国人民的美好梦想息息相通，习近平指出：“我们要实现的中国梦，不仅造福中国人民，而且造福各国人民。”中国梦的深邃意境根本改变了19世纪中期马克思所面对的“世界历史”主体和主题，为新时代“世界历史”命题确立了可靠的主体和可信的主题，形成了新时代“世界历史”命题的基础性理论。

In the century following the Opium War, the Chinese people bore an indelible memory of the suffering brought by internal turmoil and foreign invasion, and they pursued peace with unremitting effort. “In poverty, one attends to his own virtue; in prosperity, one extends aid to all under heaven.” [7]7 The "two inevitables" (两个必然) refers to the thesis from the *Communist Manifesto* that the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. The "two never will be" (两个决不会) refers to the thesis from Marx's *Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* that a social order never perishes before all its productive forces have developed, and new relations of production never appear before their material conditions have matured. The three "whys" (三个为什么) refers to the questions: why capitalism has not completely perished, why socialism experienced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, and why communism requires a long historical development to be realized. Realizing the Chinese Dream brings opportunities to the world, not threats; promotes progress, not regression; and fosters win-win cooperation, not zero-sum games. The Chinese people share their development experience and opportunities with all countries in the world. The Chinese Dream is the dream of the Chinese people pursuing a better life, and it is also a dream of contributing to a world of peace, development, progress, and security. Facing the new development of socialism with Chinese characteristics, Xi Jinping points out: “Our responsibility is to unite and lead the entire Party and the people of all ethnic groups across the country, take the baton of history, and continue to strive unremittingly for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, enabling the Chinese nation to stand more firmly and powerfully among the nations of the world, and to make new and greater contributions to humanity.” This is the basic theme of the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era, and it is also an important foundation for expanding and innovating Marx’s proposition of “world history” in the New Era.

鸦片战争之后的百年间，中国人民对内部战乱和外敌入侵带来的苦难有着刻骨铭心的记忆，对和平有着孜孜不倦的追求。“穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下。”实现中国梦是给世界带来机遇而不是带来威胁，是促使进步而不是造成倒退，是合作共赢而不是零和博弈，中国人民将自身发展经验和机遇同世界各国分享。中国梦是中国人民追求美好生活之梦，也是奉献和平、发展、进步、安全的世界之梦。面对中国特色社会主义的新发展，习近平指出：“我们的责任，就是要团结带领全党全国各族人民，接过历史的接力棒，继续为实现中华民族伟大复兴而努力奋斗，使中华民族更加坚强有力地自立于世界民族之林，为人类作出新的更大的贡献。”这是新时代中国特色社会主义发展的基本主题，也是新时代拓新马克思“世界历史”命题的重要基点。

(II) The exploration of the “grand history” of 500 years of world socialism opens a new horizon for the proposition of “world history” in the New Era

（二）对世界社会主义500年“大历史”的探索，开启了新时代“世界历史”命题的新视域

History is the best textbook. Xi Jinping believes: “Only in the long river of the entire

历史是最好的教科书。习近平认为：“只有在整个人类发展的历史长河中，才能透视出历史运动的本质和时代发展的方向。”2013年1月，习近平在新进党的十八届中央委员会委员、候补委员研讨班的讲话中，纵观世界社会主义500年“大历史”，对社会主义从空想到科学、从理论到现实、从一国实践到多国发展，以及从单一模式到多种样式的发展历程作出深入阐释，展现了社会主义“世界历史”的恢弘史诗和新时代“世界历史”命题的深湛视域。

The 500 years of world socialism, from the ideological origins of utopian socialism propagated by Thomas More in *Utopia* in 1516, to Marx and Engels' establishment of the theoretical system of scientific socialism, to Lenin's leadership of the October Revolution's victory and the practice of socialism, the gradual formation of the Soviet model and its historical upheaval, then to the Chinese Communist Party's exploration and practice of socialism after the founding of the People's Republic of China, and to the Chinese Communist Party's historic decision to carry out reform and opening up and to create and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics, constitute a magnificent historical process. A historical review of the 500 years of socialism is conducive to deepening the understanding of the "grand history" of the arduous exploration, tortuous development, strenuous endeavor, and continuous progress of socialist thought, movements, and institutions; it is conducive to strengthening confidence in the path, confidence in the theory, confidence in the system, and confidence in the culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics; it is conducive to deepening faith in communism, belief in scientific socialism, and conviction in socialism with Chinese characteristics; and it is also conducive to grasping the trends and essence of human social development, expanding a new horizon for understanding the proposition of "world history" in the New Era.

世界社会主义500年，从1516年莫尔在《乌托邦》中宣扬的空想社会主义思想源头，到马克思恩格斯创立科学社会主义理论体系，到列宁领导十月革命胜利并实践社会主义、苏联模式逐步形成及其历史剧变，再到中华人民共和国成立后中国共产党对社会主义的探索和实践，以及到中国共产党作出进行改革开放的历史性决策、开创和发展中国特色社会主义，是一个波澜壮阔的历史过程。对社会主义500年的历史回顾，有利于深化对社会主义思想、运动和制度的艰辛探索、曲折发展、砥砺奋进、不断前行的“大历史”的理解；有利于增强中国特色社会主义道路自信、理论自信、制度自信和文化自信；有利于深化对共产主义的信仰、对科学社会主义的信念和对中国特色社会主义的信念；也有利于对人类社会发展趋势和本质的把握，拓展理解新时代“世界历史”命题的新视界。

Corresponding to Xi Jinping's speech in January 2013, in his important speech "Upholding Historical Materialism and Continuously Opening Up New Horizons for the Development of Marxism in Contemporary China" at the eleventh collective study session of the Political Bureau of the 18th Central Committee in December 2013, Xi Jinping put forward the idea of the historical dialectical relationship between Marx and Engels' "two inevitables" and "two never will be". Xi Jinping argued that the thesis of the "two inevitables" put forward in the *Communist Manifesto*—that "the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable"—is "a statement on the general trend of human history, the inevitable direction of the laws of history." The thesis of the "two never will be" put forward in the *Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*—that "no social order ever perishes before all the productive forces for which there is room in it have developed; and new, higher relations of production never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the womb of the old society itself"—this thesis "can help us understand why capitalism has not completely perished to this day, why socialism has experienced twists and turns such as the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, and why the communism foreseen by Marx still requires a very long historical development to be realized." Only by proceeding from the historical dialectical relationship between the "two inevitables" and the "two never will be" can we deeply understand the "inevitable direction of the laws of history" that socialism will inevitably replace capitalism, can we profoundly grasp the historical and theoretical roots of the three "whys" in the era of the coexistence of socialism and capitalism, and can we also expand a new horizon for deeply analyzing Marx's proposition of "world history" in the New Era.

与2013年1月习近平的讲话相对应，2013年12月习近平在十八届中央政治局第十一次集体学习时的重要讲话《坚持历史唯物主义，不断开辟当代中国马克思主义发展新境界》中，提出了马克思恩格斯关于“两个必然”和“两个决不会”的历史辩证关系的思想。习近平认为，《共产党宣言》提出“资产阶级的灭亡和无产阶级的胜利是同样不可避免的”这一“两个必然”论点，是“就人类历史总的发展趋势而言的，是历史规律的必然指向”。《〈政治经济学批判〉序言》提出“两个决不会”的论点，即“无论哪一个社会形态，在它所能容纳的全部生产力发挥出来以前，是决不会灭亡的；而新的更高的生产关系，在它的物质存在条件在旧社会的胎胞里成熟以前，是决不会出现的”，这一论点“可以帮助我们理解为什么资本主义至今没有完全消亡，为什么社会主义还会出现苏联解体、东欧剧变那样的曲折，为什么马克思主义预见的共产主义还需要经过很长的历史发展才能实现”。从“两个必然”与“两个决不会”的历史辩证关系出发，才能深入理解社会主义必然取代资本主义的“历史规律的必然指向”，才能深刻把握社会主义和资本主义并存时代三个“为什么”的历史和理论根源，也才能拓展深刻探析马克思“世界历史”命题在新时代的新视域。

(III) The Conception of a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind Establishes a New Realm for Exploring the Proposition of "World History" in the New Era

（三）人类命运共同体的构思奠定了新时代“世界历史”命题探索的新境界

In March 2013, Xi Jinping delivered a speech at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations entitled “Follow the Trend of the Times and Promote Global Peace and Development,” in which he put forward the thesis that “we live in an era of great change and face a world that is changing with each passing day.” From the theoretical perspective of a “new type of international relations,” he offered the first explanation of the issue of a community with a shared future for mankind, and answered the epochal question concerning “world history” of “what kind of world to build and how to build it.”

2013年3月，习近平在俄罗斯国际关系学院发表题为《顺应时代前进潮流，促进世界和平发展》的演讲，提出“我们所处的是一个风云变幻的时代，面对的是一个日新月异的世界”的论点，从“新型国际关系”学理上，对人类命运共同体问题首次作出阐释，对“建设一个什么样的世界、如何建设这个世界”这一涉及“世界历史”的时代课题作出回答。

In his explanation of the new characteristics of the changes in “world history” in the 21st century, Xi Jinping stated: “Peace, development, cooperation, and mutual benefit have become the trend of the times. The old colonial system has collapsed, the bloc confrontation of the Cold War era no longer exists, and no country or group of countries can dominate world affairs alone.” The world today must inevitably adopt a new type of “community” approach to address and handle major issues concerning the destiny of mankind, highlighting the new features of changes in the contemporary international economic and political landscape. Within this new configuration, the new changes in the process of “world history” are characterized by the fact that “countries are more interconnected and interdependent than ever before. Mankind lives in the same global village, in the same time and space where history and reality intersect, and is increasingly becoming a community of shared destiny in which you have me and I have you.” In the face of profound changes in the international situation and the new configuration of the world pattern, jointly promoting the establishment of “a new type of international relations centered on cooperation and mutual benefit” will inevitably become a trend of the times and a new development trend of “world history.”

在对21世纪“世界历史”变化新特征的阐释中，习近平提出：“和平、发展、合作、共赢成为时代潮流，旧的殖民体系土崩瓦解，冷战时期的集团对抗不复存在，任何国家或国家集团都再也无法单独主宰世界事务。”当今世界必将以一种新型的“共同体”方式对待和处理关乎人类命运的重大问题，凸显当代国际经济政治格局变化的新特点。在这一新格局中，“世界历史”进程的新变化的特征就在于：“各国相互联系、相互依存的程度空前加深，人类生活在同一个地球村里，生活在历史和现实交汇的同一个时空里，越来越成为你中有我、我中有你的命运共同体。”面对国际形势的深刻变化和世界格局新变化，共同推动建立“以合作共赢为核心的新型国际关系”必将成为一种时代潮流，成为“世界历史”新的发展态势。

In March 2015, Xi Jinping, while attending the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference, proposed the initiative of “promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind by moving towards an Asian community with a shared future.” In September 2015, in his speech at the General Debate of the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, Xi Jinping initially and systematically expounded the scientific connotation of building a community with a shared future for mankind. Its core essence is: “establishing partnerships based on equality, mutual consultation, and mutual understanding,” “creating a security architecture featuring fairness, justice, joint contribution, and shared benefits,” “pursuing development prospects that are open, innovative, inclusive, and mutually beneficial,” “promoting inter-civilization exchanges featuring harmony, inclusiveness, and mutual learning,” and “building an ecological system that respects nature and pursues green development.” In January 2017, in his keynote speech entitled “Work Together to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind” at the United Nations Office at Geneva, Xi Jinping, starting from the question “What’s wrong

2015年3月，习近平在出席博鳌亚洲论坛年会时提出了“通过迈向亚洲命运共同体，推动建设人类命运共同体”的倡议。2015年9月，习近平在第七十届联合国大会一般性辩论时的讲话中，初步系统阐述了构建人类命运共同体的科学内涵，其核心要义是：“建立平等相待、互商互谅的伙伴关系”“营造公道正义、共建共享的安全格局”“谋求开放创新、包容互惠的发展前景”“促进和而不同、兼收并蓄的文明交流”“构筑尊崇自然、绿色发展的生态体系”。2017年1月，习近平在联合国日内瓦总部发表题为《共同构建人类命运共同体》的主旨演讲时，从“世界怎么了、我们怎么办”这一问题切入，详细阐释了构建人类命运共同体的动因、愿景和实施路径。“善学者尽其理，善行者究其难。”习近平指出：“构建人类命运共同体是一个美好的目标，也是一个需要一代又一代人接力跑才能实现的目标。中国愿同广大成员国、国际组织和机构一道，共同推进构建人类命运共同体的伟大进程。”人类命运共同体的理念和构想，彰显了新时代“世界历史”命题的新境界。

(4) The New Development Concept innovates the guiding concept of the “world history” proposition in the New Era

（四）新发展理念创新了新时代“世界历史”命题的主导性理念

After the 18th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping, proceeding from the grand goal of decisively building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and advancing toward the “second centenary goal,” endowed the question “what kind of development to achieve and how to achieve it” with new connotations of the times. In October 2015, while formulating the 13th Five-Year Plan, Xi Jinping first proposed the New Development Concept from the perspective of “solving development difficulties and strengthening development advantages.” The New Development Concept is an organic whole that “advocates innovation, emphasizes coordination, promotes green development, expands openness, and advances sharing”; in its connotations and orientations, it complements and reinforces each element, and has the function and significance of “governing the overall situation, governing the fundamentals, governing the direction, and governing the long term” for economic and social development. While formulating the 14th Five-Year Plan, Xi Jinping emphasized: “Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, we have put forward many major theories and concepts for economic and social development, among which the New Development Concept is the most important and most fundamental.”

党的十八大以后，习近平从决胜全面建成小康社会的宏伟目标、向“第二个一百年”奋斗目标进发的高度，赋予“实现什么样的发展、怎样发展”这一课题以新的时代内涵。2015年10月，在制定“十三五”规划时，习近平从“破解发展难题，厚植发展优势”上，首次提出新发展理念。新发展理念是一个“崇尚创新、注重协调、倡导绿色、厚植开放、推进共享”的有机整体，在内涵和指向上相辅相成、相得益彰，对经济社会发展具有“管全局、管根本、管方向、管长远”的作用和意义。在制定“十四五”规划时，习近平强调：“党的十八大以来我们对经济社会发展提出了许多重大理论和理念，其中新发展理念是最重要、最主要的。”

What kind of development to achieve and how to achieve it are major issues facing all countries in the world. The exploration of this major issue by the New Development Concept not only has Chinese significance but also has far-reaching global significance; it is a successful exploration of the laws governing the development of human society. The New Development Concept contains a summation of the experiences and lessons of global and social development, and is the result of an inquiry into the so-called “middle-income trap” and the dilemmas of social development. The series of theoretical viewpoints and practical guidance put forward by the New Development Concept regarding development direction, development strategy, development approach, development goals, development steps, development focal points, and development performance have important implications for developing countries to leap over the so-called “middle-income trap.” The contribution of the New Development Concept with global significance provides a guiding concept for exploring the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

实现什么样的发展和如何发展，是世界各国面临的重大课题。新发展理念对这一重大课题的探讨，不仅具有中国意义，而且具有深远的世界意义，是对人类社会发展规律的成功探索。新发展理念包含着对全球和社会发展经验教训的总结，是对所谓“中等收入陷阱”和社会发展中困境探究的结果。新发展理念针对发展方向、发展战略、发展方略、发展目标、发展步骤、发展着力点和发展绩效等提出的一系列理论观点和实践指导，对发展中国家跨越所谓“中等收入陷阱”具有重要启示。新发展理念作出的具有世界意义的贡献，为新时代探索“世界历史”命题提供了主导性理念。

IV. The Systematic Doctrinal Elaboration of the “World History” Proposition in the New Era

四、“世界历史”命题的新时代系统化学说的阐释

After the 18th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping’s innovative explorations of the development of Marx’s “world history” proposition in the 21st century, from the new foundation of the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, the new perspective of the socialist “grand view of history,” the new realm of a community with a shared future for mankind, and the guiding concept of the New Development Concept, laid an important foundation for Xi Jinping’s innovative development of the “world history” proposition in the New Era after the 19th National Congress of the CPC and its leap toward a systematic doctrine.

党的十八大之后，习近平从中华民族伟大复兴中国梦新基点、社会主义“大历史观”新视域、人类命运共同体新境界和新发展理念主导性理念等方面，对马克思“世界历史”命题在21世纪的发展作出的创新性探索，为党的十九大以后习近平对新时代“世界历史”命题的创新性发展以及向系统化学说的跃升奠定了重要基础。

(1) Marx’s “World History” Proposition Is Highlighted as a New Topic in Adapting Marxism to the Chinese Context and the Needs of the Times

（一）马克思“世界历史”命题凸显为马克思主义中国化时代化新课题

After the 19th National Congress of the CPC, the most prominent feature of the development and innovation of Marx’s “world history” proposition in China is that this proposition has entered the discourse system and theoretical inquiry of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times in the New Era, becoming a prominent theoretical topic of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.

党的十九大以后，马克思“世界历史”命题在中国发展和创新的最显著特征就是，该命题进入新时代马克思主义中国化时代化话语体系和学理探究之中，成为习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想突出的理论课题。

In May 2018, at the conference commemorating the 200th anniversary of Marx’s birth, Xi Jinping, while reviewing the theoretical contributions of Marx’s “world history” proposition, pointed out: “To study Marx, we must study and practice Marxist thought on world history. Marx and Engels said: ‘The more the original closed state of various nationalities is eliminated due to increasingly perfected modes

2018年5月，在纪念马克思诞辰200周年大会上，习近平在回顾马克思“世界历史”命题的理论贡献时指出：“学习马克思，就要学习和实践马克思主义关于世界历史的思想。马克思、恩格斯说：‘各民族的原始封闭状态由于日益完善的生产方式、交往以及因交往而自然形成的不同民族之间的分工消灭得越是彻底，历史也就越是成为世界历史。’马克思、恩格斯当年的这个预言，现在已经成为现实，历史和现实日益证明这个预言的科学价值。”习近平对马克思“世界历史”命题科学价值的充分肯定，是以科学的态度对待科学、以真理的精神追求真理这一思想品质的集中体现和印证，是赋予马克思这一命题以新时代内涵的思想挈要。

In further expounding the development and characteristics of Marx’s proposition on “world history” in the New Era, Xi Jinping pointed out: “Today, the global reach of human interaction is deeper and broader than ever before; the mutual connections and interdependence among countries are more frequent and closer than ever before. An integrated world is right there; whoever rejects this world, this world will reject him as well. All things are nurtured together without harming one another, and all paths run parallel without contradicting each other.”[8]8 Xi Jinping, “Working Together to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind,” speech at the United Nations Office at Geneva, January 18, 2017. The classical quotation “All things are nurtured together without harming one another, and all paths run parallel without contradicting each other” is from the *Doctrine of the Mean* (Zhongyong), a Confucian classic. In applying Marx’s proposition on “world history” to the new process of “world history” in the 21st century, it is necessary to profoundly observe the times, interpret the times, and lead the times, to base oneself on the vivid and rich practice of contemporary China, to absorb all outstanding achievements of civilization created by humanity with a broad vision, to keep pace with the times, to uphold fundamental principles and break new ground, and to promote the development and innovation of Marx’s proposition on “world history.”

习近平在进一步对马克思“世界历史”命题在新时代的发展及其特征的阐释中指出：“今天，人类交往的世界性比过去任何时候都更深入、更广泛，各国相互联系和彼此依存比过去任何时候都更频繁、更紧密。一体化的世界就在那儿，谁拒绝这个世界，这个世界也会拒绝他。万物并育而不相害，道并行而不相悖。”在把马克思“世界历史”命题运用于21世纪“世界历史”新的进程时，要深刻地观察时代、解读时代、引领时代，以鲜活丰富的当代中国实践为基础，用宽广视野吸收人类创造的一切优秀文明成果，与时俱进、守正创新，推动马克思“世界历史”命题的发展创新。

In endowing Marx’s “world history” thesis with connotations for the New Era, Xi Jinping pointed out: “We must examine the trends of world development and the major issues facing the world today from the height of world history, adhere to the path of peaceful development, uphold an independent foreign policy of peace, and pursue a win-win strategy of opening up. We must continuously expand cooperation with all countries, actively participate in global governance, achieve win-win cooperation and common development in more fields and at higher levels, neither attaching ourselves to others nor plundering others, and work with the people of all countries to build a community with a shared future for mankind, making the world a better place.” Xi Jinping

在赋予马克思“世界历史”命题以新时代内涵时，习近平指出：“我们要站在世界历史的高度审视当今世界发展趋势和面临的重大问题，坚持和平发展道路，坚持独立自主的和平外交政策，坚持互利共赢的开放战略，不断拓展同世界各国的合作，积极参与全球治理，在更多领域、更高层面上实现合作共赢、共同发展，不依附别人、更不掠夺别人，同各国人民一道努力构建人类命运共同体，把世界建设得更加美好。”习近平揭示了新时代“世界历史”命题的时代背景、历史主体和理论主题等重要内容。

Since Marx put forward the proposition of "world history" and the issue of "crossing the Caudine Forks" [9]9 "Crossing the Caudine Forks" (跨越卡夫丁峡谷) is a metaphor Marx used in his later years, referring to the possibility of a society bypassing the capitalist stage of development to directly transition to socialism, drawing on the ancient Roman military defeat at the Caudine Forks., in the development of Marxism in the 20th century, the issue of "crossing the Caudine Forks" became the theme of Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics in exploring the socialist path of relatively backward economic and cultural countries, making multifaceted theoretical developments and innovations to Marx's proposition of "world history". Entering the 21st century, in the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics and world socialism, the most notable change is: "Marxism has been presented to the world in a brand-new image, and the historical evolution and contest between the two ideologies and two social systems of socialism and capitalism in the world has undergone a major shift favorable to socialism." [10]10 Xi Jinping, "Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Strive in Unity to Build a Modern Socialist Country in All Respects," Report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC, October 16, 2022. This notable change has endowed Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era with a profound epochal background and fundamental theoretical premise for returning to Marx's proposition of "world history" itself, and Marxism adapted to the Chinese context and the needs of the times has thereby acquired the doctrinal essence and theoretical foundation for innovating Marx's proposition of "world history".

自马克思提出“世界历史”命题以及“跨越卡夫丁峡谷”问题以后，在20世纪的马克思主义发展中，“跨域卡夫丁峡谷”问题成为列宁主义、毛泽东思想和中国特色社会主义理论体系在探索经济文化相对落后国家的社会主义道路时的主题，对马克思“世界历史”命题作出了多方面的理论发展和创新。进入21世纪在中国特色社会主义和世界社会主义发展中，最为显著的变化是：“使马克思主义以崭新形象展现在世界上，使世界范围内社会主义和资本主义两种意识形态、两种社会制度的历史演进及其较量发生了有利于社会主义的重大转变。”这一显著的变化，使习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想具备了回归马克思“世界历史”命题本身的深刻的时代背景和根本的理论前提，中国化时代化马克思主义因此具备了创新马克思“世界历史”命题的学说要旨和学理基础。

(II) The Basic Features of the New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics Are Infused with the Distinctive Underpinning of the "World History" Proposition in the New Era

（二）中国特色社会主义新时代基本特征浸润着新时代“世界历史”命题的鲜明底色

The development of Marx's proposition of "world history" in the New Era is based on the change in the "new historical juncture" of the New Era as its theoretical foundation. At the 19th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping summarized the basic features of the New Era in five aspects: first, "an era of building on past successes to further advance our cause, and of continuing in the new historical conditions to strive for the great success of socialism with Chinese characteristics"; second, "an era of securing a decisive victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, and of moving on to all-out efforts to build a great modern socialist country"; third, "an era of the Chinese people of all ethnic groups working together with one heart and one mind to create a better life and gradually achieve common prosperity for everyone"; fourth, "an era of all the sons and daughters of the Chinese nation making concerted efforts to realize the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation"; fifth, "an era of China drawing ever closer to the center of the world stage and making greater contributions to humanity." [11]11 Xi Jinping, These five features of the New Era reveal the basic characteristics and fundamental stipulations of the transition of socialism with Chinese characteristics from the New Period to the New Era. Among them, the feature that "China is drawing ever closer to the center of the world stage and making greater contributions to humanity" profoundly clarifies: the world today is a unified entity of close connections and mutual influence, the development of China and the development of the world are bound together for good or ill, and the interests of China and the interests of the world are inseparable. Since reform and opening up, with the continuous development of China's economy and society, and with China's deep participation in the processes of global economy, trade, and global governance, the relationship between China and the world has undergone a fundamental change.

马克思“世界历史”命题在新时代的发展，是以新时代“新的历史方位”的变化为学理基础的。党的十九大，习近平对新时代的基本特征作出五个方面的概括：一是“承前启后、继往开来、在新的历史条件下继续夺取中国特色社会主义伟大胜利的时代”；二是“决胜全面建成小康社会、进而全面建设社会主义现代化强国的时代”；三是“全国各族人民团结奋斗、不断创造美好生活、逐步实现全体人民共同富裕的时代”；四是“全体中华儿女勠力同心、奋力实现中华民族伟大复兴中国梦的时代”；五是“我国日益走近世界舞台中央、不断为人类作出更大贡献的时代”。新时代这五个方面的特征，揭示了中国特色社会主义从新时期向新时代进发的基本特征和根本规定。其中，“我国日益走近世界舞台中央，不断为人类作出更大贡献”这一特征深刻阐明：当今世界是密切联系、相互影响的统一体，中国的发展和世界的发展休戚与共、中国的利益和世界的利益不可分割。改革开放以来，随着中国经济社会的不断发展，随着我国对全球经济贸易和全球治理进程的深度参与，中国与世界的关系发生了根本性变化。

In the New Era, China's development has become an inseparable and important component of world development, providing important reference for countries around the world, especially for the vast number of developing countries. In the New Era, facing profound changes in the international landscape and international relations, and facing an increasingly complex and volatile international environment, China must coordinate both domestic and international situations, always hold high the banner of peace, development, cooperation, and mutual benefit, abide by the foreign policy purpose of maintaining world peace and promoting common development, actively develop global partnerships, participate in the reform and building of the global governance system, promote the building of a community with a shared future for mankind, and make new and greater contributions to building a new world of lasting peace, universal security, common prosperity, openness and inclusiveness, and clean and beautiful.

在新时代，中国的发展已经成为世界发展不可分割的重要组成部分，为世界各国特别是广大发展中国家提供了重要借鉴。在新时代，面对国际格局和国际关系的深刻变化，面对更加波谲云诡的国际环境，我国必须统筹国内国际两个大局，始终高举和平、发展、合作、共赢的旗帜，恪守维护世界和平、促进共同发展的外交政策宗旨，积极发展全球伙伴关系，参与全球治理体系改革和建设，推动构建人类命运共同体，为建成一个持久和平、普遍安全、共同繁荣、开放包容、清洁美丽的新世界作出新的更大贡献。

(III) Chinese-Path Modernization Anchors the Development Direction of the "World History" Proposition in the New Era

（三）中国式现代化锚定了新时代“世界历史”命题的发展路向

In October 2020, when the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee [12]12 The “five civilizations” refer to material civilization, political civilization, cultural-ethical progress, social civilization, and ecological civilization, which together constitute the overall layout of socialism with Chinese characteristics. drew the blueprint for the second centenary goal [13]13 The five basic features of Chinese-path modernization are: a huge population, common prosperity for all, material and cultural-ethical advancement, harmony between humanity and nature, and peaceful development., Xi Jinping explained the main connotations and basic features of Chinese-path modernization, and for the first time put forward the idea that "China must unswervingly advance Chinese-path modernization, promote the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization, and continuously make new and greater contributions to humanity." At the 20th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping further proposed in his explanation of Chinese-path modernization: "From now on, the central task of the Communist Party of China is to unite and lead the Chinese people of all ethnic groups in comprehensively building a great modern socialist country, realizing the second centenary goal, and comprehensively advancing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization." [14] In February 2023, at the opening ceremony of the seminar on studying and implementing the spirit of the 20th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping for the first time put forward the judgment of "preliminarily constructing the theoretical system of Chinese-path modernization." Xi Jinping integrated the main connotations of Chinese-path modernization proposed at the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee and the 20th National Congress of the CPC with the explanation of its features and characteristics, highlighting creative concepts such as maintaining historical initiative, conforming to the historical trend, inheriting Chinese culture, adhering to sustainable development, and safeguarding world peace, particularly in the modernization of a huge population, the modernization of common prosperity for all people, the modernization of material and cultural-ethical progress in harmony, the modernization of harmony between humanity and nature, and the modernization of taking the path of peaceful development. In particular, the explanation of the feature of "taking the path of peaceful development" emphasizes that China does not follow the old path of some countries that achieved modernization through war, colonization, plunder, etc., highlighting that China's modernization "firmly stands on the right side of history and the side of human civilization progress, holds high the banner of peace, development, cooperation, and mutual benefit, seeks its own development while firmly safeguarding world peace and development, and in turn better safeguards world peace and development through its own development."

2020年10月，在党的十九届五中全会绘制第二个一百年发展蓝图时，习近平对中国式现代化的主要内涵和基本特征作出阐释，第一次提出“我国要坚定不移推进中国式现代化，以中国式现代化推进中华民族伟大复兴，不断为人类作出新的更大贡献”的思想。党的二十大，习近平在对中国式现代化的阐释中进一步提出：“从现在起，中国共产党的中心任务就是团结带领全国各族人民全面建成社会主义现代化强国、实现第二个百年奋斗目标，以中国式现代化全面推进中华民族伟大复兴。”2023年2月，在学习贯彻党的二十大精神研讨班开班式上，习近平首次提出“初步构建中国式现代化的理论体系”的论断。习近平把党的十九届五中全会和党的二十大提出的中国式现代化的主要内涵同对其特征和特色的阐释融为一体，在人口规模巨大的现代化、全体人民共同富裕的现代化、物质文明和精神文明相协调的现代化、人与自然和谐共生的现代化、走和平发展道路的现代化上，凸显了保持历史主动、顺应历史潮流、传承中华文化、坚持永续发展、维护世界和平等创造性理念。特别是，对“走和平发展道路的现代化”这一特征的阐释，强调我国不走一些国家通过战争、殖民、掠夺等方式实现现代化的老路，凸显中国现代化“坚定站在历史正确的一边、站在人类文明进步的一边，高举和平、发展、合作、共赢旗帜，在坚定维护世界和平与发展中谋求自身发展，又以自身发展更好维护世界和平与发展”。

The entire entry of China's 1.4 billion people into a modernized society will completely rewrite the world map of modernization; the realization of common prosperity for all Chinese people will raise high the banner of the people-centered development thought across the world. Especially in the pattern of "coexistence," "China's modernization is the modernization of taking the path of peaceful development. Some old-line capitalist countries took the path of violently plundering colonies, a modernization achieved at the cost of the backwardness of other countries. China's modernization emphasizes mutual benefit and win-win cooperation with all countries, promotes the building of a community with a shared future for mankind, and strives to contribute to human peace and development." [15] In March 2023, in his keynote speech titled "Joining Hands on the Path of Modernization" at the CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting, Xi Jinping proposed: "All civilizations created by human society shine with brilliant light, endowing the modernization of various countries with profound heritage and distinctive features, and transcending time and space and national borders, they have jointly made important contributions to the process of human social modernization. Chinese-path modernization, as a new form of human civilization, will draw on other global civilizations, and will surely greatly enrich the garden of world civilizations." [16]

我国十四亿人口整体迈入现代化社会，将彻底改写现代化的世界版图；我国全体人民实现共同富裕，将在全世界高扬起以人民为中心的发展思想的伟大旗帜。特别是在“并存”的格局中，“我国现代化是走和平发展道路的现代化。一些老牌资本主义国家走的是暴力掠夺殖民地的道路，是以其他国家落后为代价的现代化。我国现代化强调同世界各国互利共赢，推动构建人类命运共同体，努力为人类和平与发展作出贡献”。2023年3月，习近平在中国共产党与世界政党高层对话会上以《携手同行现代化之路》为题的主旨讲话中提出：“人类社会创造的各种文明，都闪烁着璀璨光芒，为各国现代化积蓄了厚重底蕴、赋予了鲜明特质，并跨越时空、超越国界，共同为人类社会现代化进程作出了重要贡献。中国式现代化作为人类文明新形态，与全球其他文明相互借鉴，必将极大丰富世界文明百花园。”

(IV) The Community with a Shared Future for Mankind and the Common Values of All Mankind Enrich the Connotations of the "World History" Proposition in the New Era

（四）人类命运共同体和全人类共同价值对新时代“世界历史”命题内涵的丰富

At the 19th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping expounded the core content of a community with a shared future for mankind from the political, security, economic, cultural, and ecological perspectives, proposing that “the world we live in is full of hope and full of challenges. We should not give up our dreams because of the complexity of reality, nor should we give up our pursuit because of the distance of ideals. No country can alone address the various challenges facing mankind, nor can any country retreat into a self-enclosed island.” At the 20th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping emphasized that building a community with a shared future for mankind is the way forward for the peoples of all countries, calling on “all countries to promote the common values of all mankind of peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy, and freedom, to enhance mutual understanding and affinity among peoples, to respect the diversity of world civilizations, to transcend civilizational estrangement through civilizational exchange, to transcend civilizational conflict through civilizational mutual learning, and to transcend civilizational superiority through civilizational coexistence, and to jointly address various global challenges.” From a community with a shared future for mankind to the common values of all mankind, this constitutes a renewal of the connotation of the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

党的十九大，习近平从政治、安全、经济、文化、生态等方面，对人类命运共同体的核心内容作出阐释，提出“我们生活的世界充满希望，也充满挑战。我们不能因现实复杂而放弃梦想，不能因理想遥远而放弃追求。没有哪个国家能够独自应对人类面临的各种挑战，也没有哪个国家能够退回到自我封闭的孤岛”。党的二十大，习近平强调构建人类命运共同体是世界各国人民前途所在，呼吁“世界各国弘扬和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的全人类共同价值，促进各国人民相知相亲，尊重世界文明多样性，以文明交流超越文明隔阂、文明互鉴超越文明冲突、文明共存超越文明优越，共同应对各种全球性挑战”。从人类命运共同体到全人类共同价值，是对新时代“世界历史”命题内涵的拓新。

Building a community with a shared future for mankind is the developmental orientation of the “world history” proposition in the New Era. It represents an innovative development of the subject and theme of Marx’s “world history,” establishing the fundamental characteristics of the “world history” proposition in the New Era. Xi Jinping pointed out: “A community with a shared future for mankind, as the name suggests, means that the future and destiny of each and every nation and country are closely linked. We should share weal and woe, stand together through thick and thin, and strive to turn the planet we all call home into a harmonious family, and to realize the aspirations of the people of all countries for a better life.” Amid the changes unseen in a century in the world, although economic globalization has encountered headwinds and countercurrents, with intensifying economic and trade frictions and the prevalence of protectionism and unilateralism in some countries, in the long run, in today’s world, the interests of all countries are highly integrated, and humanity is a community with a shared future where weal and woe are shared. Economic globalization remains a historical trend, and the division of labor, cooperation, and mutual benefit among countries are long-term trends. The essence of building a community with a shared future for mankind lies in building an open, inclusive, clean, and beautiful world that enjoys lasting peace, universal security, and common prosperity. Xi Jinping pointed out: “To build a community with a shared future for mankind, we should make unremitting and sustained efforts. We should not give up our dreams because of the complexity of reality, nor should we give up our pursuit because of the distance of ideals.” The more we face the countercurrents of economic globalization, the more we must hold high the banner of building a community with a shared future for mankind.

构建人类命运共同体是新时代“世界历史”命题的发展定位，是对马克思提出的“世界历史”主体和主题的创新性发展，确立了新时代“世界历史”命题的根本特征。习近平指出：“人类命运共同体，顾名思义，就是每个民族、每个国家的前途命运都紧紧联系在一起，应该风雨同舟，荣辱与共，努力把我们生于斯、长于斯的这个星球建成一个和睦的大家庭，把世界各国人民对美好生活的向往变成现实。”在世界百年未有之大变局中，尽管经济全球化遭遇倒流逆风，经贸摩擦加剧，一些国家保护主义和单边主义盛行；但是，从长远来看，当今世界，各国利益高度融合，人类是休戚与共的命运共同体，经济全球化仍是历史潮流，各国分工合作、互利共赢是长期趋势。构建人类命运共同体的要义在于：建设持久和平、普遍安全、共同繁荣、开放包容、清洁美丽的世界。习近平指出：“为了构建人类命运共同体，我们应该锲而不舍、驰而不息进行努力，不能因现实复杂而放弃梦想，也不能因理想遥远而放弃追求。”越是面对经济全球化逆流，越是要高举构建人类命运共同体的旗帜。

In March 2023, Xi Jinping first proposed the Global Civilization Initiative at the CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-Level Meeting. This initiative, closely integrated with the Global Development Initiative proposed in 2021 and the Global Security Initiative proposed in 2022, has become the ideological foundation and practical path supporting and leading the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. These “three major initiatives,” based on the reality of the world’s century-old changes, conforming to the trends of the times, seeking the direction of world development, and looking forward to the future of human progress, enrich Xi Jinping’s ideological implications, practical directions, and value consensus regarding a community with a shared future for mankind. They fully embody Xi Jinping’s problem awareness, historical

2023年3月，习近平在中国共产党与世界政党高层对话会上首次提出全球文明倡议，它与2021年提出的全球发展倡议、2022年提出的全球安全倡议密切结合，成为支撑和引领构建人类命运共同体的思想基础和实践路径。这“三大倡议”立足世界百年变局的现实、顺应时代发展的潮流、谋求世界发展的方向、展望人类进步的未来，丰富了习近平关于人类命运共同体的思想意蕴、现实路向和价值共识，充分体现了习近平在创新新时代“世界历史”命题中的问题意识、历史自觉和时代担当，蕴含着新时代“世界历史”命题的思想智慧、理论魅力和崇高理想。

(5) The new form of human civilization elevates the artistic conception of the “world history” proposition in the New Era

（五）人类文明新形态升华了新时代“世界历史”命题的意境

In his speech at the ceremony marking the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, Xi Jinping, when elaborating on the new form of human civilization, stated: “We have upheld and developed socialism with Chinese characteristics, promoted coordinated progress in material, political, cultural-ethical, social, and ecological civilization, blazed a new and uniquely Chinese path to modernization, and created a new form of human civilization.” [12]12 The “five civilizations” refer to material civilization, political civilization, cultural-ethical progress, social civilization, and ecological civilization, which together constitute the overall layout of socialism with Chinese characteristics. At the 20th National Congress of the CPC, when explaining the great achievements of the Party and the state that have captured worldwide attention since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, Xi Jinping once again mentioned the new form of human civilization, calling for “continuously enriching and developing the new form of human civilization” in comprehensively advancing all undertakings of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The new form of human civilization takes the development of the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics as its basic premise, takes the exploration and development of Chinese-path modernization as its main process and fundamental goal, and takes the progress of the “five civilizations” as its principal content. It is a scientific exploration of the laws governing the development of human society and a creative exploration of the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

在庆祝中国共产党成立100周年大会的讲话中，习近平在阐释人类文明新形态时提出：“我们坚持和发展中国特色社会主义，推动物质文明、政治文明、精神文明、社会文明、生态文明协调发展，创造了中国式现代化新道路，创造了人类文明新形态。”党的二十大，在对十八大以来党和国家事业取得举世瞩目的伟大成就进行阐释时，习近平再次提到人类文明新形态，要求在全面推进中国特色社会主义各项事业中“不断丰富和发展人类文明新形态”。人类文明新形态以中国特色社会主义道路的发展为基本前提，以中国式现代化的探索与发展为主要过程和根本目标，以“五大文明”进步为主体内容，是对人类社会发展规律的科学探索，是对新时代“世界历史”命题的创造性探索。

The new form of human civilization is not only a generalization based on the particularity of China’s social development form but also a reference to and absorption of all valuable intellectual resources in the development of human civilization, embodying Chinese wisdom in the exploration of forms of human civilization. The new form of human civilization is an extension of the characteristics and connotations of Chinese-path modernization and is closely integrated with the five basic features of Chinese-path modernization. [13]13 The five basic features of Chinese-path modernization are: a huge population, common prosperity for all, material and cultural-ethical advancement, harmony between humanity and nature, and peaceful development. The “Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century,” adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC, points out: “The Party has led the people in successfully embarking on a path of Chinese-path modernization, creating a new form of human civilization, expanding the avenues for developing countries to achieve modernization, and offering a new option for those countries and nations that wish to accelerate their development while maintaining their independence.” The new form of human civilization, combined with Chinese-path modernization, opens up a new path and a new direction for the development of human civilization, deepening the connotations and artistic conception of the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

人类文明新形态不只是对基于中国社会发展形态的特殊性的概括，也是对人类文明发展的一切有价值的思想资源的借鉴和吸收，体现了对人类文明形态探索的中国智慧。人类文明新形态是中国式现代化特色和内涵的延伸，与中国式现代化五个方面的基本特征紧密结合在一起。党的十九届六中全会通过的《中共中央关于党的百年奋斗重大成就和历史经验的决议》指出：“党领导人民成功走出中国式现代化道路，创造了人类文明新形态，拓展了发展中国家走向现代化的途径，给世界上那些既希望加快发展又希望保持自身独立性的国家和民族提供了全新选择。”人类文明新形态与中国式现代化相结合，开辟了人类文明发展的新道路和新方向，深化了新时代“世界历史”命题的内涵和意境。

The new form of human civilization epitomizes the theory of social civilization forms in scientific socialism. It is the theoretical crystallization of the Communist Party of China in the century-long struggle for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, especially in the process of upholding and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era. It represents the sublimation of the systematic doctrine of the “world history” proposition in the New Era.

人类文明新形态集中体现了科学社会主义关于社会文明形态的理论，是中国共产党在中华民族伟大复兴百年奋斗中，特别是在新时代坚持和发展中国特色社会主义过程中的理论结晶，是对新时代“世界历史”命题系统化学说的升华。

(Author’s bio: Gu Hailiang: Boya Chair Professor at Peking University)

（作者简介：顾海良：北京大学博雅讲席教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心