The Dialectical Logic of Development in Chinese-Path Modernization

Chinese-path modernization follows the principle of the universality and particularity of contradictions. From the perspective of universality, Chinese-path modernization shares a historical logic of inheritance, a theoretical logic of similarity, and a practical logic of commonality with the modernization of the Chinese nation, the modernization of socialist countries, and the modernization of human society. From the perspective of particularity, Chinese-path modernization, with its own notable superiority and distinctive features, provides a powerful impetus for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and also offers Chinese experience and Chinese solutions for human society.

中国式现代化遵循矛盾普遍性与特殊性的原理，从普遍性的视角看，中国式现代化与中华民族的现代化、社会主义国家的现代化和人类社会的现代化具有历史逻辑的传承性、理论逻辑的相近性、实践逻辑的共通性；从特殊性的视角看，中国式现代化以自身显著的优越性和鲜明的特色，为中华民族伟大复兴提供强劲动力，也为人类社会提供中国经验和中国方案。

I. The Dialectical Logic of Development between Chinese-Path Modernization and the Modernization of the Chinese Nation

一、中国式现代化与中华民族现代化之间的辩证发展逻辑

Viewed from the historical trajectory of the modernization of the Chinese nation itself, Chinese-path modernization has a natural historical connection with the Chinese nation’s modern explorations for modernization, while simultaneously representing a new height reached by the Chinese nation on the basis of summarizing past experiences in modernization exploration.

从中华民族现代化本身的历史脉络来看，中国式现代化与中华民族近代以来的现代化探索有着天然的历史联系，同时又代表着中华民族在总结以往现代化探索经验基础上达到的新高度。

(1) Chinese-Path Modernization Has a Natural Historical Connection with the Modernization of the Chinese Nation since Modern Times

（一）中国式现代化与中华民族近代以来现代化具有天然的历史联系

Since the Opium War, the Chinese nation has suffered unprecedented calamities. “From that time on, realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation became the greatest dream of the Chinese people and the Chinese nation.” [1]1 Xi Jinping, “Speech at a Ceremony Marking the Centenary of the Communist Party of China” (July 1, 2021). How can national rejuvenation be achieved? Over the past century and more, the Chinese nation has continuously explored the path of modernization to realize rejuvenation, and Chinese-path modernization is inherent in this process.

鸦片战争以降，中华民族遭受了前所未有的劫难，“从那时起，实现中华民族伟大复兴，就成为中国人民和中华民族最伟大的梦想”[1]。民族复兴何以实现？一百多年来，中华民族为实现复兴而不断探索现代化道路，中国式现代化就内含于其中。

First, persistently exploring modernization at the material level. Industrialization is the main content of modernization and the primary criterion for measuring a country’s degree of modernization. The entire process of the Chinese nation’s modernization exploration has attached great importance to innovation and progress at the material level. As a late-developing country, China’s modernization was initiated under the stimulus and aggression of early-developing countries. The vast gap in technology and weaponry with Western countries meant that the Chinese nation’s initial modernization exploration took the acquisition of technology as its direct goal. The historical trauma of lagging behind and being beaten is engraved in the national memory. Continuously advancing industrialization and achieving catch-up through exchange and mutual learning with the world’s advanced industrial and technological powers became the theme of the Chinese nation’s material modernization. Although, due to the constraints of relations of production not adapting to productive forces, the effectiveness of industrialization in some historical periods was limited, these periods all contributed to the quantitative accumulation for building an industrial power, including increases in skilled workers, reserves of industrial technology, and the accumulation of modernization experience.

第一、锲而不舍地探索器物层面的现代化。工业化是现代化的主要内容，也是衡量一国现代化程度的首要标准，中华民族整个的现代化探索过程都高度重视器物层面的革新和进步。中国作为后发国家的现代化是在先发国家的刺激和侵略下开启的探索历程，技术和武器装备方面与西方国家之间的差距悬殊，使得中华民族最初的现代化探索就以获得技术为直接目标。落后挨打的历史创伤镌刻进了民族记忆之中，不断推进工业化，在与世界先进工业国和科技强国的交流互鉴中实现赶超，成为中华民族器物现代化的主题。尽管由于受生产关系与生产力不相适应的束缚，在一些历史时期的工业化成效有限，但都在为建设工业强国进行量的积累，包括技术工人的增加、产业技术的储备、现代化经验的积淀等。

Second, persistently pursuing modernization at the institutional level. Relations of production have a counteractive effect on productive forces. Modernization at the material level must be guaranteed by modernization at the institutional level; otherwise, the latter will become a fetter on the former. In the initial stage of the Chinese nation’s modernization exploration, progressive elements of the feudal landlord class attempted to promote industrialization without changing the feudal social system. However, the disastrous defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 proved that backward feudal relations of production could not give birth to modern industrial civilization. From this point, institutional-level modernization reform became a consensus among the progressive elements of the Chinese nation. The reform process exhibited two common characteristics: First, constrained by objective historical conditions, there was always a struggle between the two paths of modernization—capitalist and socialist. Second, the Chinese nation fully exerted its own subjective initiative, taking its destiny into its own hands. Within a world system dominated by capitalism, it did not drift with the tide but instead established the socialist system as the foundation of the nation.

第二，持之以恒地追求制度层面的现代化。生产关系对生产力具有反作用，器物层面的现代化必须以制度层面现代化为制度保证，否则后者会成为前者的桎梏。在中华民族现代化探索的初始阶段，封建地主阶级的先进分子试图在不变更封建社会制度的前提下推动工业化，但甲午战争的惨败证明落后的封建生产关系孕育不出现代的工业文明。至此，制度层面的现代化变革成为中华民族先进分子的共识。变革过程呈现出两个共性特征：一是受到客观历史条件的制约，一直存在资本主义与社会主义两种现代化的道路之争。二是中华民族充分发挥自身的主观能动性，将命运掌握在自己手中，在资本主义主导的世界体系中，没有随波逐流，而是将社会主义制度作为立国之基。

Third, unremittingly seeking modernization at the cultural level. For China, which was influenced by the feudal system for as long as two thousand years, modernization at the cultural level is an extremely arduous historical task. The exploration in this area exhibits three common characteristics: First, the positioning of traditional Chinese culture has become more accurate. Where should traditional culture go in the process of the Chinese nation’s modernization? We have moved from once completely negating traditional culture as an obstacle to and dross of modernization, to regarding fine traditional Chinese culture as the root of the nation, promoting its coordination with the modernization process, and achieving creative transformation and innovative development. Second, the understanding of Western culture has become more rational. We have moved from once tending toward wholesale Westernization, seeing Western culture as necessary for modernization, to recognizing that Western culture must be referenced and absorbed with analysis, selection, and critique. Third, the mainstream ideological status of Marxism has become more consolidated. The May Fourth Movement “promoted the spread of Marxism in China.” [2]2 Mao Zedong, “On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship” (June 30, 1949). Since then, Marxism has gradually become the guide for the Party in leading the people in modernization exploration.

第三，坚持不懈地求索文化层面的现代化。对于受封建制度影响长达两千年之久的中国来说，文化层面的现代化是一项极为艰巨的历史任务。其中的探索呈现三点共性特征：一是对中华传统文化的定位更加准确。传统文化在中华民族现代化过程中究竟何去何从？我们由一度将传统文化视为现代化的阻力和糟粕而对之全盘否定，到将中华优秀传统文化视为民族之根，推动中华优秀传统文化与现代化进程相协调，实现创造性转化和创新性发展。二是对西方文化的认识更趋理性。我们由一度将西方文化看成现代化的必需而倾向于全盘西化，到认识到对西方文化要有分析、有选择、有批判地借鉴和吸收。三是马克思主义的主流意识形态地位更加巩固。五四运动“促进了马克思主义在中国的传播”[2]，自此之后，马克思主义逐渐成为党带领人民进行现代化探索的指南。

(2) The Initiation of the Chinese-Path Modernization Path Marks a New Height in the Chinese Nation’s Modernization Exploration

（二）中国式现代化道路的开创标志着中华民族现代化探索的新高度

As the latest stage of the Chinese nation’s modernization exploration, Chinese-path modernization has its own distinct characteristics. These characteristics represent a new height in the Chinese nation’s modernization exploration and highlight the bright prospects for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

作为中华民族现代化探索的最新阶段，中国式现代化有着自身鲜明的特性，这些特征代表着中华民族现代化探索的新高度，彰显着中华民族伟大复兴的光明前景。

First, the advanced nature of the leading class. Historically, both the feudal landlord class and the bourgeoisie attempted to lead China’s modernization, but none succeeded. The reason lies in the fact that they could not stand on the fundamental position of the Chinese nation and the Chinese people in leading modernization; the path of modernization they sought was merely a self-rescue plan forced upon the ruling class. The initial intention of the Westernization Movement, which opened the prelude to China’s modernization, was not purely self-strengthening; it also involved introducing Western guns and artillery techniques to suppress the resistance of the Chinese people, thereby maintaining the feudal rule of the Qing dynasty. [3]3 The Westernization Movement (c. 1861–1895) was a series of self-strengthening reforms initiated by Qing dynasty officials to adopt Western military and industrial technology while preserving the feudal ruling structure. The Nationalist government attempted to launch a vigorous modernization movement, but “its intensity, depth, breadth, and extent were very limited. The semi-colonial and semi-feudal social structure, along with the deformity and non-standard nature of the Nationalist modernization model, caused this modernization movement to exhibit historical characteristics of low speed, high cost, congenital deficiency, and postnatal maladjustment.” [4]4 Quotation from a Chinese scholarly source; the Nationalist government (1927–1949) refers to the Kuomintang-led regime that attempted modernization under semi-colonial and semi-feudal conditions. In contrast, Chinese-path modernization was initiated under the historical premise of the proletariat leading the victory of the New Democratic Revolution, following a path of independent modernization.

第一，领导阶级的先进性。历史上，封建地主阶级和资产阶级都先后尝试过领导中国的现代化，但均无一成功，究其原因在于：他们无法站在中华民族和中国人民的根本立场上领导现代化，所寻求的现代化之路不过是统治阶级被迫采取的自救方案。开启中国现代化先河的洋务运动的初衷也不纯粹是自强，有引进西方洋枪洋炮之术以镇压中国人民的反抗，从而维持清朝封建统治的一面[3]。国民政府曾尝试掀起轰轰烈烈的现代化运动，但“其力度、深度、广度和程度却十分有限，半殖民地半封建的社会格局以及国民党现代化模式的畸形性和非规范性，使得这场现代化运动呈现出速率低、代价大、先天不足、后天失调的历史特点”[4]。相比而言，中国式现代化是在无产阶级领导取得新民主主义革命胜利的历史前提下开创的，走的是一条独立自主的现代化之路。

Second, the breadth of mass mobilization. From the perspective of mass participation, the modernization led by the feudal landlord class and the bourgeoisie had the fundamental purpose of maintaining their own rule. Therefore, they neither dared to mobilize nor were able to mobilize the broad masses of the people. This determined the narrow scope and limited effectiveness of the modernization they promoted. In contrast, Chinese-path modernization has a solid mass foundation, mainly benefiting from the leadership of the Communist Party of China. The Communist Party of China, composed of advanced elements of the proletariat, differs from various bourgeois political parties. It has no special interests of its own but is consistent with the fundamental interests of the Chinese people. Therefore, it can unite the strength of hundreds of millions of people, mobilize all positive factors that can be mobilized, and devote itself to the vigorous process of modernization.

第二，群众动员的广泛性。从群众参与度来看，封建地主阶级和资产阶级领导的现代化，根本目的在于维护自身统治，因此，他们既不敢发动也无法动员广大人民群众。这决定了他们所推动现代化范围的狭隘性和效果的有限性。相比而言，中国式现代化有着坚实的群众基础，这主要得益于中国共产党的领导。由无产阶级的先进分子组成的中国共产党，不同于形形色色的资产阶级政党，没有自己特殊的利益，而是与中国人民的根本利益相一致，因此能够凝聚起亿万民众的力量，调动起一切可以调动的积极因素，投身于轰轰烈烈的现代化进程中。

Third, the comprehensiveness of development content. In China’s historical modernization, the modernization of material forces was placed first. The urgent situation of resisting foreign invasion required the rapid establishment of modern industry. Therefore, we generally equated the modernization of industry with modernization itself. But in reality, true modernization should not be one-dimensional; it should refer to comprehensive transformation across all fields of society, because isolated reforms and progress in the industrial sector would soon be constrained by other backward areas (relations of production, political superstructure, cultural superstructure, etc.). Therefore, Chinese-path modernization pioneers a comprehensive path of modernization. We continuously improve the content of modernization, covering military modernization, agricultural modernization, industrial modernization, governance modernization, political modernization, cultural modernization, and so on.

第三，发展内容的全面性。中国历史上的现代化将器物的现代化放到首位，抵御外敌入侵的迫切局面要求尽快建立起现代工业。所以，我们一般将工业的现代化等同于现代化本身。但实际上，真正的现代化不应是单维的，而是指涉社会各个领域的全面变革，因为工业领域的孤立改革和进步很快会受到其他落后领域（生产关系、政治上层建筑和文化上层建筑等）的掣肘。因此，中国式现代化开创的是一条全面的现代化之路，我们不断完善现代化的内容，涵盖军事现代化、农业现代化、工业现代化、治理现代化、政治现代化、文化现代化等。

Fourth, the distinctiveness of the path’s characteristics. In the Chinese nation’s modernization exploration, we mostly learned from foreign countries as “students,” successively trying modernization plans under the feudal system, under the capitalist system, and under the Soviet model, without forming our own characteristics. The initiation of Chinese-path modernization indicates that, after more than a century of arduous exploration, the Chinese nation has finally found a path of modernization that suits its national conditions, has its own characteristics, and can enrich the country and strengthen the people. None of the various modernization plans attempted in the history of the Chinese nation have shown such unprecedented bright prospects for national rejuvenation as the Chinese-path modernization plan.

第四，道路特色的鲜明性。在中华民族的现代化探索中，我们大都是以“学生”的身份向国外学习，先后尝试过封建制度下的现代化方案、资本主义制度下的现代化方案和苏联模式下的现代化方案，没有形成自己的特色。中国式现代化的开创表明中华民族在历经一百多年的艰难探索之后，终于找到了一条适合本国国情、具有本国特色、能够富民强国的现代化之路。中华民族历史上尝试的各种现代化方案，没有一个像中国式现代化方案这样让民族复兴展现出前所未有的光明前景。

II. The Dialectical Logic of Development between Chinese-Path Modernization and Socialist State Modernization

二、中国式现代化与社会主义国家现代化之间的辩证发展逻辑

After the October Revolution, Soviet Russia initiated the great process of socialist modernization. Over the course of more than a century, socialist modernization has in fact followed two main distinct paths: Soviet-style modernization and Chinese-path modernization. The former is the typical form of socialist modernization in the 20th century, while the latter represents it in the 21st century.

十月革命之后，苏俄开启了社会主义现代化的伟大进程，在一百余年的时间内，社会主义现代化实际上主要有两条不同的道路，即苏联式现代化和中国式现代化。前者是20世纪社会主义现代化的典型，后者是21世纪社会主义现代化的代表。

(I) Chinese-Path Modernization Possesses the General Characteristics of Socialist State Modernization

（一）中国式现代化具有社会主义国家现代化的一般特征

In its universality, Chinese-path modernization belongs to the category of socialist state modernization and possesses the general characteristics of socialist state modernization.

中国式现代化在普遍性上属于社会主义国家现代化，具有社会主义国家现代化的一般性特征。

First, the starting point of modernization is relatively backward. From the perspective of the starting point of modernization, the modernization of socialist states is of a late-developing type, all having initiated the modernization process in countries with relatively backward economies and cultures. Late-developing modernization has the advantage of being able to utilize the existing achievements of human modernization, but it also faces dual challenges, both internal and external. Regarding internal challenges, socialist modernization itself has no ready-made experience to follow; it requires the proletarian party to lead the people in continuous exploration and trial and error, which itself requires a lengthy process. Regarding external factors, the capitalist countries that achieved modernization first, relying on their economic, technological, and cultural advantages, carry out covert "peaceful evolution" [5]5 "Peaceful evolution" (和平演变) refers to a strategy attributed to Western powers, particularly the United States, of using non-military means such as cultural infiltration, economic influence, and ideological subversion to transform socialist states into capitalist ones, without direct armed conflict. and open suppression and sanctions against socialist states, obstructing the modernization process of socialist states. The superimposition of the above factors means that the modernization of socialist states is, on the whole, not smooth sailing; rather, it advances through twists and turns, and some states have even lost their way during the modernization process and changed their banners. [6]6 "Changed their banners" (改旗易帜) is a Chinese political idiom referring to abandoning the socialist path and adopting a capitalist system, most notably exemplified by the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the regime changes in Eastern Europe in 1989-1991.

第一，现代化的起点相对落后。从现代化的起点来看，社会主义国家的现代化属于后发型，都是在经济文化相对落后的国家中开启现代化进程。后发型现代化有利用人类已有现代化成果的优势，但也面临着内外两方面的双重挑战。就内部挑战来说，社会主义现代化本身没有现成的经验可循，需要无产阶级政党领导人民不断探索和试错，这本身就需要一个漫长的过程。就外部因素来说，率先实现现代化的资本主义国家凭借经济、科技和文化上的优势对社会主义国家进行隐蔽的“和平演变”和公开的打压制裁，阻挠社会主义国家的现代化进程。上述因素的叠加使得社会主义国家的现代化从总体上看不是一帆风顺的，而是在曲折中摸索前进，甚至有的国家在现代化过程中迷失方向而改旗易帜。

Second, the public ownership economy and the proletarian party play key roles. From the perspective of the organization and operational mechanisms of modernization, the public ownership economy plays the role of the economic hub in the modernization of socialist states, while the proletarian party serves as the organizational core. From the perspective of the economic base, socialist states, in their early stages, nationalized the means of production through various forms, and the public ownership economy occupied a relatively high proportion of the national economy. This caused socialist states to exhibit a common characteristic during the modernization process, namely, modernization driven by the public ownership economy. The economic base determines the political and legal superstructure. Modernization driven by a private ownership economy upholds the ruling status of bourgeois parties, whereas modernization driven by a public ownership economy establishes the leading position of the proletarian party. Throughout the entire process of exploring socialist state modernization, Party leadership and the public ownership economy are the bottom lines that must always be adhered to.

第二，公有制经济和无产阶级政党扮演关键角色。从现代化的组织和运行机制看，公有制经济在社会主义国家的现代化中扮演经济中枢的角色，无产阶级政党起着组织核心的作用。从经济基础来看，社会主义国家在建立初期都通过各种形式对生产资料进行了国有化，公有制经济在国民经济中占有较高的比重，从而使得社会主义国家在现代化的过程中表现出共同的特征，即公有制经济驱动下的现代化。经济基础决定政治上层建筑，私有制经济驱动下的现代化维护的是资产阶级政党的统治地位，公有制经济驱动下的现代化确立的是无产阶级政党的领导地位。在整个社会主义国家现代化的探索过程中，党的领导和公有制经济是必须始终坚守的底线。

Third, the development process faces competition with capitalist states. From the perspective of human development history, modernization currently exists only within two social formations: socialism and capitalism. In terms of the sequence of combination, capitalism initiated modernization first and defined its basic content; socialist states belong to the late-developing type of modernization, always aiming to catch up with and surpass capitalist modernization. The initiation and exploration of socialist state modernization demonstrate that capitalist modernization is not the only path for human modernization. To safeguard their own ruling interests, the bourgeoisie use every possible means to disrupt and disturb the modernization process of socialist states. Therefore, the modernization of socialist states always faces severe external challenges.

第三，发展过程面临着与资本主义国家的竞争。从人类的发展历史来看，现代化目前只存在于两种社会形态之中，即社会主义和资本主义。从结合的先后顺序看，资本主义率先掀起现代化，并规定了现代化的基本内容；社会主义国家属于后发型现代化，始终以追赶和超越资本主义的现代化为目标。社会主义国家现代化的开创和探索表明：资本主义现代化不是人类现代化的唯一通途。资产阶级为了维护自身的统治利益，千方百计地破坏和扰乱社会主义国家现代化的进程，因此社会主义国家的现代化始终面临着严峻的外部挑战。

(II) Chinese-Path Modernization Endows Socialist Modernization with New Content

（二）中国式现代化赋予社会主义现代化新的内容

Chinese-path modernization belongs to socialist state modernization in its universal sense, but in its particular sense, it possesses innovative features different from other socialist states.

中国式现代化既在普遍意义上属于社会主义国家的现代化，又在特殊意义上具有不同于其他社会主义国家的创新之处。

First, it takes the socialist market economy as the driving force for modernization. The traditional path of socialist modernization adopted a distrustful attitude towards the market, using planning as the primary means of economic regulation. This led to problems such as low efficiency, insufficient stimulation, redundant construction, and waste, causing the driving effect on the development of productive forces to show insufficient momentum. If traditional socialist modernization can be described as modernization driven by a "single engine" of central planning, then Chinese-path modernization is modernization driven by a "dual engine" of government and the market, exerting a stronger driving force on the development of productive forces. Taking the market economy as the driving force for modernization is an important contribution and major innovation of Chinese-path modernization to the exploration of socialist modernization.

第一，将社会主义市场经济作为推动现代化的动力。传统的社会主义现代化道路对市场持不信任态度，将计划作为经济调节的主要手段，导致低效率、刺激不足、重复建设和浪费等问题，对生产力发展的推动作用呈现后劲不足。如果说传统的社会主义现代化是中央计划“单驱”下的现代化，那么中国式现代化则是政府与市场“双驱”下的现代化，对生产力的发展具有更为强劲的推动作用。将市场经济作为推动现代化的动力是中国式现代化对社会主义现代化探索的重要贡献和重大创新。

Second, while advocating for the development and expansion of the public ownership economy, it encourages, supports, and guides the development of the non-public ownership economy. Through systemic reform and innovation, the Chinese-path modernization path has made the public ownership economy more dynamic, more innovative, and more competitive. At the same time, unlike the traditional path of socialist modernization, which neglected and suppressed the non-public ownership economy, the Chinese-path modernization path regards the non-public ownership economy as an important component of the socialist market economy. Individual, private, and foreign-funded economies have thus gained ample space for development, which is conducive to invigorating the economy and meeting diverse societal needs.

第二，主张发展壮大公有制经济的同时，鼓励、支持、引导非公有制经济发展。中国式现代化道路通过体制的改革和创新，使得公有制经济变得更有活力、更富创新性、更具竞争力。同时，不同于传统的社会主义现代化道路忽视和压制非公有制经济，中国式现代化道路将非公有制经济视为社会主义市场经济的重要组成部分，个体经济、私营经济和外资经济等因此获得充分的发展空间，有利于活跃经济，满足社会多方面需求。

Third, in the distribution system, it breaks with egalitarianism. In traditional socialist states, distribution was determined by the central planning authorities. Although income disparities were not large, this affected people's production initiative, leading to low production efficiency. Chinese-path modernization combines distribution according to work with distribution according to factors of production to stimulate people's engagement in modernization construction. Compared with distribution according to administrative orders, distribution according to work, under market economy conditions, uses the expenditure of workers' physical and mental labor as the measure for distributing consumer goods. Under this distribution system, because the talents and contributions of each individual differ, and the operating conditions of their respective enterprises and units vary, there will be differences in the remuneration received by each worker. However, this difference breaks with egalitarianism, which is conducive to mobilizing workers' labor enthusiasm and promoting the development of society's productive forces.

第三，分配制度上打破平均主义。传统的社会主义国家在分配上由中央计划机关决定，收入差距虽然不大，但影响了人们的生产积极性，导致生产效率低下。中国式现代化通过按劳分配与按生产要素分配相结合来激发人们投身于现代化建设。相比于按行政命令分配，按劳分配是在市场经济条件下以劳动者的体力与脑力支出作为分配消费品的衡量尺度，在这种分配制度下，由于每个个体的天赋和贡献不同，所在企业和单位的经营状况不同，所以每个劳动者在报酬所得上会有差别，但这种差别打破了平均主义，有利于调动劳动者的劳动热情，推动社会生产力的发展。

III. The Dialectical Logic of Development between Chinese-Path Modernization and the Modernization of Human Society

三、中国式现代化与人类社会现代化之间的辩证发展逻辑

The historical field for the initiation and development of Chinese-path modernization is world history. [7]7 "World history" (世界历史) here alludes to the Marxist concept, developed by Marx and Engels, that capitalism creates a global, interconnected history, superseding isolated national histories, a condition under which Chinese-path modernization necessarily operates. It emphasizes learning from the general experience of human modernization but has not formed a dependency on capitalist modernization. Instead, through exchange, mutual learning, and practical innovation, it has forged a path of independent development.

中国式现代化的开创与发展的历史场域是世界历史[5]，它注重学习人类现代化的一般经验，但没有形成对资本主义现代化的依附，而是在交流互鉴和实践创新中走出了一条独立自主的发展之路。

(I) Chinese-Path Modernization Follows the Universal Laws of World Modernization

（一）中国式现代化遵循世界现代化的普遍规律

From the perspective of universality, Chinese-path modernization is a member of the global family of modernization and follows the general laws of world modernization.

从普遍性上看，中国式现代化属于世界现代化大家庭的一员，遵循着世界现代化的一般规律。

First, the advancement of modernization is the result of the combined effect of multiple factors. The realization of modernization requires the joint force of various elements: a strong government, a stable internal environment, an independent development path, technological progress, the establishment of a market economy, the construction of a modern political system, and ideological innovation and emancipation are all basic conditions for modernization in countries around the world. Among these, two points are particularly crucial: One is emphasizing scientific and technological innovation. Science and technology are the main driving forces for upgrading and innovation in various industries and fields. Scientific and technological innovation is both an endogenous driving force for modernization and an important symbol of it. Xi Jinping points out: "Historical experience shows that those countries which have seized the opportunities of scientific and technological revolutions to achieve modernization are all countries with a strong scientific foundation; those countries which have seized the opportunities of scientific and technological revolutions to become world powers are all countries that are in the leading ranks in important scientific and technological fields." [8]8 Xi Jinping, "Speech at the 20th Academician Conference of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the 15th Academician Conference of the Chinese Academy of Engineering," May 28, 2021. The second is driving modernization through industrialization. The Industrial Revolution was the primary driving force for the initiation of world modernization. Each industrial revolution has endowed modernization with new driving forces, connotations, and characteristics. Looking across human society, "the economic development and modernization of any country must take industrialization as a prerequisite. Or, industrialization is an unavoidable stage of development for the modernization of any country." [9]9 Luo Rongqu, "A New Discussion on Modernization" (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1993), p. 133. Only by building the country on the foundation of industry can the foundation of modernization be solid and firm.

第一，现代化的推进是综合因素作用的结果。现代化的实现需要多种因素的合力推动，强有力的政府、稳定的内部环境、自主的发展道路、科技的进步、市场经济的建立、现代政治制度的构建、思想上的创新解放等都是世界各个国家现代化的基本条件，其中两点尤为关键：一是注重科技创新。科技是各行业各领域升级革新的主要驱动力，科技创新既是现代化的内生动力，也是现代化的重要标志。习近平指出：“历史经验表明，那些抓住科技革命机遇走向现代化的国家，都是科学基础雄厚的国家；那些抓住科技革命机遇成为世界强国的国家，都是在重要科技领域处于领先行列的国家。”[6] 二是以工业化带动现代化。工业革命是世界开启现代化的首要动力，每一次工业革命都赋予现代化以新的动力、内涵和特征。纵观人类社会，“任何国家的经济发展和现代化都必须以工业化为前提。或者说，工业化是任何国家现代化都不可逾越的发展阶段”[7]。只有以工业立国，现代化的基础才稳固坚实。

Second, the content of modernization is constantly enriched. As a historical category, modernization inevitably becomes enriched and perfected with the development of human productive forces. In the early stages of human modernization, it was generally reduced to modernization at the material level, with the industrial revolution and industrial modernization as the main objectives. However, the one-dimensional approach to modernization brought with it problems such as environmental pollution, spiritual decadence, alienation of human nature, and the gap between rich and poor. Therefore, people gradually expanded the connotation of modernization from the material level to all aspects of modern society. As far as the development of human modernization itself is concerned, its paths and models exhibit diversity, but its content and standards should more fully reflect unity and generality.[8]8 Xi Jinping, "Speech at the 20th Academician Conference of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the 15th Academician Conference of the Chinese Academy of Engineering," May 28, 2021. Specifically in our country, in the early stages of modernization, we also understood and advanced modernization more from the material level, even at one point reducing modernization to industrialization, heavy industrialization, and a focus on increasing steel output.[9]9 Luo Rongqu, "A New Discussion on Modernization" (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1993), p. 133. With the enrichment of practical experience, we have continuously deepened our understanding of modernization, moving from a single material civilization to the “five civilizations,” and ultimately setting the goal of building a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful.

第二，现代化的内容不断丰富。现代化作为一个历史范畴，必然随着人类生产力的发展而不断丰富和完善。在人类开启现代化的早期，一般将之归结为器物层面的现代化，以工业革命和工业现代化为主要目标。但伴随单一维度现代化而来的是环境污染、精神颓废、人性异化、贫富悬殊等问题。因此，人们逐渐将现代化的内涵从器物层面扩展至现代社会的方方面面。就人类现代化的发展本身来说，其路径和模式呈现出多样性，但它的内容和标准应该更多地体现统一性和一般性[8]。具体到我国，在现代化发展初期，我们也是更多地从器物层面理解和推进现代化，甚至一度把现代化归结为工业化、重工业化以及重点提高钢产量[9]。随着实践经验的丰富，我们不断加深对现代化的理解，从单一的物质文明到“五个文明”，最终将建成富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国作为奋斗目标。

Third, taking the market economy as an important driver of modernization. The failure of the Soviet model has already proven that a modernization path that excludes the market economy is unworkable. Chinese-path modernization fully draws on the achievements of human civilization and takes the socialist market economy as an important driving force of modernization. In the course of pursuing modernization, we once mistakenly believed that the market economy was a patent of capitalism and that introducing the market economy meant compromising with capitalism. It was not until reform and opening up that we recognized in theory that the market economy can be combined with the socialist system, and in practice committed ourselves to building a socialist market economy, after which China’s modernization process entered the fast track.

第三，将市场经济作为现代化的重要驱动。苏联模式的失败已经证明，排除市场经济的现代化道路是行不通的。中国式现代化充分借鉴人类文明成果，将社会主义市场经济作为现代化的重要驱动力量。在追求现代化的历程中，我们曾错误地认为市场经济是资本主义的专利，引入市场经济意味着向资本主义妥协。直到改革开放后，我们才在理论上认识到市场经济可以与社会主义制度结合，在实践上致力于建设社会主义市场经济，中国的现代化进程进入快车道。

(II) Chinese-Path Modernization Has a Unique Trajectory of Movement and Value Appeal

（二）中国式现代化具有独特的运动轨迹和价值诉求

From the perspective of particularity, Chinese-path modernization is also a brilliant pearl in the coordinates of world modernization, and its uniqueness lies in the following aspects.

从特殊性上看，中国式现代化又是世界现代化坐标中一颗璀璨的明珠，它的独特之处在于以下方面。

First, the arduousness of the scale of development. The population size of countries that have already achieved modernization is mostly in the tens of millions, at most in the hundreds of millions, whereas Chinese-path modernization is on a scale of 1.4 billion, larger than the total population of all currently developed countries combined. The entry of such a large population into modernization will create a miracle of world modernization, reshape the map of world modernization, and make a unique contribution by the Chinese nation to global poverty alleviation and development. At the same time, achieving modernization on such a large scale is extraordinarily arduous, difficult, and complex; following traditional development paths and methods is unworkable, and it is necessary to blaze a new trail and explore a modernization path suited to the country’s own conditions.

第一，发展规模的艰巨性。目前业已实现现代化的国家的人口规模大多以千万计，至多是以亿计，而中国式现代化则是以十四亿规模计，比现在所有发达国家人口的总和还要多。如此大规模的人口进入现代化将创造世界现代化的奇迹，改写世界现代化的版图，为世界脱贫和发展做出中华民族独特的贡献。同时，实现如此大规模的现代化是异常艰巨、困难和复杂的，按照传统的发展路径和推进方式是行不通的，只能另辟蹊径，探索一条适合本国国情的现代化道路。

Second, the parallel type of development route. The modernization of Western countries over more than two centuries followed a linear development path, sequentially pursuing the modernization of industry, urbanization, agriculture, and information. To overcome unfavorable factors such as a weak foundation, a huge population, and a harsh external environment, and to catch up with the trend of world modernization in the shortest possible time, Chinese-path modernization must both draw on the useful experience of world modernization and dare to break conventions, adopting a leapfrog development route different from that of the West. This constitutes a major difference between Chinese-path modernization and Western-style modernization. Xi Jinping vividly described this difference as the distinction between a “parallel type” and a “series type.” He pointed out: “We must catch up from behind and recover the ‘lost two hundred years,’ which determines that our country’s development must inevitably be a ‘parallel type’ process, in which industrialization, informatization, urbanization, and agricultural modernization are developed in an overlapping manner.”[10]10 Xi Jinping, “Speech at a Symposium on Experts in Science and Technology,” *People’s Daily*, June 10, 2014. [This is a standard citation format for a speech

第二，发展路线的并联式。西方国家两个多世纪来的现代化走的是线性的发展路程，即依次追求工业、城镇、农业、信息的现代化。中国式现代化要想克服基础薄弱、人口规模巨大、外部环境恶劣等不利因素，在尽可能短的时间内赶上世界现代化潮流，既需要汲取世界现代化的有益经验，又要敢于打破常规，采取不同于西方的跨越式发展路线。这构成了中国式现代化与西方式现代化的很大不同，习近平将这一差别形象地比喻为“并联式”和“串联式”的差别。他指出：“我们要后来居上，把‘失去的二百年’找回来，决定了我国发展必然是一个‘并联式’的过程，工业化、信息化、城镇化、农业现代化是叠加发展的。”[10]

Third, the people-centered nature of development value. As the supreme political leadership force of Chinese-path modernization, the CPC adheres to the fundamental political stance of putting the people first, always ensuring the people-centered nature of the modernization path. Specifically, even when facing the challenge of modernizing a super-large population, it shows no fear, insisting that “not a single person or household should be left behind,”[11] persistently and down-to-earthly pursuing common prosperity; it not only focuses on the material conditions for the people’s happy life but also pursues the people’s spiritual enrichment, promoting the all-round development of the individual; it follows a sustainable development path for modernization, meeting the current people’s needs for a good ecological environment while also considering the issue of sustainable development for future generations; and it takes the path of peaceful development, sparing the people the suffering of war.

第三，发展价值的人民性。作为中国式现代化的最高政治领导力量，中国共产党坚守人民至上这一根本政治立场，始终确保现代化道路的人民性。具体而言，即使面临着超大规模人口的人类现代化难题，也毫不畏惧，坚持“一个都不能少，一户都不能落”[11]，久久为功、脚踏实地追求共同富裕；不仅关注人民幸福生活的物质条件，而且追求人民的精神富有，促进人的全面发展；走可持续发展的现代化道路，既满足当前人民对良好生态环境的需要，也考虑后代的永续发展问题；走和平发展道路，使人民免于战争的苦难。

Fourth, the peaceful nature of the development path. Modernization itself is a process of the rapid development of a country’s productive forces, requiring continuous support from factors such as human resources, financial resources, and material resources. Unlike Western countries, which promoted modernization through colonial plunder to obtain cheap labor, abundant raw materials, and huge war reparations, the CPC has led the Chinese people on a modernization path based on and premised on peaceful development, shaping the image of a responsible major country that bravely shoulders international moral obligations. This new path breaks the traditional “zero-sum game” thinking in international relations, not only successfully avoiding the old path of Western modernization at the expense of other countries but also injecting new momentum and vitality into the world economy through its own peaceful development.

第四，发展路径的和平性。现代化本身是一个国家生产力飞速发展的过程，它需要源源不断的人力、财力和物力等要素的支撑。不同于西方国家通过殖民掠夺获得廉价的劳动力、丰富的原材料和巨额的战争赔款来推动现代化，中国共产党领导中国人民走出了一条以和平发展为前提和基础的现代化道路，塑造了勇担国际道义的负责任大国形象。这条新道路打破了“零和博弈”的传统国际关系对立思维，不仅成功避开了西方现代化以牺牲他国为代价的老路，而且以自身的和平发展为世界经济注入新动能和新活力。

Fifth, the socialist nature of the development direction. Chinese-path modernization has a socialist character, which is also the institutional reason for its world-renowned achievements. Reform and opening up means that China has gradually broken away from the modernization path under the Soviet model and explored an independent path of modernization. In this process, without vigilance and caution, it would be easy to slide into the rut of capitalist modernization. Comrade Deng Xiaoping, the chief architect of reform and opening up, repeatedly reminded the whole Party on different occasions to pay attention to the institutional nature of Chinese-path modernization, saying: “Many people only talk about modernization, forgetting that the modernization we talk about is socialist modernization.”[12] The foundation of Chinese-path modernization is socialism, and its successful creation “has broken the myth that only by following the capitalist modernization model can modernization be achieved.”[13]

第五，发展方向的社会主义性。中国式现代化具有社会主义性质，这也是其取得举世瞩目成就的制度原因。改革开放意味着中国逐渐摆脱了苏联模式下的现代化道路，探索一条独立自主的现代化之路。在这个过程中，如果不加防范和警惕，很容易滑向资本主义现代化的窠臼。改革开放的总设计师邓小平同志在不同的场合多次提醒全党要注意中国式现代化的制度性质，他说：“很多人只讲现代化，忘了我们讲的现代化是社会主义现代化。”[12] 中国式现代化的底色是社会主义，它的成功开创“打破了只有遵循资本主义现代化模式才能实现现代化的神话”[13]。

IV. The Civilizational Implications of Chinese-Path Modernization

四、中国式现代化的文明意蕴

Through the dialectical development logic of the universality and particularity of contradiction, we can further grasp the significance of Chinese-path modernization for Chinese civilization, socialist civilization, and human civilization. First, the continuation and development of Chinese civilization by Chinese-path modernization. In the old China of a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, the Chinese nation suffered unprecedented calamities, Chinese civilization was tarnished, and national self-confidence was undermined. If the Chinese nation could not explore a modernization path that overtook the world, it would be difficult to stand proudly among the nations of the world, and the glorious history of Chinese civilization would be unsustainable. Chinese-path modernization has resolved the predicament of the Chinese nation’s poverty, weakness, passivity, and suffering since the emergence of the “changes unseen in a century,” found the way to make the country prosperous and the people strong, and promoted the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.[14] Second, the defense and confirmation of socialist civilization by Chinese-path modernization. Supporters of the “end of history” thesis, represented by Fukuyama, attempted to defend the uniqueness of the capitalist system and advocated a single path to modernization. With the retreat of the Soviet-style modernization experiment, people cannot help but ask: Is it possible for human society to find a non-Western path of modernization development? The answer to this question concerns the future of socialism. The great achievements of Chinese-path modernization also demonstrate the superiority of socialism. Third, the enrichment and development of the forms of human social modernization by Chinese-path modernization. Modernization is a complex dynamic process, requiring not only the setting of feasible goals but also, based on the actual conditions of the country, the exploration of paths to achieve those goals. Before the successful exploration of the Chinese-path modernization path, we had successively studied and tried various modernization plans, none of which achieved the expected results. After the end of World War II, developing countries that gradually achieved national independence also began their modernization journey, but few succeeded. Practice has fully proven that blindly copying the modernization plans of other countries is unworkable. The creation of Chinese-path modernization means that it is possible for developing countries to explore a modernization path that does not depend on developed countries and is suited to their own national conditions.

透过矛盾的普遍性与特殊性的辩证发展逻辑，我们可以进一步把握中国式现代化对中华文明、社会主义文明和人类文明的意义。一是中国式现代化对中华文明的延续与发扬。在半殖民地半封建社会的旧中国，中华民族遭受空前劫难，中华文明蒙尘，民族自信受挫。中华民族如果探寻不出一条赶超世界的现代化道路，就难以屹立于世界民族之林，中华文明的辉煌历史也就难以为继。中国式现代化破解了“千年未有之大变局”出现以来中华民族积贫积弱、被动挨打的困境，找到了富国强民之道，推动中华民族实现伟大复兴。[14] 二是中国式现代化对社会主义文明的捍卫与确证。以福山为代表的支持“历史终结论”的拥趸们试图捍卫资本主义制度的唯一性，主张实现现代化的单一路径。随着苏联式现代化探索的退场，人们不禁会问，人类社会有没有可能找到一条非西方的现代化发展之路？对这一问题的回答涉及社会主义的前途问题。中国式现代化所取得的巨大成就也彰显着社会主义的优越性。三是中国式现代化对人类社会现代化样态的丰富和发展。现代化是一个复杂的动态过程，不仅需要制定可行的目标，更需要立足本国实际，探索通往目标的道路。在中国式现代化道路探索成功之前，我们曾先后学习和尝试了各种现代化方案，都没有达到预期。二战结束后，逐步实现民族独立的发展中国家也开始踏上现代化征程，但鲜有成功的国家。实践已经充分证明：照抄照搬他国的现代化方案是行不通的。中国式现代化的开创，意味着发展中国家探索一条不依赖于发达国家而又适合本国国情的现代化道路是有可能的。

[This article is a phased result of the National Social Science Fund ideological and political special project "Research on Improving the Teaching Quality of Ideological and Political Theory Courses in Colleges and Universities" (project number: 23VSZ084).]

【本文为国家社会科学基金思政专项《高校思想政治理论课教学质量提升研究》（项目编号：23VSZ084）的阶段性成果】

(The author is an assistant researcher at the School of Marxism, Tianjin University.)

（作者为天津大学马克思主义学院助理研究员）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心