The Thought of Inter-Subjectivity in Traditional Chinese Culture and Its Contemporary Significance

In his speech at the Symposium on Cultural Heritage and Development, General Secretary Xi Jinping put forward the mission and requirements of advancing the Second Integration to promote ideological emancipation, continuously consolidate cultural autonomy, build the modern civilization of the Chinese nation, and facilitate exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations. To advance the Second Integration, one must first deeply understand the basic characteristics of traditional Chinese culture. One view locates the distinctive features of Chinese civilization and its traditional culture in its subjectivity [1]1 The *Shuowen Jiezi* (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters) is the first comprehensive Chinese dictionary of characters, compiled by Xu Shen around 100 CE.4, [2]2 Yang Zhu was a pre-Qin philosopher (c. 440–360 BCE) known for egoist teachings, later criticized by Mencius as advocating extreme self-interest.2, [3]3 Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), a massive uprising that established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.1. The author believes this is open to debate. For Western civilization and Western culture, especially modern Western culture, also attach great importance to human subjectivity; from Descartes, Kant, and Hegel to modern Western philosophy, the central theme of their thought is the promotion of human subjectivity. It should be said that both Chinese and Western cultures value human subjectivity. Western culture, starting from the “self,” embodies a mode of thinking characterized by the opposition of subject and object, aiming at conquering and eliminating the other; in essence, it is a mode of single-subjectivity and single-subject thinking. Traditional Chinese culture, by contrast, starts from the unity of “self” and “other,” emphasizing the unity of heaven and humanity, things and self, others and self, and body and mind; in essence, it is a mode of pluralistically coexisting inter-subjectivity and inter-subject thinking. The commitment to constructing inter-subjective relations is a consistent value pursuit of traditional Chinese culture, embodies its essence, and is precisely the fundamental characteristic that distinguishes Chinese civilization from Western civilization.

习近平总书记在文化传承和发展座谈会上的讲话中提出了以“第二个结合”推进思想解放，不断巩固文化自主性，建设中华民族现代文明，促进文明交流互鉴的使命和要求。推进“第二个结合”，首先要深入认识中国传统文化的基本特点。有一种观点把中华文明及其传统文化的特质定位于其主体性［1］4，［2］2，［3］1。笔者认为，这是值得商榷的。因为西方文明及西方文化，特别是近代以来的西方文化，也高度重视人的主体性，从笛卡尔、康德、黑格尔到现代西方哲学，其思想主题就是弘扬人的主体性。应该说，中西文化都重视人的主体性。西方文化从“自我”出发，体现主客二分的对立思维，以征服对方、消灭对方为目标，本质上是一种单主体性和单主体的思维方式；而中国传统文化则从“自我”和“他人”的统一出发，强调天人、物我、人我、身心的统一，本质上是一种多元共存的互主体性和互主体思维方式。致力互主体关系的建构，这是中国传统文化一以贯之的价值追求，体现了中国传统文化的精髓，更是中华文明不同于西方文明的根本特质所在。

I. Prominent Manifestations of the Thought of Inter-Subjectivity in Traditional Chinese Culture

一、中国传统文化互主体思想的突出表现

The thought of inter-subjectivity in traditional Chinese culture is prominently manifested in the consistent pursuit and construction by various schools, including Confucianism, Daoism, and Mohism, of relationships of mutual harmony, mutual respect and love, mutual equality, mutual tolerance, and mutual trust and sincerity among different subjects.

中国传统文化中的互主体思想，突出表现在儒家、道家、墨家等各家各派对不同主体间相互和合关系、相互敬爱关系、相互平等关系、相互包容关系、相互诚信关系一以贯之的追求和建构。

(1) Mutual Harmony and Unity (和合)

（一）相互和合关系

Traditional Chinese culture has always emphasized mutual unity, integration, coordination, and complementarity among different subjects, opposing division and struggle. “He” (和) means harmony; “he” (合) means unity. The emergence and formation of the concept of “harmony and unity” (和合) can be traced back to the origins of Chinese civilization. According to legend, the Chinese dragon ancestor Shennong, Fuxi, received the “River Chart” (河图) and created the Eight Trigrams; Yu the Great received the “Luo Writing” (洛书) and established the “Nine Categories of the Great Plan” (洪范九畴), which contains the thought of the Five Elements. China’s earliest historical text, the *Book of Documents* (尚书), as well as the *Book of Changes* (易经), both record in detail the legends of the “River Chart” and the “Luo Writing.” Famous classics such as the *Guanzi* (管子) and the *Mozi* (墨子) also contain descriptions of the “River Chart” and the “Luo Writing.” The Eight Trigrams of the “River Chart” and the Five Elements of the “Luo Writing” are important sources of Chinese culture. Both the Eight Trigrams and the Five Elements regard the entire material world as an organic combination of multiple heterogeneous and differently shaped elements, which in change and motion are mutually dependent, mutually constraining, mutually overcoming and generating, unified in contradiction, and developing in coordination. This naive materialist view of nature, inherent in the Eight Trigrams and Five Elements, has been summarized as “harmony” (和) since the Western Zhou dynasty, and was applied to the observation of human society, further enriched into “harmony and unity” (和合), and used as the basic principle for handling relations among different subjects. The first chapter of the *Book of Documents*, the “Canon of Yao” (尧典), records: “(Emperor Yao) was able to make bright his great virtue, and thereby brought the nine clans into close relations. … He made the hundred clans illustrious, and harmonized the myriad states.” That is to say, Emperor Yao used methods of affinity and harmony to handle relations among different clans and states. The second chapter, the “Canon of Shun” (舜典), also records: “I appoint you to be in charge of music … so that the eight kinds of musical instruments may be in harmony, without violating their proper order, and that spirits and humans may be in harmony.” The “Counsels of Gao Yao” (皋陶谟) states: “Be of one mind and reverent, harmonious and united.” That is to say, Emperor Shun also handled relations among different subjects according to the method of harmony and unity.

中国传统文化历来强调不同主体间相互的统一、融合、协作、相济，反对分裂和斗争。和，和睦也；合，相合也。“和合”思想的产生和形成可以上溯到华夏文明史的源头。相传中华龙祖神农氏伏羲受“河图”而作八卦，大禹受“洛书”而创立包含“五行”思想的“洪范九畴”。中国最早的史书《尚书》以及《易经》都详细记载了有关“河图”及“洛书”的传说。《管子》、《墨子》等著名典籍也有“河图”、“洛书”的描述。“河图”八卦、“洛书”五行是华夏文化的重要源头。八卦、五行都把整个物质世界视为多种异质异形元素的有机结合，它们在变化、运动中相互依存、相互制约、相克相生，在矛盾中统一、在协调中发展。八卦、五行蕴含的这种朴素唯物主义的自然观，自西周以来，就被人们概括为“和”，并用来观察人类社会，进一步丰富为“和合”，以之作为处理不同主体间关系的基本原则。《尚书》第一篇《尧典》记载：“（帝尧）克明俊德，以亲九族。”“百姓昭明，协和万邦。”就是说，帝尧是用亲和、协和的办法处理不同族群、邦国之间的关系。第二篇《舜典》也记载：“命汝典乐……八音克谐，无相夺伦，神人以和。”《皋陶谟》道：“同寅协恭和衷哉。”就是说，帝舜也是按照和合的办法处理不同主体间关系的。

In the view of the ancient Chinese, “harmony and unity” (和合) was not only the way of heaven and earth but also the highest realm of the human way. According to textual research, the term “harmony and unity” (和合) first appeared in the *Discourses of the States: Discourses of Zheng* (国语·郑语): “Shang Qi was able to harmonize and unite the five teachings, thereby protecting the people.” Wei Zhao’s commentary notes: “The five teachings are: the father’s righteousness, the mother’s kindness, the elder brother’s friendliness, the younger brother’s respect, and the son’s filial piety.” That is to say, Shang Qi was able to harmonize and unite the five teachings to achieve the goal of protecting the people. The *Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals* (左传), Duke Zhao, 25th year, states: “Being able to be in harmony with the nature of heaven and earth, therefore one can endure long.” According to the *Erya: Explanations of Ancient Words* (尔雅·释诂): “Xie (协) means harmony (和)”; the *Yupian* (玉篇) states: “Xie (协) means unity (合)”; “Tiao (调) means harmony and unity (和合).” That is to say, being able to maintain consistency with the inherent characteristics of heaven and earth enables one to endure long. In the view of the ancient Chinese, “harmony” (和) is the power that transforms and generates all things. “Through harmony, therefore all things are transformed” (《礼记·乐记》). “Harmony” is the condition for family prosperity. “When father and son are devoted, brothers are harmonious, and husband and wife are in accord, the family is prosperous!” (《礼记·礼运》). “Harmony” is also the most beautiful kingly way: “In the practice of rites, harmony is the most valuable. Of the ways of the former kings, this is the most beautiful” (《论语·学而》). Mencius believed that “human harmony” surpasses “heavenly timing” and “earthly advantage.” “Heavenly timing is not as good as earthly advantage; earthly advantage is not as good as human harmony” (《孟子·公孙丑下》). The *Doctrine of the Mean* (中庸) holds that “central harmony” (中和) is the great foundation of the world and the universal path of the world. When “central harmony” is achieved, heaven and earth each assume their proper positions, and all things begin to grow and develop. “Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused, it is called centrality (中). When they are aroused and each attains its proper measure, it is called harmony (和). Centrality is the great foundation of the world; harmony is the universal path of the world. When centrality and harmony are achieved, heaven and earth are in their proper positions, and all things are nourished.” “He” (合) itself contains the meaning of “harmony” (和). For example, the *Xunzi: Discourse on Rites* (荀子·礼论) states: “Heaven and earth unite (合) and all things are born; yin and yang interact and changes arise; nature and artifice unite and the world is well governed.” The *Great Commentary on the Book of Changes* (周易大传) puts forward the concept of “preserving the great harmony” (保合太和). The *Xiang Commentary* (象传) says: “The way of the Qian hexagram changes; each thing corrects its nature and destiny. Preserving the great harmony is beneficial and correct.” This means that changes in nature cause all things to settle their spirits, rest and hide, and preserve their “primordial qi of great harmony,” thereby achieving “benefit and correctness.” Guanzi believed that by following the laws and governing the world with virtue, one could achieve “harmony and unity” (和合), and thereby attain “harmony” (和谐). “If one stores up the Way, the people are harmonious; if one nourishes them with virtue, the people are united. Harmony and unity therefore enable harmony; harmony therefore enables cohesion. When cohesion and harmony are complete, nothing can harm them” (《管子集校·兵法》). Dong Zhongshu believed that “central harmony” (中和) is the embodiment of the Way of Heaven; there is no Way more beautiful than “harmony” between heaven and earth. “Centrality is the function of heaven; harmony is the achievement of heaven. Taking the Way of heaven and earth, it is most beautiful in harmony” (《春秋繁露·循天之道》). Zhang Zai believed that the movement of opposites from confrontation to harmony and unity is not only the law of heaven and earth but also a universally significant principle for society and human life. “Where there is a phenomenon, there is an opposite; where there is an opposite, it necessarily opposes its action; where there is opposition, there is conflict; conflict must be resolved through harmony” (《正蒙·太和》). Laozi believed that it is the mutual agitation of the two qi of yin and yang that ultimately creates the harmonious state of all things. “All things carry yin and embrace yang; they are harmonized by the empty qi” (《老子·第四十二章》).

在中国古人看来，“和合”不仅是天地之道，而且是人道的最高境界。据考证，“和合”一词最早出自《国语·郑语》：“商契能和合五教，以保于百姓者也。”韦昭注：“五教，父义、母慈、兄友、弟恭、子孝。”就是说，商契能够和合五教达到保护百姓的目的。《左传·昭公二十五年》：“能协于天地之性，是以长久。”据《尔雅·释诂》：“协，和也”；《玉篇》：“协，合也”，“调，和合”。就是说，能与天地本有的特性保持一致，就能够长久。在中国古人看来，“和”是化生万物的力量。“和，故百物皆化。”（《礼记·乐记》）“和”是家业兴旺的条件。“父子笃，兄弟睦，夫妇和，家之肥也!”（《礼记·礼运》）“和”也是最美的王道，“礼之用，和为贵。先王之道，斯为美”（《论语·学而》）。孟子认为，“人和”胜过“天时”和“地利”。“天时不如地利，地利不如人和。”（《孟子·公孙丑下》）《中庸》认为，“中和”是天下之大本，天下之达道。达到“中和”，天地便各归其位，万物便开始生长发育。“喜怒哀乐之未发，谓之中。发而皆中节，谓之和。中也者，天下之大本也；和也者，天下之达道也。致中和，天地位焉，万物育焉。”“合”本身包含着“和”的意思。如《荀子·礼论》：“天地合而万物生，阴阳接而变化起，性伪合而天下治。”《周易大传》提出“保合太和”的观点。《象传》说：“乾道变化，各正性命，保合太和，乃利贞。”意思是说，自然界的变化导致万物各自静定精神、眠伏潜息，保全其“太和元气”，就能“得利而贞正”。管子认为，只要遵守规律，以德治理天下，就能达到“和合”，并因之达于“和谐”。“畜之以道，则民和；养之以德，则民合。和合故能谐，谐故能辑。谐辑以悉，莫之能伤。”（《管子集校·兵法》）董仲舒认为，“中和”是天道的体现，天地间没有比“和”更美的道。“中者天之用也，和者天之功也，举天地之道，而美于和。”（《春秋繁露·循天之道》）张载认为，矛盾双方从对立走向和合不仅是天地的法则，而且是社会、人生具有普遍意义的原理。“有象斯有对，对必反其为，有反斯有仇，仇必和而解。”（《正蒙·太和》）老子认为，是阴阳二气的相互激荡最终造成万物的和谐状态。“万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。”（《老子·第四十二章》）

However, the “harmony and unity” (和合) spoken of in traditional Chinese culture does not mean uniformity, or compromising with the other party without taking a stand, distinguishing right from wrong, or adhering to principles. As early as the late Western Zhou dynasty, the Zheng grandee Shi Bo said: “Now harmony actually generates things, but sameness does not lead to continuation. Using one thing to balance another is called harmony, therefore it can enrich growth and things return to it; if one uses sameness to supplement sameness, everything is discarded” (《国语·郑语》). Only when different things cooperate and coordinate with each other can all things grow and multiply. The dialogue between the Duke of Qi and Yan Ying in the *Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals*, Duke Zhao, 20th year, expresses the same meaning: “Harmony is like making soup. Water, fire, vinegar, sauce, salt, and plums are used to cook fish and meat; it is heated with firewood; the cook harmonizes it, balancing the flavors, supplementing what is insufficient, and reducing what is excessive. When the gentleman eats it, it calms his mind. … Clear and turbid, large and small, short and long, fast and slow, sorrowful and joyful, hard

然而，中国传统文化所讲的“和合”并不等于千篇一律，不讲立场、不分是非、没有原则地与对方妥协。早在西周晚期，郑国大夫史伯就曾说过：“夫和实生物，同则不继。以他平他谓之和，故能丰长而物归之；若以同裨同，尽乃弃矣。”（《国语·郑语》）只有不同的事物相互配合、协调，万物才能生长繁衍。《左传·昭公二十年》中齐君与晏婴的对话也表达了同样的意思：“和如羹焉，水火醯醢盐梅以烹鱼肉，之以薪，宰夫和之，齐之以味，济其不及，以泄其过，君子食之，以平其心。……清浊、大小、短长、疾徐、哀乐、刚柔、迟速、高下、出入、周疏，以相济也。……同之不可也如是。”（《左传·昭公二十年》）只有把不同的食材放在一起，加以火力煎熬，才能制出鲜美的味道。反之，如果只是同一种食材，就不可能制出美味。孔子也曾说：“君子和而不同，小人同而不和。”（《论语·子路》）和合并不等于随波逐流、随声附和。儒家经典《中庸》也表达了同样的意思。“君子和而不流，强哉矫！中立而不倚，强哉矫！”在中国古人看来，“和合”既是万物化生之道，又是人与社会长久的生存之道，矛盾双方斗来斗去，最终在“和合”中达于统一。

(2) The Relationship of Mutual Respect and Love

（二）相互敬爱关系

Emphasizing mutual respect and love among different subjects is a fundamental point of traditional Chinese culture. The “benevolence (仁)” spoken of by the Confucians originally means “two persons.” The *Shuowen Jiezi* states: “Benevolence means affection. It is composed of ‘person’ and ‘two.’” The *Analects, Yan Yuan* records: Fan Chi asked about benevolence, and the Master said, “Love people.” “Love people” means to love “others” outside oneself. The “people” here includes not only the upper classes with status and wealth in society, but also all lower classes such as commoners and the masses. The *Analects, Xiang Dang* records: “The stable was burned down. When the Master returned from court, he asked, ‘Was anyone hurt?’ He did not ask about the horses.” How to love people? Confucius put forward the view of self and others: “If you wish to establish yourself, establish others; if you wish to advance yourself, advance others” and “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” (*Analects, Wei Linggong*). The contemporary Yang Zhu school put forward the extreme egoist view that “plucking a single hair would not benefit the world,” which was fiercely attacked by Mencius, who considered such behavior that cares only for oneself and ignores others as “worse than beasts.”

强调不同主体间的互敬互爱，这是中国传统文化的一个基本点。儒家所说的“仁”，本身就是两个人的意思。《说文》：“仁，亲也。从人，从二。”《论语·颜渊》载：樊迟问仁，子曰“爱人”。“爱人”就是爱自己以外的“他人”。这里的“人”，不仅包含社会中有地位、有财富的上层人，而且也包含庶人百姓等一切下层人。《论语·乡党》载：“厩焚。子退朝，曰：‘伤人乎？’不问马。”怎样爱人？孔子提出“己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人”和“己所不欲，勿施于人”（《论语·卫灵公》）的人我观。当时的杨朱学派提出“拔一毛而利天下不为”的极端利己主义观点，遭到孟子猛烈的抨击，认为这种只顾自己、不顾他人的行为“禽兽不如”。

Mozi witnessed the brutal acts of the time: “large states attacking small states,” “great families disrupting small families,” “the strong plundering the weak,” “the many oppressing the few,” “the cunning scheming against the foolish,” “the noble despising the lowly,” “rulers not being benevolent,” “ministers not being loyal,” “fathers not being kind,” “sons not being filial,” and “lowly people wielding weapons, poison, fire, and water to mutually harm each other” (*Mozi, Universal Love II*). He emphasized that different subjects should “love each other universally” and “benefit each other mutually,” advocating “loving others as oneself,” loving others as one loves oneself. “Regard another’s state as one’s own state, regard another’s family as one’s own family, regard another’s person as one’s own person.” “If all people under heaven love each other, the strong will not overpower the weak, the many will not oppress the few, the rich will not insult the poor, the noble will not despise the lowly, and the cunning will not deceive the foolish” (*Mozi, Universal Love I*). Even slaves should be given equal love. “To love people means to love all people before it can be called loving people” (*Mozi, Minor Illustrations*). Loving people means promoting benefits and eliminating harms, doing things that benefit the world. “Those who are benevolent must strive to promote what is beneficial to the world and eliminate what is harmful to the world, taking this as a model for the world. If it benefits people, do it; if it does not benefit people, stop” (*Mozi, Against Music I*).

墨子目睹当时“大国攻小国”、“大家乱小家”、“强劫弱”、“众暴寡”、“诈谋愚”、“贵傲贱”、“为人君者不惠”、“臣者不忠”、“父者不慈”、“子者不孝”以及“贱人执其兵刃毒药水火，以交相亏贼”（《墨子·兼爱中》）的残暴行为，强调不同主体间要“兼相爱”、“交相利”，主张“爱人若己”，像爱自己一样去爱他人。“视人之国若视其国，视人之家若视其家，视人之身若视其身。”“天下之人皆相爱，强不执弱，众不劫寡，富不侮贫，贵不傲贱，诈不欺愚。”（《墨子·兼爱上》）即使奴隶，也要给予一视同仁的爱。“爱人，待周爱人而后为爱人。”（《墨子·小取》）爱人就是要兴利除弊，做有利于天下人的事。“仁之事者，必务求兴天下之利，除天下之害，将以为法乎天下。利人乎，即为；不利人乎，即止。”（《墨子·非乐上》）

Laozi regarded “loving-kindness (慈)” as one of the “three treasures,” believing that loving people can obtain infinite strength, enabling victory in battle and security in defense. “For loving-kindness, with it one can win in battle and be secure in defense” (*Laozi, Chapter 67*). In Laozi’s view, the core of the Great Way is the spirit of selfless dedication. “It produces but does not possess, acts but does not rely on its merits, leads but does not dominate—this is called ‘profound virtue’” (*Laozi, Chapter 10*). How to reach the realm of “profound virtue”? Laozi believed that the most important thing is to restore human nature, reduce greed for “things,” and do one’s best to help others. The more one gives to others, the more one will receive oneself. “The sage does not accumulate; having done for others, he has more; having given to others, he has greater abundance” (*Laozi, Chapter 81*). But loving people does not mean imposing one’s will on others; rather, it means following nature and governing by non-action, “acting without action, teaching without words” (*Laozi, Chapter 2*).

老子把“慈爱”视为“三宝”之一，认为爱人能够获得无限的力量，战则能胜，守则能固。“夫慈，以战则胜，以守则固。”（《老子·第六十七章》）在老子看来，大道的核心就是无私奉献的精神。“生而不有，为而不恃，长而不宰，是谓‘玄德’。”（《老子·第十章》）如何达到“玄德”境界？老子认为最为重要的是恢复人的本性，减少对“物”的贪欲，尽力帮助他人。给予他人的越多，自己得到的也会越多。“圣人不积，既以为人，己愈有；既以与人，己愈多。”（《老子·第八十一章》）但爱人并不是将自己的意志强加于他人，而是因循自然、无为而治，“处无为之事，行不言之教”（《老子·第二章》）。

Zhu Xi elevated “benevolence” to the level of ontology. “The Way of benevolence is the mind of heaven and earth in giving life to things” (*Zhu Xi’s Collected Works*, Volume 13). “The undifferentiated heavenly principle is benevolence” (*Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi*, Volume 28). Following heavenly principle is righteousness: “Righteousness is what is appropriate according to heavenly principle” (*Analects, Li Ren IV, Collected Commentaries on the Analects*, Volume 2). “Propriety is the patterned expression of heavenly principle” (*Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi*, Volume 6). What is appropriate and patterned expression are both modes of existence of heavenly principle. Heavenly principle is not only manifested as the four virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, but also embodied in human relationships: “Father and son, elder and younger brother, husband and wife are all natural aspects of heavenly principle; all people know to love and respect them. Although ruler and minister are also heavenly principle, they are united by righteousness” (*Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi*, Volume 13).

朱熹把“仁”上升到本体论高度。“仁之为道，乃天地生物之心。”（《朱子文集》卷十三）“浑然天理是仁”（《朱子语类》卷二十八），循天理便是义，“义者，天理之所宜”（《里仁》第四《论语集注》卷二），“礼者，天理之节文”（《朱子语类》卷六），所宜、节文，都是天理的存在形态。天理不仅表现为仁、义、礼、智四德，而且体现为人伦，“父子、兄弟、夫妇皆是天理自然，人皆莫不自知爱敬，君臣虽亦是天理，然是义合”（《朱子语类》卷十三）。

In modern times, Hong Xiuquan admonished people: “All men under heaven are brothers; all women under heaven are sisters” (*Proclamation on Awakening the World*). He hoped that the brothers and sisters of the world would “together cultivate themselves and improve the world, together correct themselves and correct others, together act as a pillar in the midstream, together reverse the already toppled raging waves. Then we will see the whole world as one family, sharing great peace,” creating a great harmony world that is fair and upright, without oppression, plunder, or killing, where “the strong do not violate the weak, the many do not oppress the few, the wise do not deceive the foolish, the brave do not torment the timid” (*Proclamation on Awakening the World*). Kang Youwei pointed out that the sufferings of the human world “all arise from the Nine Boundaries.” What are the Nine Boundaries? They are: the boundary of state, class, race, sex, family, occupation, disorder, species, and suffering. Kang Youwei sought to establish a “Great Harmony World” that eliminates the “Nine Boundaries.” Sun Yat-sen raised high the banner of the “Three Principles of the People,” striving to overthrow the rule of the Qing government, build a new form of state and government, develop industry, implement policies of equal wealth such as “regulating capital” and “land to the tiller,” cultivate the independent personality of the people, and build a modern China that would stand shoulder to shoulder with Europe and America, or even surpass them. These discourses all express the inheritance of the traditional Chinese relationship of mutual respect and love.

近代，洪秀全告诫人们：“天下多男人，尽是兄弟之辈，天下多女子，尽是姊妹之群。”（《原道醒世训》）他希望天下的兄弟姊妹“相与淑身淑世，相与正己正人，相与作中流之砥柱，相与挽已倒之狂澜。行见天下一家，共享太平”，创建一个公平正直，无陵夺斗杀，“强不犯弱，众不暴寡，智不诈愚，勇不苦怯”（《原道醒世训》）的大同世界。康有为指出，人世之苦“皆因九界而已”。何谓“九界”？曰：国界、级界、种界、形界、家界、业界、乱界、类界、苦界。康有为要建立一个消灭“九界”的“大同世界”。孙中山高举“三民主义”大旗，力图推翻清政府的统治，构建新型国体政体，发展实业，实行“节制资本”、“耕者有其田”的均富政策，培养国民独立人格，建立一个与欧美并驾，或驾乎欧美之上的现代中国。这些论述，均表达了对中国传统相互敬爱关系的传承。

(3) Mutual Equality

（三）相互平等关系

Emphasizing equality of personality, fairness and justice in action, and putting public interest before private interest—this is a consistent pursuit of various schools in traditional Chinese culture. Laozi demonstrated the equality of different subjects in a natural sense. He believed that the Way is the beginning of heaven and earth, the mother of all things, and that everything is generated from the Way: “The Way gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to the ten thousand things” (*Laozi, Chapter 42*). Before the “Way,” there is no distinction between high and low, noble and base among people. “Heaven and earth are not benevolent; they treat the ten thousand things as straw dogs. The sage is not benevolent; he treats the hundred families as straw dogs” (*Laozi, Chapter 5*). The Way naturally adjusts according to different situations. “The Way of heaven—is it not like drawing a bow? What is high is brought down; what is low is raised up. What has surplus is reduced; what is insufficient is supplemented” (*Laozi, Chapter 77*). Laozi angrily condemned the inequality of reality: “The court is extremely corrupt, the fields are extremely barren, the granaries are extremely empty; yet they wear embroidered clothes, carry sharp swords, are surfeited with food and drink, and have more wealth than they can use—this is called robbery and ostentation” (*Laozi, Chapter 53*). The fields are barren, the granaries empty, the people hungry and cold, yet the rulers wear embroidered clothes, carry sharp swords, are surfeited with fine food and drink, and have more wealth than they can use. “The people are hungry because their rulers consume too much in taxes—that is why they are hungry” (*Laozi, Chapter 75*). Laozi denied the worship of sages, greed for wealth, and indulgence in desires, hoping that everyone would “return to the state of an infant,” establishing a small-state-with-few-people society without greed, without weapons, where everyone “relishes their food, beautifies their clothing, is content with their dwellings, and enjoys their customs” (*Laozi, Chapter 80*). In such a society, even if there are ten or a hundred times more man-made tools, they are not used; the people value their lives and do not migrate far; “although there are boats and carriages, there is no place to ride them; although there are weapons, there is no place to deploy them” (*Laozi, Chapter 80*), thus achieving equality in a natural sense.

讲究人格平等，做事公平公正、先公后私，这是中国传统文化中各家各派的一贯追求。老子论证了不同主体在自然意义上的平等。他认为，道为天地之始，万物之母，一切都从道生化而来，“道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物”（《老子·第四十二章》）。在“道”面前，人和人没有高低贵贱之分。“天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。”（《老子·第五章》）道会根据不同的状况进行自然的调节。“天之道，其犹张弓与？高者抑之，下者举之；余者损之，不足者补之。”（《老子·第七十七章》）老子愤怒谴责现实的不平等：“朝甚除，田甚芜，仓甚虚；服文彩，带利剑，厌饮食，财货有余；是谓盗夸。”（《老子·第五十三章》）田地荒芜，仓库空虚，人民饥寒，统治者却穿着锦绣的衣服，带着利剑，饱足精美的饮食，财货有余。“民之饥，以其上食税之多，是以饥。”（《老子·第七十五章》）老子否定对圣贤的崇拜、财富的贪婪、情欲的骄纵，希望人人“复归于婴儿”，建立一个没有贪欲，没有甲兵，人人“甘其食，美其服，安其居，乐其俗”的小国寡民社会（《老子·第八十章》）。在这样的社会里，即使有十倍百倍的人工之器却并不使用，人民重死而不远徙，“虽有舟舆，无所乘之；虽有甲兵，无所陈之”（《老子·第八十章》），也就实现了自然意义上的平等。

Confucius believed that although people have different origins, they possess equality of personality and will. “The commander of the three armies can be taken away, but the will of a common man cannot be taken away” (*Analects, Zihan*). People are all equal brothers to each other: “Within the four seas, all are brothers” (*Analects, Yan Yuan*). The greatest misfortune of society lies in the unfair distribution of wealth: “Do not worry about scarcity, but about inequality.” As long as wealth is distributed equally, equality is achieved, and poverty is eliminated: “For when there is equality, there is no poverty” (*Analects, Jishi*). Confucius established private schools, and his enrollment criteria were not restricted by region, status, rank, position, or age; regardless of wealth or poverty, nobility or baseness, Confucius treated everyone equally. Mencius fully affirmed the possibility of ordinary people becoming sages: “Everyone can become a Yao or a Shun” (*Mencius, Gaozi II*). The relationship between ruler and minister is one of complete equality: as the ruler treats his ministers, so the ministers treat the ruler. “If the ruler treats his ministers as his hands and feet, then the ministers treat the ruler as their heart and belly; if the ruler treats his ministers as dogs and horses, then the ministers treat the ruler as a stranger; if the ruler treats his ministers as dirt and grass, then the ministers treat the ruler as a bandit and enemy” (*Analects, Lilou II*). Ruler and minister should each keep to their own Way and fulfill their own responsibilities. “If one wishes to be a ruler, one must fulfill the Way of the ruler; if one wishes to be a minister, one must fulfill the Way of the minister” (*Mencius, Lilou I*). Mencius affirmed the legitimacy of King Wu’s overthrow of the Shang dynasty, arguing that killing a tyrannical ruler is executing a “despot,” not “regicide.” Xunzi similarly affirmed the possibility of ordinary people becoming sages: “Any person on the street can become a Yu” (*Xunzi, Human Nature Is Evil*).

孔子认为，每个人虽然出身不同，但却具有人格意志的平等。“三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也。”（《论语·子罕》）人与人之间都是平等的兄弟关系，“四海之内，皆兄弟也”（《论语·颜渊》）。社会最大的祸患在于财富分配的不公，“不患寡而患不均”。只要做到财富的平均分配也就实现了平等，也就消除了贫困，“盖均无贫”（《论语·季氏》）。孔子兴办私学，其招生对象不受区域、贵贱、等级、地位和年龄的限制，无论贫富贵贱，孔子都能一视同仁。孟子充分肯定普通人成为圣贤的可能性，“人皆可以为尧、舜”（《孟子·告子下》）。君臣之间是完全平等的关系，君怎样对待臣，臣就怎样对待君。“君之视臣如手足，则臣视君如腹心；君之视臣如犬马，则臣视君如国人；君之视臣如土芥，则臣视君如寇仇。”（《论语·离娄下》）君臣要各守其道，各尽其责。“欲为君，尽君道；欲为臣，尽臣道。”（《孟子·离娄上》）孟子肯定武王伐纣的合法性，认为杀死残暴的君主即是诛杀一个“独夫”，不算“弑君”。荀子同样肯定普通人成为圣人的可能性，“涂之人可以为禹”（《荀子·性恶》）。

The character “兼” (jian) in Mozi’s “universal love” (兼爱) originally carries the meaning of “equality.” The *Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters* (《说文解字》) glosses “兼” as “to combine, and also to hold evenly, grasping two stalks of grain simultaneously. Holding two stalks of grain without favoring one over the other,” which implies equality [4]4 Kang Youwei (1858–1927) was a Confucian scholar and reformer who advocated constitutional monarchy and wrote the utopian work *The Book of Great Harmony*.. Mozi held that Heaven is vast and impartial: “Heaven’s action is broad and without selfishness.” Before “Heaven,” states have no distinction of size, and people have no distinction of age, seniority, nobility, or baseness; all are subjects of Heaven. “Now under Heaven, large and small states alike are all towns of Heaven. People, whether young or old, noble or base, are all subjects of Heaven.” (*Mozi* · “Models and Standards”) In selecting the worthy and appointing the capable, one must treat all equally, without partiality toward one’s father or elder brother, without favoritism toward the wealthy or noble, and without doting on the beautiful.

墨子所讲的“兼爱”之“兼”，本义就含有“平等”之意。《说文解字》释“兼”字为“并也，又从持称，兼持二禾口。持二禾而不专一禾”，即隐含平等之意［4］。墨子认为，天是广大而平等的，“天之行广而无私”。在“天”面前，国无大小，人无长幼贵贱，都是天之臣。“今天下无大小国，皆天之邑也。人无幼长贵贱，皆天之臣也。”（《墨子·法仪》）选贤任能，要一视同仁，不偏党父兄，不偏护富贵，不爱宠美色。

Han Feizi believed that the essence of establishing law is to restrain human selfishness: “The purpose of laying down laws and decrees is to abolish selfishness” (*Han Feizi* · “Artifice and Coercion”). Before the law, all are equal: “The law does not flatter the noble; the plumb line does not bend to the crooked. … Punishment for offenses does not avoid ministers and grandees; reward for good deeds does not omit the common man” (*Han Feizi* · “Having Standards”). The ruler must not act arbitrarily but should heed the opinions of the people. “One who rules over others relies on the multitude of ministers and the hundred surnames for his power and strength. What the multitude of ministers and the hundred surnames consider good, the ruler considers good; what they do not consider good, the ruler does not consider good” (*Han Feizi* · “Eight Treacheries”). Han Feizi also pointed out that a ruler who shows disrespect to ministers and the people will bring ruin to the state: “Treating ministers with contempt, showing no courtesy to fathers and elder brothers, overworking the hundred surnames, and killing the innocent—these can lead to ruin” (*Han Feizi* · “Signs of Ruin”).

韩非子认为，立法的本质就是抑制人的自私，“夫立法令者，以废私也”（《韩非子·诡使》）。法律面前人人平等，“法不阿贵，绳不挠曲。……刑过不避大臣，赏善不遗匹夫”（《韩非子·有度》）。君主不可一意孤行，而应当注意听取民众的意见。“君人者，以群臣百姓为威强者也。群臣百姓之所善，则君善之；非群臣百姓之所善，则君不善之。”（《韩非子·八奸》）韩非子还指出，对大臣和百姓不敬的君主是要亡国的。“简侮大臣，无礼父兄，劳苦百姓，杀戮不辜者，可亡也。”（《韩非子·亡征》）

In modern times, Sun Yat-sen sought to draw on Western political culture to establish a political system in China of complete equality for all. He said: “The purpose of the revolutionary army is to abolish the Manchu Qing dynasty, establish the Republic of China, and implement the Principle of Livelihood, so that our compatriots may share the blessings of freedom, equality, and fraternity.” [5]5 Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) was the founding father of the Republic of China, whose Three Principles of the People (nationalism, democracy, people’s livelihood) became foundational for modern Chinese politics.528 He clearly stated: “The spirit of the Three Principles of the People is to build an extremely peaceful, extremely free, and extremely equal state.” [6]6 Yao and Shun are legendary sage-emperors in ancient Chinese tradition, often invoked as models of virtuous rule.69 In such a state, all people are related as uncles, brothers, and cousins, with no distinction of poverty or wealth, nobility or baseness: “When fellow countrymen look upon one another, they are all uncles, brothers, cousins, and sisters, entirely equal, without any difference of noble and base, poor and rich.” [7]7 Yu is the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, celebrated for his flood control efforts and virtuous governance.79 Government officials are all public servants of the people: “The hundred officials of the state, from the president above to the patrolman below, are all public servants of the people.” [7]7 Yu is the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, celebrated for his flood control efforts and virtuous governance.173 The pursuit of a world of great harmony (大同), fair and just, with mutual equality—this has been a dream and a fundamental concept of the Chinese people for millennia.

近代，孙中山力图借鉴西方政治文化，在中国建立一个人人完全平等的政治体制。他说：“革命军之宗旨，为废灭鞑虏清朝，创立中华民国，实行民生主义，使我同胞共享自由、平等、博爱之幸福。”［5］528并明确指出：“三民主义的精神，就是要建设一个极和平、极自由、极平等的国家。”［6］69在这样的国家里，人与人之间都是叔伯兄弟关系，没有贫富贵贱的差别，“国人相视，皆伯叔兄弟诸姑姊妹，一切平等，无有贵贱之差、贫富之别”［7］79。政府官员都是人民的公仆，“国中之百官，上而总统，下而巡差，皆人民之公仆也”［7］173。追求公平公正、相互平等的大同世界，这是中国人千百年来的梦想和基本理念。

(4) The Relationship of Mutual Inclusiveness

（四）相互包容关系

Traditional Chinese culture has always emphasized that different subjects should tolerate one another and be inclusive of others’ shortcomings and faults. Laozi believed that tolerance is the character of the Way (道). “The Way is empty, yet when used it is not filled. Deep! It seems the ancestor of the ten thousand things” (*Laozi* · Chapter 4). The “Way” is a void entity, capable of containing the ten thousand things and becoming their ancestor. “To know constancy is to be tolerant; to be tolerant is to be impartial; to be impartial is to be comprehensive; to be comprehensive is to be Heaven; to be Heaven is to be the Way; to be the Way is to endure, and to the end of one’s life one will not be in danger” (*Laozi* · Chapter 16). Laozi hoped that people would be broad-minded: “Open and expansive, like a valley” (*Laozi* · Chapter 15); “Superior virtue is like a valley” (*Laozi* · Chapter 27); like rivers and seas, they should be humble and yield, not contending yet excelling in victory. “The reason the rivers and seas can be kings of the hundred valleys is that they are good at staying below them; therefore they can be kings of the hundred valleys” (*Laozi* · Chapter 66). One should uphold principles without harming others: “Therefore the sage is square but does not cut, sharp but does not wound, straight but not unbridled, bright but not dazzling” (*Laozi* · Chapter 58). Zhuangzi believed that Laozi “was always tolerant toward things and did not cut others down—this can be called the ultimate” (*Zhuangzi* · “Under Heaven”). This is high praise for Laozi’s thought of inclusiveness.

中国传统文化历来强调不同主体间要相互宽容，包容他人的缺点和过失。老子认为，宽容是大道的品格。“道冲而用之或不盈。渊兮，似万物之宗。”（《老子·第四章》）“道”是一个虚体，能够包容万物，成为万物之宗。“知常容，容乃公，公乃全，全乃天，天乃道，道乃久，没身不殆。”（《老子·第十六章》）老子希望人们胸怀宽广，“旷兮其若谷”（《老子·第十五章》），“上德若谷”（《老子·第二十七章》），像江海一样谦让处下，不争而善胜。“江海所以能为百谷王者，以其善下之，故能为百谷王。”（《老子·第六十六章》）既坚持原则又不伤害他人，“是以圣人方而不割，廉而不刿，直而不肆，光而不耀。”（《老子·第五十八章》）庄子认为，老子“常宽容于物，不削于人，可谓至极”（《庄子·天下》）。这是对老子包容思想的高度赞扬。

The Confucian classic *The Book of Changes* (《周易》) holds that the earth, through its breadth, contains the ten thousand things, and the gentleman, through his generosity, perfects his virtue. “The earth’s condition is receptive; the gentleman, with generous virtue, carries all things.” *The Book of Documents* (《尚书》) records that Zhong Hui, the left prime minister of Shang, praised Cheng Tang for practicing a policy of broad and benevolent virtue, making his great faith manifest to the myriad people: “He was able to be generous and able to be benevolent, making his faith manifest to the myriad people” (*Book of Shang* · “The Announcement of Zhong Hui”). *The Elder Dai’s Book of Rites* (《大戴礼记》) says: “When water is too clear, there are no fish; when people are too exacting, they have no followers.” To demand too harshly of others means one cannot have true followers. *The Doctrine of the Mean* (《中庸》) holds that only by embracing all things with a broad mind can one match the virtue of Heaven and Earth: “The ten thousand things are nurtured together without harming one another; the Ways proceed in parallel without contradicting one another. Small virtues flow like streams; great virtues transform profoundly—this is the greatness of Heaven and Earth.” In *The Analects* · “Li Ren,” there is a dialogue between Confucius and Zeng Shen that reveals the core of Confucius’ thought: “The Way of the Master is nothing more than loyalty and reciprocity (忠恕).” What is called “reciprocity” (恕) is tolerance of others’ shortcomings and inadequacies. Confucius taught his disciples: “Generosity wins the multitude” (*The Analects* · “Yang Huo”); “Do not demand perfection from any one person” (*The Analects* · “Weizi”); “Let bygones be bygones” (*The Analects* · “Bayi”); “Require much of yourself and little of others” (*The Analects* · “Wei Linggong”). Mencius believed that only by loving and respecting others can one be loved and respected in return: “He who loves others is constantly loved by them; he who respects others is constantly respected by them” (*Mencius* · “Li Lou II”). If someone treats you disrespectfully, you must examine yourself: “If a man treats me with violence and outrage, the gentleman will surely examine himself: ‘I must have been unkind, I must have been discourteous—how else could this have come about?’” (*Mencius* · “Li Lou II”). Xunzi believed that being strict with oneself and tolerant of others is the principle for achieving great things under Heaven: “Therefore the gentleman measures himself with the plumb line and receives others with the ferry. Measuring himself with the plumb line, he is sufficient to be a model for the world; receiving others with the ferry, he is able to be tolerant, and thus, seeking to achieve, he accomplishes great things under Heaven. Therefore the gentleman, though worthy, can tolerate the incapable; though wise, can tolerate the foolish; though broad in learning, can tolerate the shallow; though pure, can tolerate the mixed—this is called the art of inclusiveness” (*Xunzi* · “Against Physiognomy”). *The Book of Zhou* (《周书》) says: “Record people’s merits; forget their faults.”

儒家经典《周易》认为，大地因其宽广而容纳万物，君子因为宽厚而成其美德。“地势坤，君子以厚德载物。”《尚书》记载，商的左相仲虺称赞成汤能够行宽宏仁爱之德政，彰明大信于天下万民。“克宽克仁，彰信兆民。”（《商书·仲虺之诰》）《大戴礼记·子张问入官篇》道：“水至清则无鱼，人至察则无徒。”过分严苛地要求他人，就不可能有真正的跟随者。《中庸》认为，只有以宽广的胸怀包容万物，才能配得上天地之德。“万物并育而不相害，道并行而不相悖。小德川流，大德敦化，此天地之所以为大也。”《论语·里仁》篇中有一段孔子与曾参的对话，道出孔子思想的核心：“夫子之道，忠恕而已矣。”所谓“恕”就是宽容他人的缺点和不足。孔子教导弟子：“宽则得众”（《论语·阳货》）；“无求备于一人”（《论语·微子》）；“既往不咎”（《论语·八佾》）；“躬自厚而薄责于人”（《论语·卫灵公》）。孟子认为，只有敬爱他人才会得到他人的敬爱。“爱人者，人恒爱之；敬人者，人恒敬之”（《孟子·离娄下》），如果有人对你不敬，那一定要从自身找原因。“有人如此，其待我以横逆，则君子必自反也；我必不仁也，必无礼也，此物奚宜至哉？”（《孟子·离娄下》）荀子认为，严格要求自己而宽容他人，这是成就天下大事的规律，“故君子之度己则以绳，接人则用抴。度己以绳，故足以为天下法则矣；接人用抴，故能宽容，因求以成天下之大事矣。故君子贤而能容罢，知而能容愚，博士而能容浅，粹而能容杂，夫是之谓兼术”（《荀子·非相》）。《周书》曰：“记人之功，忘人之过。”

Li Si, summing up historical experience, believed that only by treating talented people generously could a state achieve wealth and strength. “Mount Tai does not reject soil, therefore it can become great; rivers and seas do not reject small streams, therefore they can become deep; the king does not reject the multitude, therefore he can make his virtue bright” (*Records of the Grand Historian* · “Biography of Li Si”). *The Book of Han* (《汉书》) · “Treatise on the Five Elements, Part II” holds that if a ruler cannot be broad and tolerant toward his ministers, he cannot occupy the ruler’s position: “If the superior is not broad and tolerant in embracing his ministers and subordinates, he cannot occupy the sage’s position.” Han Yu praised the style of ancient gentlemen and scholars who were “strict with themselves and lenient toward others”: “The gentleman of old was severe and thorough in reproaching himself; he was light and sparing in treating others.” “Take one point, do not demand a second; look at what is new, do not dwell on what is old; anxiously fearful lest others not obtain the benefit of doing good” (*Complete Works of Han Yu* · “On the Origin of Slander”). During the New Culture Movement, Mr. Cai Yuanpei advocated the educational philosophy of “inclusiveness and diversity” (兼容并包) at Peking University, allowing various schools of thought to coexist, creating an unprecedented prosperity and brilliance for the university. Mutual inclusiveness is one of the fundamental reasons why Chinese civilization has flourished for five thousand years without decline.

李斯总结历史的经验，认为只有宽厚地对待人才，才能达到国家富强的目的。“泰山不让土壤，故能成其大；河海不择细流，故能就其深；王者不却众庶，故能明其德。”（《史记·李斯列传》）《汉书·五行志下》认为，做君主的如果不能宽大包容臣子，就无法居于君主之位。“上不宽大包容臣下，则不能居圣位。”韩愈赞美古代士君子“严于律己，宽以待人”的风范。“古之君子，其责己也重以周；其待人也轻以约。”“取其一，不责其二；即其新，不究其旧；恐恐然惟惧其人之不得为善之利。”（《韩愈全集·原毁》）新文化运动时期，蔡元培先生在北京大学倡导“兼容并包”的办学理念，允许各种学派同时并存，创造了北京大学前所未有的繁荣和辉煌。相互包容，这是中华文明上下五千年长盛不衰的根本原因之一。

(5) The Relationship of Mutual Trustworthiness

（五）相互诚信关系

“Trustworthiness” (诚信) is the unity of “sincerity” (诚) and “trust” (信), both of which are defined in relation to others. Confucius incorporated “trust” as one of the practical pathways for practicing “benevolence” (仁) into the “Five Constant Virtues” (五常), namely “courtesy, magnanimity, trustworthiness, diligence, and kindness” (恭、宽、信、敏、惠). He said: “A man without trustworthiness—I do not know what he can do” [9]9 Analects, Wei Zheng. The original Chinese: 人而无信，不知其可也.; “Hold firmly to trustworthiness and love learning, hold fast to the good Way until death” [10]10 Analects, Tai Bo. The original Chinese: 笃信好学，守死善道.; “The firm, the resolute, the plain, and the slow-spoken are close to benevolence” [11]11 Analects, Zi Lu. The original Chinese: 刚毅木讷近仁.. Mencius held that “sincerity” is the embodiment of the “Way of Heaven” in the “Way of Man”: “Sincerity is the Way of Heaven; to think of sincerity is the Way of Man” (Mencius, Li Lou I) [12]12 Mencius, Li Lou I. The original Chinese: 诚者，天之道也；思诚者，人之道也.. The Great Learning held that from the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all must take the cultivation of their character as the root, and the root of cultivating character lies in making the will sincere: “The ancients who wished to manifest illustrious virtue under Heaven first ordered their states; wishing to order their states, they first regulated their families; wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons; wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts; wishing to rectify their hearts, they first made their wills sincere; wishing to make their wills sincere, they first extended their knowledge. The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete; knowledge being complete, the will became sincere; the will being sincere, the heart became rectified; the heart being rectified, the person was cultivated; the person being cultivated, the family was regulated; the family being regulated, the state was well ordered; the state being well ordered, the whole world was at peace.” [13]13 The Great Learning, text. The original Chinese: 古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先诚其意；欲诚其意者，先致其知。致知在格物。物格而后知至，知至而后意诚，意诚而后心正，心正而后身修，身修而后家齐，家齐而后国治，国治而后天下平. The Confucian classic The Doctrine of the Mean held that “sincerity” is the unity of “completing oneself” and “completing things”: “Sincerity is not merely the completion of oneself; it is that by which things are completed. To complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom. These are the virtues of one’s nature, and are the Way that unites the inner and outer, therefore it is fitting to apply them at all times.” [14]14 The Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 25. The original Chinese: 诚者，非自诚己而已也，所以成物也。成己，仁也；成物，知也。性之德也，合外内之道也，故时措之宜也. “Utmost sincerity” is the “great warp” for ordering the world and the “great foundation” for standing in the world. Laozi held that if a person is insufficient in trustworthiness, others will no longer trust him: “When trust is insufficient, there is distrust” (Laozi, Chapter 17) [15]15 Laozi, Chapter 17. The original Chinese: 信不足焉，有不信焉.. Making promises lightly inevitably leads to many difficulties: “Light promises inevitably produce little trust; many easy tasks inevitably produce many difficulties” (Laozi, Chapter 63) [16]16 Laozi, Chapter 63. The original Chinese: 夫轻诺必寡信，多易必多难.. In daily life, one must be trustworthy in everything: “The trustworthy I trust; the untrustworthy I also trust—this is trust in virtue” (Laozi, Chapter 49) [17]17 Laozi, Chapter 49. The original Chinese: 信者吾信之，不信者吾亦信之，德信.. Zhuangzi regarded trustworthiness as the highest character: “Without conduct there is no trust; without trust there is no employment; without employment there is no benefit” (Miscellaneous Chapters, Robber Zhi) [18]18 Zhuangzi, Miscellaneous Chapters, Robber Zhi. The original Chinese: 无行则不信，不信则不任，不任则不利.. Guanzi combined “sincerity” and “trust,” holding that trustworthiness is the knot that unites and binds subordinates: “Trustworthiness is the knot of the world” (Guanzi, Pivotal Sayings) [19]19 Guanzi, Pivotal Sayings. The original Chinese: 诚信者，天下之结也..

“诚信”是“诚”和“信”的统一，都是相对于他人而言的。孔子将“信”作为践行“仁”的实践途径之一而纳入“五常”，“恭、宽、信、敏、惠”。他说：“人而无信，不知其可也”，“笃信好学，守死善道”“刚毅木讷近仁”。孟子认为，“诚”是“天道”在“人道”的体现。“诚者，天之道也；思诚者，人之道也。”（《孟子·离娄上》）《大学》认为，自天子至庶人，都要把修养品性作为根本，而修养品性的根本则在于诚意。“古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先诚其意；欲诚其意者，先致其知。致知在格物。物格而后知至，知至而后意诚，意诚而后心正，心正而后身修，身修而后家齐，家齐而后国治，国治而后天下平。”儒家经典《中庸》认为，“诚”是“成己”与“成物”的统一。“诚者，非自诚己而已也，所以成物也。成己，仁也；成物，知也。性之德也，合外内之道也，故时措之宜也。”“至诚”是经纶天下的“大经”，立于天下的“大本”。老子认为，一个人如果诚信不足，人们就不再信任他。“信不足焉，有不信焉。”（《老子·第十七章》）轻易许诺别人，必然困难重重。“夫轻诺必寡信，多易必多难。”（《老子·第六十三章》）在日常生活中，要处处讲究诚信。“信者吾信之，不信者吾亦信之，德信。”（《老子·第四十九章》）庄子把诚信看作至高无上的品格。“无行则不信，不信则不任，不任则不利。”（《杂篇·盗跖》）管子把“诚”和“信”结合起来，认为诚信是团结和维系下人的扭结。“诚信者，天下之结也。”（《管子·枢言》）

During the Warring States period, Mozi placed greater emphasis on the practical implementation of trustworthiness: “Trust: it is not that his words are appropriate, but that he makes people see the city wall and obtain the gold” (Mozi, Canon II) [20]20 Mozi, Canon II. The original Chinese: 信：不以其言之当也，使人视城得金.. He advocated “valuing promises and keeping trust.” Xunzi synthesized the ideas of Confucianism, Daoism, and Mohism, further defining “sincerity” as “sincerely guarding benevolence in the heart, sincerely practicing righteousness in action.” The famous Legalist representative Shang Yang held that if a ruler is not trustworthy, the state cannot be governed. He said: “There are three things by which a state is governed: the first is law, the second is trust, the third is power” (The Book of Lord Shang, Cultivating Authority) [21]21 The Book of Lord Shang, Cultivating Authority. The original Chinese: 国之所以治者三：一曰法，二曰信，三曰权.. Han Feizi also adhered to the same view: if trustworthiness is observed, even a small state can become rich and strong: “If one is clear about the methods of governance, then even if the state is small, it will be rich; if rewards and punishments are reverent and trustworthy, even if the people are few, they will be strong” (Han Feizi, The Ten Faults) [22]22 Han Feizi, The Ten Faults. The original Chinese: 明于治之数，则国虽小，富；赏罚敬信，民虽寡强.. Han Feizi praised “Duke Wen of Jin subduing the state of Wei through trustworthiness” (Han Feizi, Outer Congeries of Sayings, Upper Left) [23]23 Han Feizi, Outer Congeries of Sayings, Upper Left. The original Chinese: 晋文公以诚信降卫国., celebrating “trust” as a supreme virtue.

战国时期，墨子更强调诚信的实际践行。“信：不以其言之当也，使人视城得金。”（《墨子·经说上》）主张“重诺守信”。荀子融合儒、道、墨家思想，进一步把“诚”界定为“诚心守仁、诚心行义”。法家著名代表商鞅认为，作为统治者如果不讲诚信，国家是无法治理的。他说：“国之所以治者三：一曰法，二曰信，三曰权。”（《商君书·修权》）韩非子也坚持同样的观点，讲究诚信，即使小国也能富强。“明于治之数，则国虽小，富；赏罚敬信，民虽寡强。”（《韩非子·十过》）韩非子称赞“晋文公以诚信降卫国”（《韩非子·外储说左上》），将“信”看作一项至高无上的美德而加以歌颂。

During the Western Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu for the first time included “trust” among the “Five Constant Virtues” (五常之道); together with “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom,” “trust” became one of the core values of Chinese feudal society. Wang Chong of the Han dynasty held that “sincerity” is a power: “Where utmost sincerity reaches, metal and stone are opened” (Lunheng, Chapter on Responses to Emptiness) [24]24 Wang Chong, Lunheng, Chapter on Responses to Emptiness. The original Chinese: 精诚所至，金石为开.. Zhou Dunyi of the Song dynasty held that sincerity is the primordial state of the universe and the source of all good deeds in Heaven and Earth, proposing: “The sage is nothing but sincerity. Sincerity is the root of the Five Constant Virtues and the source of all conduct” (Zhouzi’s Comprehensive Book, Chapter on Sincerity II) [25]25 Zhou Dunyi, Zhouzi’s Comprehensive Book, Chapter on Sincerity II. The original Chinese: 圣，诚而已矣。诚，五常之本，百行之源也.. Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao held that “trust” and “sincerity” are inseparable: “If sincere, then trustworthy; if trustworthy, then sincere.” Without trustworthiness, a person cannot stand in the world: “A person without loyalty and trustworthiness cannot stand in the world.” Losing trustworthiness deceives one’s own heart and abandons oneself; toward others, it destroys virtue and increases resentment: “If not sincere, one deceives the heart and abandons oneself; if not sincere toward others, one destroys virtue and increases resentment.” Zhu Xi held: “Sincerity means reality” (诚，实也). “Sincerity means being true and without falsehood; it is the original state of the Heavenly Principle” (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books, Chapter on The Doctrine of the Mean) [26]26 Zhu Xi, Collected Commentaries on the Four Books, Chapter on The Doctrine of the Mean. The original Chinese: 诚者，真实无妄之谓，天理之本然也.. Wang Fuzhi held that “sincerity” is the pivot and key that penetrates benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and courage: “‘Sincerity’ is the pivot of benevolence, righteousness, and propriety; ‘making sincere’ is the pivot of knowledge, benevolence, and courage” (Reading the Complete Commentaries on the Four Books) [27]27 Wang Fuzhi, Reading the Complete Commentaries on the Four Books. The original Chinese: ‘诚’为仁义礼之枢，‘诚之’为知仁勇之枢.. Dai Zhen held that all goodness and virtue can be attributed to “sincerity”: “Sincerity means reality. The beginnings of goodness are countless; if one lifts benevolence, righteousness, and propriety, then goodness is complete. The beauties of virtue are countless; if one lifts wisdom, benevolence, and courage, then virtue is complete. What is called goodness, what is called virtue—to exhaust their reality is called sincerity” (Evidential Commentary on the Meanings of Mencius, Volume II) [28]28 Dai Zhen, Evidential Commentary on the Meanings of Mencius, Volume II. The original Chinese: 诚者，实也。善之端不可胜数，举仁义礼三者而善备矣；德性之美不可胜数，举智仁勇三者而德备矣。曰善，曰德，尽其实之谓诚..

西汉时期，董仲舒第一次把“信”列入“五常之道”，“信”与“仁、义、礼、智”一起，成为中国封建社会的核心价值观之一。汉代王充认为，“诚”是一种力量，“精诚所至，金石为开”（《论衡·感虚篇》）。宋代周敦颐认为，诚是宇宙间的初始状态，是天地间一切善行的本源，提出“圣，诚而已矣。诚，五常之本，百行之源也”（《周子通书·诚下篇》）。程颐、程颢认为，“信”和“诚”是密不可分的，“诚则信矣，信则诚矣”。人若无诚信，无法立存于世，“人无忠信，不可立于世”。丧失诚信，于己欺心，于人欺德，“不诚则欺心而弃己，与人不诚则丧德而增怨”。朱熹认为，“诚，实也”。“诚者，真实无妄之谓，天理之本然也。”（《四书集注·中庸章句》）王夫之认为，“诚”是贯通仁义礼智勇的中枢和关键。“‘诚’为仁义礼之枢，‘诚之’为知仁勇之枢。”（《读四书大全注》）戴震认为，一切善和德都可归之于“诚”。“诚者，实也。善之端不可胜数，举仁义礼三者而善备矣；德性之美不可胜数，举智仁勇三者而德备矣。曰善，曰德，尽其实之谓诚。”（《孟子字义疏证》卷下）

II. The Logical Possibility of the Thought of Mutual Subjectivity in Traditional Chinese Culture

二、中国传统文化互主体思想的逻辑可能

Culture embodies the spirit and soul of a nation. Why was it that traditional Chinese culture, in its formative period, could place the issue of mutual subjectivity at the core of its thinking? How was this logically possible? From the perspective of historical materialism, this is closely connected with the unique humanistic foundation, geographical environment, and mode of social organization of Chinese civilization during its formative period.

文化是民族精神和灵魂的体现。中国传统文化为何能够在原创时期就将互主体问题置于其思维的核心，逻辑上何以可能？从唯物史观的视角看，这与中华文明在其原创时期独特的人文基础、地理环境以及社会组织方式密切相联系。

(1) A Unique Humanistic Foundation Laid the Premise for Thinking

（一）独特人文基础奠定思维前提

The relationship of mutual subjectivity presupposes human beings’ understanding of the mutual relations between themselves and others. The French positivist philosopher Auguste Comte held: “All our speculations, whether individual or collective, inevitably pass successively through three different theoretical stages, commonly called the theological stage, the metaphysical stage, and the positive stage.” [8]8 The term “great harmony” (大同) refers to an ideal society of universal peace and equality, a classical Confucian utopian vision described in the *Book of Rites* (《礼记》). [29]29 Auguste Comte, Course in Positive Philosophy, first lecture. The original Chinese: 我们所有的思辨，无论是个人的或是群体的，都不可避免地先后经历三个不同的理论阶段，通常称之为神学阶段、形而上学阶段和实证阶段. Comte’s thought, to a certain extent, reveals the law of the development of human cognition. China is one of the world’s four ancient civilizations; the stages of social development it experienced came earlier than in Europe, and the time of its liberation from the worship of ghosts and spirits also came earlier than in Europe. As early as the transition from the Shang to the Zhou dynasties, the concept of worshiping ghosts and spirits was called into doubt and gradually replaced by humanistic and people-oriented concepts. According to records: In the Shang dynasty, people still had deep-seated concepts of ghosts and spirits: “The Shang people revered spirits, led the people to serve spirits, and put ghosts before rites” (Book of Rites, Record of the Biaoji) [30]30 Book of Rites, Record of the Biaoji. The original Chinese: 殷人尊神，率民以事神，先鬼而后礼.. This religious worship underwent a fundamental change in the Zhou dynasty: “The Zhou people revered rites and valued beneficence; they served ghosts and respected spirits but kept them at a distance, drawing near to people and being loyal to them” (Book of Rites, Record of the Biaoji) [31]31 Book of Rites, Record of the Biaoji. The original Chinese: 周人尊礼尚施，事鬼敬神而远之，近人而忠焉.. The Duke of Zhou, drawing lessons from the fall of the Shang, stated: “The vision of Heaven is from the vision of the people; the hearing of Heaven is from the hearing of the people” [32]32 Book of Documents, Great Declaration. The original Chinese: 天视自我民视，天听自我民听.; “What the people desire, Heaven will surely follow” (Book of Documents, Great Declaration) [33]33 Book of Documents, Great Declaration. The original Chinese: 民之所欲，天必从之.; and held that “Heaven is not to be trusted” and “one should take the people as a mirror” (Book of Documents, Zhou Documents) [34]34 Book of Documents, Zhou Documents. The original Chinese: 天不可信、当于民监.. The value of human beings was respected; the primitive and brutal practice of “human sacrifice” was condemned and abandoned; the focus of thinking shifted from illusory ghosts and spirits to real human beings. Zichan, a high official of the state of Zheng, questioned astrology: “The Way of Heaven is distant; the Way of Man is near. They do not reach each other—how can one know them? How can Zao [the astrologer] know the Way of Heaven? He talks too much—how could he not sometimes be right?” (Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo, 18th Year of Duke Zhao) [35]35 Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo, 18th Year of Duke Zhao. The original Chinese: 天道远，人道迩，非所及也，何以知之？灶焉知天道？是亦多言矣，岂不或信？. Confucius also expressed doubt about ghosts and spirits: “Devote yourself to what is proper for the people; respect ghosts and spirits but keep them at a distance” (Analects, Yong Ye) [36]36 Analects, Yong Ye. The original Chinese: 务民之义，敬鬼神而远之.; “Zilu asked about serving ghosts and spirits. The Master said: ‘If you cannot yet serve people, how can you serve ghosts?’” (Analects, Advanced) [37]37 Analects, Advanced. The original Chinese: 子路问事鬼神。子曰：‘未能事人，焉能事鬼’.. This shows that in the pre-Qin period, a humanism oriented toward reality had already become an important intellectual trend, and thought achieved unprecedented liberation. War, moreover, placed the issue of relations among different subjects at the forefront of theoretical thinking. The various schools of thought wrote books and established doctrines, expressing their views on society and human life. A large number of far-reaching thinkers emerged, such as Confucius, Laozi, Mozi, Mencius, Xunzi, Zhuangzi, Yang Zhu, Shang Yang, Han Fei, and Sun Wu, forming numerous schools of thought including Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, Legalism, the School of Names, the School of Diplomacy, the School of Military Strategy, and the School of Eclectics. They each raised their own banners, debated and refuted one another, and the atmosphere was very lively. This is an important ideological and cultural root of the early development of the thought of mutual subjectivity in traditional China.

互主体关系以人对自己及他人相互关系的认识为前提。法国实证主义哲学家孔德认为：“我们所有的思辨，无论是个人的或是群体的，都不可避免地先后经历三个不同的理论阶段，通常称之为神学阶段、形而上学阶段和实证阶段。”［8］1孔德的思想，在一定程度上揭示了人类认识发展的规律。中国是世界四大文明古国之一，社会发展所经历的各阶段较欧洲为早，从鬼神崇拜下解放出来的时间也较欧洲为早。早在殷周之际，鬼神崇拜观念受到怀疑，日渐为人本观念、民本观念所取代。据载：殷商时代，人们还有深厚的鬼神观念。“殷人尊神，率民以事神，先鬼而后礼。”（《礼记·表记》）这种宗教崇拜的观念在周代已发生根本性变化。“周人尊礼尚施，事鬼敬神而远之，近人而忠焉。”（《礼记·表记》）周公从殷亡的教训中得到启发，“天视自我民视，天听自我民听”，“民之所欲，天必从之”（《尚书·泰誓》），并认为“天不可信”、“当于民监”（《尚书·周书》）。人的价值受到尊重，原始残暴的“人殉”现象受到谴责和遗弃，思维重点从虚幻的鬼神转向现实的人。郑国大夫子产对占星术提出质疑：“天道远，人道迩，非所及也，何以知之？灶焉知天道？是亦多言矣，岂不或信？”（《春秋左传·昭公十八年》）孔子也对鬼神表示怀疑，“务民之义，敬鬼神而远之”（《论语·雍也》），“子路问事鬼神。子曰：‘未能事人，焉能事鬼’”（《论语·先进》）。说明在先秦时期，面向现实的人文主义已成为一种重要的思想潮流，思想得到空前的解放。而战争又把不同主体间的关系问题置于理论思维的前沿。诸子百家著书立说，对社会人生发表见解，涌现出如孔子、老子、墨子、孟子、荀子、庄子、杨朱、商鞅、韩非、孙武等一大批影响深远的思想家，形成了儒家、墨家、道家、法家、名家、纵横家、兵家、杂家等众多的思想流派。他们各张旗帜，互相辩驳，气氛非常活跃。这是中国传统互主体思想发育较早的重要思想文化根源。

Although Western culture already contained a concern for human beings in the ancient Greek era, Greek philosophers were comparatively more focused on exploring the external world and knowledge. As Aristotle said: “It is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize; they wondered originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little and stated difficulties about greater matters.” “Evidently they pursued science for the sake of knowledge, and not for any utilitarian end.” [9]9 Analects, Wei Zheng. The original Chinese: 人而无信，不知其可也.5 From the “water” and “air” of the Milesian school to Heraclitus’s “fire,” then to Pythagoras’s “number,” Democritus’s “atom,” Plato’s “idea,” and Aristotle’s “substance,” the core spirit of all these points toward the external cosmos, and moreover the humanistic spirit was oppressed by a dense religious mysticism. “God is everywhere; religion is a part of everyday life.” [10]10 Analects, Tai Bo. The original Chinese: 笃信好学，守死善道.509 Religious rituals accompanied all major personal and public events and affairs. Both personal and public matters invariably began with consulting the gods and ended with the fulfillment of vows and sacrifices. In ancient Greece, religion became the standard for judging political right and wrong. In the 5th–4th centuries BCE, famous philosophers such as Protagoras, Anaxagoras, and the poet Diagoras, along with other notable Greeks, were accused and tried for “impiety toward the gods.” The most astonishing case was the trial of Socrates, who was condemned to death for being accused of “not believing in the gods worshipped by the city, attempting to introduce new deities, and thereby corrupting the youth,” and finally died by drinking hemlock. The famous Athenian military commander Alcibiades, during the Peloponnesian War, was summoned back to Athens for trial after arriving at his destination, due to the mutilation of the Herms and a mysterious religious ceremony; he was charged with sacrilege, causing him to flee mid-journey and defect to Sparta, offering them advice. The Athenian tyrant Peisistratus, after losing power, managed to re-enter Athens smoothly and reclaim the tyrant’s throne by relying on a woman named Phye, disguised as the goddess Athena. [11]11 Analects, Zi Lu. The original Chinese: 刚毅木讷近仁. By the Middle Ages, Christian theology became the force ruling and dominating all spheres of society, with philosophy becoming the handmaiden of religion. It was not until the rise of the European Renaissance in the 15th century that humanism truly became a social trend.

西方文化虽然在古希腊时代就已经蕴含着对人的关注，但相比之下，古希腊哲学家更加关注对外在世界和知识的探索。正如亚里士多德所说：“古今来人们开始哲理探索，都应起于对自然万物的惊异。”“显然，他们为求知而从事学术，并无任何实用的目的。”［9］5从米利都学派的“水”和“气”到赫拉克利特的“火”，再到毕泰戈拉的“数”，德谟克利特的“原子”，柏拉图的“理念”，亚里士多德的“实体”，其核心精神均指向外在的宇宙，而且人文精神为浓厚的宗教神秘主义所压迫。“神无所不在，宗教是日常生活的一部分。”［10］509宗教仪式与所有重大的个人、公共事件与事务如影相随。个人与公共大事无不以问神开始，圆满的结局无不以还愿献祭结束。在古希腊，宗教成为评判政治是非的标准。公元前5—4世纪，著名哲学家普罗泰哥拉、阿那克萨戈拉以及诗人狄亚哥拉斯等希腊知名人士，因“不敬神灵”而受到指控和审判。最匪夷所思的是对苏格拉底的审判，他因被指控为“不信城邦所奉的神，企图引入新神，并以此来败坏青年”而被定为死罪，最后饮鸩而亡。雅典著名的军事统帅亚西比得，在伯罗奔尼撒战争期间，因赫尔墨斯神像被毁坏和神秘祭祀事件，在到达目的地后被传召回国受审，被指控渎神罪，致使他中途逃跑投靠斯巴达，为其献计献策。雅典僭主庇西特拉图，在失去权力之后，依靠伪装成雅典娜女神的女人佩阿陪伴，顺利地进入雅典城，并重新登上了僭主的宝座［11］。到中世纪，基督教神学更成为统治和支配社会一切领域的力量，哲学成为宗教的婢女。直到15世纪欧洲文艺复兴运动的兴起，人文主义才真正成为社会的潮流。

(2) The Influence of Unique Geographical Environment on Modes of Thinking

（二）独特地理环境影响思维取向

In early human life, the geographical environment not only provided the means of production and livelihood to a greater extent but also more profoundly influenced human psychology and modes of thinking. Chinese civilization originated in the basins of large rivers such as the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, the Huai River, and the Pearl River. The territory was vast, with loose and fertile soil, highly suitable for cultivation and crop growth. The *Book of Songs* says: “The plain of Zhou, / How beautiful it is!” ( *Greater Odes: Mian* ) The Mao commentary states: “The plain of Zhou, south of Mount Qi, is indeed fertile.” Again, *Lesser Odes: The Fourth Month* says: “The rolling Jiang and Han, / Are the boundaries of the southern states.” *Lesser Odes: Bell Drums* says: “The bells ring out, / The Huai waters surge.” *Odes of Zheng: The Zhen and Wei* says: “The Zhen and the Wei, / Now flow broad and deep.” This shows that from ancient times, the Jiang, Han, Huai, and other great rivers had abundant water. *Mencius: King Hui of Liang, Part I* states: “If the seasons of farming are not interfered with, the grain will be more than can be eaten. If close-meshed nets are not allowed to enter the pools, the fish and turtles will be more than can be eaten. If axes and hatchets are used in the mountains only at the proper times, the timber will be more than can be used.” This means that as long as one follows the seasons and acts according to the times, there will be more grain than can be eaten, more fish and turtles than can be enjoyed, and more timber than can be used. The primary issue facing people was not the “heaven-human” relationship, but the “self-other” relationship. Unlike ancient Greek culture, which glorified war, traditional Chinese culture explicitly opposed war. Laozi held: “Fine weapons are instruments of ill omen, not the instruments of the gentleman. When one is forced to use them, it is best to do so with calm and detachment. Victory is not to be praised, and to praise it is to delight in killing people. One who delights in killing people cannot have his will prevail in the world.” ( *Laozi*, Chapter 31) Confucius emphasized restoring the rites of Zhou and governing the world through ritual. “The age declined and the Way became obscure; deviant doctrines and violent deeds arose. There were cases of ministers killing their rulers and sons killing their fathers. Confucius was afraid, and he composed the *Spring and Autumn Annals*.” Hence it is said: “When Confucius completed the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, rebellious ministers and villainous sons were struck with fear.” ( *Mencius: Duke Wen of Teng, Part II* ) Toward the remote “barbarian” peoples (夷狄), the approach was not military conquest but moral transformation. “If distant people do not submit, cultivate civil virtue to attract them.” ( *Analects: Ji Shi* ) “To harmonize the states, to bring peace to the myriad people, to reassure guests, and to delight distant peoples.” ( *Rites of Zhou: Spring Offices, Chief of the Zongbo* ) Mencius believed that a state’s strength did not lie in possessing sharp weapons and strong armor; if it could practice “benevolent government,” it would be invincible under heaven. “If the king practices benevolent government toward his people, reduces punishments and penalties, lightens taxes and levies, ensures deep plowing and careful weeding, and allows the able-bodied in their spare time to cultivate filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty, and faithfulness, serving their fathers and elder brothers at home and their elders and superiors abroad, they can be made to wield sticks to strike the strong armor and sharp weapons of Qin and Chu.” ( *Mencius: King Hui of Liang, Part I* ) Mozi spent his life traveling to oppose wars of aggression, such as stopping Chu from attacking Song, persuading Lord Yangwen of Lu to abandon his attack on Zheng, and persuading Xiang Ziniu to abandon his attack on Lu. Even more valuable was that the Mohist group was willing to sacrifice their personal lives for the great righteousness of the world. “The one hundred and eighty followers of Mozi could all be sent to face fire and tread on blades, and would die without turning back.” ( *Huainanzi: A General Survey of the Teachings* ) Sunzi studied the laws of warfare and proposed the general principle of “subduing the enemy’s army without fighting.” “Thus, to fight and win a hundred battles is not the supreme excellence; to subdue the enemy’s army without fighting is the supreme excellence.” “Thus, one skilled in warfare subdues the enemy’s army without fighting.” ( *Sunzi: Planning Offensives* ) *The Essential Art of War: The Chapter on Valuing Harmony* says: “The way of the ancient kings valued harmony as precious; valuing harmony and respecting it, people do not advocate war.”

在人类生活的早期，地理环境不仅在更大程度上提供生产生活资料，而且在更大程度上影响人类的心理和思维方式。中华文明发源于黄河、长江、淮河、珠江等大江大河流域。地域广阔，土质疏松肥沃，十分易于耕种和农作物的生长。《诗“，美也。”《郑笺》：“周之原地，在岐山之阳经·大雅·绵》云：“周原，堇荼如饴。”《毛传》：然肥美。”又《小雅·四月》：“滔滔江汉，南国之纪。”《小雅·鼓钟》：“鼓钟将将，淮水汤汤。”《郑风·溱洧》：“溱与洧，方涣涣兮。”说明自古以来江、汉、淮等大河水量丰沛。《孟子·梁惠王上》言：“不违农时，谷不可胜食也；数罟不入洿池，鱼鳖不可胜食也；斧斤以时入山林，材木不可胜用也。”意思是说，只要顺应天时，依时而作，就有吃不完的粮食、享不尽的鱼鳖、用不完的林木。摆在人们面前的首要问题不是“天—人”关系，而是“人—我”关系。与颂扬战争的古希腊文化不同，中国传统文化明确反对战争。老子认为：“兵者不祥之器，非君子之器，不得已而用之，恬淡为上。胜而不美，而美之者，是乐杀人。夫乐杀人者，则不可得志于天下矣。”（《老子·第三十一章》）孔子强调恢复周礼，以礼治天下。“世衰道微，邪说暴行有作，臣弑其君者有之，子弑其父者有之。孔子惧，作《春秋》。”故曰：“孔子成《春秋》而乱臣贼子惧。”（《孟子·滕文公下》）对于边远地区的少数民族“夷狄”，不是采取武力征服，而是用“文德”感化对方。“远人不服，则修文德以来之。”（《论语·季氏》）“以和邦国，以谐万民，以安宾客，以说远人。”（《周礼·春官宗伯》）孟子认为，国家的强大并不在于拥有坚兵利刃，如果能够施行“仁政”，则无敌于天下。“王如施仁政于民，省刑罚，薄税敛，深耕易耨，壮者以暇日修其孝悌忠信，入以事其父兄，出以事其长上，可使制梃以挞秦、楚之坚甲利兵矣。”（《孟子·梁惠王上》）墨子一生为反侵略战争而四处奔走，如止楚攻宋、说服鲁阳文君放弃攻郑、说服项子牛放弃攻鲁国。更为可贵的是墨家集团为求天下大义，甚至不惜牺牲个人生命。“墨子服役者百八十人，皆可使赴火蹈刃，死不还踵。”（《淮南子·泰族》）孙子研究战争规律，提出“不战而屈人之兵”的总原则。“是故百战百胜，非善之善者也，不战而屈人之兵，善之善者也”；“故善用兵者，屈人之兵而非战也”（《孙子·谋攻篇》）。《太白阴经之贵和篇》曰：“先王之道，以和为贵；贵和重，人不尚战也。”

Greek civilization arose on the Greek peninsula. The geographical environment of Greece was far less favorable than that in which Chinese civilization emerged. The Greek peninsula is predominantly mountainous, with fragmented terrain and numerous islands. Small areas separated by mountains or straits often constituted the territory of a single city-state. Athens, the largest city-state in ancient Greece, had an area of no more than 1,000 square miles. At its peak, it had only about 170,000 citizens, plus 40,000 resident aliens, and 120,000 slaves. The narrow territorial space and barren land made it difficult to meet the means of production and livelihood needed for survival, which inevitably led the ancient Greeks to make the development of commercial trade, and subsequently the struggle for maritime hegemony and the establishment of overseas colonies, an important choice for survival. The unpredictable marine environment and commercial activities cultivated in the Greeks a character of challenging nature, daring to take risks, adapting to circumstances, and prioritizing the self. Culturally, the “human” spoken of in ancient Greek and Athenian culture was mostly an independent, individually existing, strongly individualistic person. Out of the need for external plunder, expansion, and the establishment of maritime hegemony, the philosophy discussed by Greek philosophers was also a kind of “philosophy of struggle” or “philosophy of war” that overemphasized, even exaggerated, the role of contradiction and struggle, even glorifying war. Heraclitus is the most representative, holding that “War is the father of all and king of all; it reveals some as gods, others as men; it makes some slaves, others free.” [12]12 Mencius, Li Lou I. The original Chinese: 诚者，天之道也；思诚者，人之道也.27 That is to say, people’s status and fate are entirely determined by war. The so-called “Thucydides Trap” [38]38 The “Thucydides Trap” is a term popularized by political scientist Graham Allison, referring to the tendency for conflict when a rising power threatens to displace an established great power, derived from the ancient Greek historian Thucydides’ account of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. prominently reflects the “life-and-death” war logic of Western civilization in relations between states. Gu Hongming, [39]39 Gu Hongming (1857–1928) was a Chinese scholar and cultural critic known for his defense of traditional Chinese culture against Western influences during the late Qing and early Republican periods. discussing the attitudes of China and the West toward war, once said: “In China, war is an accident, but in Europe, war is a necessity. We Chinese can fight, but we do not expect to live in war.” [13]13 The Great Learning, text. The original Chinese: 古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先诚其意；欲诚其意者，先致其知。致知在格物。物格而后知至，知至而后意诚，意诚而后心正，心正而后身修，身修而后家齐，家齐而后国治，国治而后天下平.22

希腊文明产生于希腊半岛。希腊的地理环境远远没有中华文明产生时的优越。希腊半岛以山地为主，地形破碎，岛屿繁多。被群山或海峡分隔成的小块地区往往就是一个城邦的领土。雅典作为古希腊最大的城邦，面积不过1000平方英里。最强盛时城内公民不过17万人，还有外邦4万人，再加上12万奴隶。狭小的地域空间，贫瘠的土地，难以满足生存所需的生产生活资料，这使古希腊人必然把发展商业贸易，并进而把争夺海上霸权，建立海外殖民地作为生存的重要选择。变幻莫测的海洋环境及其商业活动培养了希腊人挑战自然、敢于冒险、应时善变、以我为主的性格特征。表现在文化上，古希腊和雅典文化所讲的人，多半是独立发展、单独存在、个性强烈的个人。出于对外掠夺扩张、建立海上霸权的需要，希腊哲学家所讲的哲学也是一种过分强调，乃至夸大矛盾斗争性，甚至崇拜战争的“斗争哲学”、“战争哲学”，尤以赫拉克利特最具代表性，认为“战争是万物之父，也是万物之王。它使一些人成为神，使一些人成为人，使一些人成为奴隶，使一些人成为自由人”［12］27。也就是说，人的地位高低、命运好坏完全通过战争来决定。所谓“修昔底德陷阱”，突出反映了西方文明在国与国关系问题上“你死我活”的战争逻辑。辜鸿铭先生在谈及中国和西方对战争的态度时曾说：“在中国，战争是一种意外事故（accident），可是在欧洲，战争则是一种必需（necessity）。我们中国人是会打仗的，但是我们并不指望生活在战争中。”［13］22

(3) The Unique Social Structure Determines the Characteristics of Thought

（三）独特社会结构决定思维特性

When the Chinese people entered civilization, although the democratic customs of the clan were dissolved, the blood-tie relationships of the clan were completely preserved, establishing the dominant position of the patriarchal blood-rite system, which became a stable deep structure of ancient Chinese society. The system of enfeoffment implemented by the Duke of Zhou stipulated: the Son of Heaven first enfeoffed land and subjects to brothers of the same surname on the basis of blood relations—what is called “enfeoffing vassals and establishing same-surname states”; vassals then enfeoffed land and subjects to brothers of the same surname, that is, ministers and grand masters, also on the basis of blood relations; among vassals or ministers of different surnames, the clan-based system of not marrying within the same surname was practiced, compensating for the insufficiency of blood ties through the extension of marital relations. In this way, within the ruling group, those of the same surname became fathers, sons, and brothers to one another, while those of different surnames became fathers-in-law, sons-in-law, uncles, and nephews, gradually establishing a “family-state integrated” structure with the patriarchal blood-tie mechanism as its foundation. Thus, in the unity of the “patriarchal lineage” and the “royal lineage,” a situation of great unity was formed, as described in the *Book of Songs*: “Under the vast heaven, there is no land that is not the king’s; to the ends of the earth, there is no one who is not the king’s subject.” [40]40 A line from the *Book of Songs* (Shijing), an ancient Chinese classic, expressing the concept of all land and people belonging to the king. When Qin Shi Huang unified China, he replaced the enfeoffment system with the prefecture-county system, but this did not change the public ownership of land and the mode of production based on agriculture. Emperor Wu of Han implemented the policy of “dismissing the hundred schools, only revering Confucianism,” and Confucian thought itself emphasized “treating kin as foremost,” the integration of family and state, and the infinite expansion of blood relations, so that “all within the four seas are brothers.” [41]41 A Confucian ideal from the *Analects*, expressing the idea that all people are like brothers within the four seas. Individual self-cultivation also followed the order from the individual to the family, to the state, and to the world. Regarding others as one’s own kin and always considering others in every situation is inseparably linked to China’s family-state integrated social structure.

中国人在步入文明之际，氏族的民主习俗虽然被消解，但氏族的血缘纽带关系却被完整地保留下来，确立了宗法血亲礼制的统治地位，成为中国古代社会的一种稳定的深层结构。周公实行的分封制规定：周天子首先基于血缘关系，把土地臣民分封给同姓子弟，所谓“封诸侯、建同姓”；诸侯再基于血缘关系，把土地臣民分封给同姓子弟亦即卿大夫；在异姓的诸侯或卿大夫之间，则实行具有氏族特征的同姓不婚制，通过姻缘关系的延伸弥补血缘关系的不足。这样在统治集团内部使同姓互为父子兄弟、异姓互为翁婿甥舅，逐级确立起以宗法血亲纽带为机制的“家国一体”结构，从而在“宗统”与“君统”的合一中，形成“溥天之下，莫非王土；率土之滨，莫非王臣”（《诗经·北山》）的大一统局面。秦始皇统一中国，用郡县制取代分封制，但这并没有改变土地公有制和以农业生产为主的生产方式，汉武帝实行“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的政策，而儒家思想本身强调“亲亲为上”，家国一体，血缘关系被无限放大，“四海之内皆兄弟”。个体修养也遵循从个体到家庭、到国家、到天下的顺序。视他人为亲人，时时处处为他人着想，这与中国家国一体的社会结构有着密不可分的联系。

The situation in the West is quite different from that in China. Morgan believed that when the Greeks entered civilization, the clan system still retained primitive blood-tie relationships and life customs based on democratic principles. However, during the 8th–6th centuries BCE, with the rapid development of handicrafts and commercial trade in Greek society, private property accumulated quickly, large numbers of people migrated and moved, and clan society based on blood ties gradually transformed into a political society based on territory and property [14]14 The Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 25. The original Chinese: 诚者，非自诚己而已也，所以成物也。成己，仁也；成物，知也。性之德也，合外内之道也，故时措之宜也.216-274. At the same time, due to the development of commodity exchange and a monetary economy, the clan democratic customs based on blood ties and aristocratic hierarchical privileges were gradually replaced by city-state citizen legal systems. Thus, city-states no longer formed alliances or opposed each other based on blood relations, but according to the needs of economic and political interests. Within city-states, citizens were no longer divided according to blood relations, but according to occupational division of labor and property holdings, into different strata or classes. The relationship between people was no longer that of father and son or brother and brother, but merely an economic and political contractual relationship. In the process of moving toward modern society, through countless changes, neither the feudal lords nor the modern bourgeoisie were able to fundamentally change the economic and political contractual relationship between people. This is an important social reason for the objectification of “the other.”

西方与中国的情况则很不相同。摩尔根认为，希腊人在步入文明之际，氏族制度仍然保留着原始血缘纽带关系和以民主为原则的生活习俗。但在公元前8—6世纪，希腊社会手工业和商业贸易的迅速发展，私有财产迅速积聚，大批人员迁徙流动，以血缘关系为纽带的氏族社会逐渐转入以地域和财产为基础的政治社会［14］216-274。同时，由于商品交换和货币经济的发展，以氏族血缘关系和贵族等级特权为基础的氏族民主习俗也逐渐为城邦公民法制所取代。这样，各城邦之间不再是按血缘关系，而是按经济、政治利益的需要结成同盟或者相互敌对。城邦内部公民之间，也不再按照血缘关系，而是按照职业分工、财产多寡，把人们分为不同的阶层或等级。人与人之间不再是父子兄弟关系，而只是经济上、政治上的契约关系。在迈向近代社会的过程中，历经千变万化，无论封建主还是现代资产阶级，都未能从根本上改变人与人之间的经济的、政治的契约关系。这是“他人”被客体化的重要社会原因。

III. The Contemporary Significance of the Thought of Mutual Subjectivity in Traditional Chinese Culture

三、中国传统文化互主体思想的现实意义

Excavating the thought of mutual-subjectivity relations in traditional Chinese culture undoubtedly has important enlightening significance for our in-depth understanding of the fundamental characteristics of traditional Chinese culture, promoting the “Two Integrations,” [42]42 The Two Integrations (两个结合) refers to the integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the best of traditional Chinese culture. especially the “Second Integration,” [43]43 The Second Integration (第二个结合) specifically refers to the integration of Marxism with the best of traditional Chinese culture, as emphasized by Xi Jinping. understanding the Sinicization of Marxism at a deeper level, constructing a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics, and building a community with a shared future for mankind.

挖掘中国传统文化中的互主体关系思想，对于我们深入认识中国传统文化的根本特质，促进“两个结合”，特别是“第二个结合”，在更深层次上理解马克思主义中国化，建构具有中国特点的社会主义文化，构建人类命运共同体，无疑具有重要启示意义。

(1) An Important Window for Understanding the Unique Value of Traditional Chinese Culture

（一）认识中国传统文化独特价值的重要窗口

The Chinese nation has always taken pride in possessing a splendid and long-standing history of civilization. However, in modern times, the Opium War of 1840 opened China’s door, and the ancient Chinese civilization faced an unprecedented impact. How to understand and rebuild Chinese civilization became a major issue pondered by countless politicians and thinkers. During the Westernization Movement, Zhang Zhidong, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang, and others put forward the proposition of “Chinese learning as the foundation, Western learning for practical use,” [44]44 A slogan from the late 19th-century Self-Strengthening Movement, advocating the adoption of Western technology while preserving Chinese Confucian values. that is, introducing Western learning and establishing modern industry and commerce without violating the principles of feudal ethics and monarchical autocracy, a beneficial attempt to put Western “techniques, numbers, and crafts” and “political and educational doctrines” into practice. From the Hundred Days’ Reform to the Xinhai Revolution, the approach essentially adopted a qualified “wholesale Westernization.” During the May Fourth New Culture Movement, while actively advocating modernizing reform, the radical faction simply and mechanically completely negated traditional Chinese culture represented by Confucianism, and even Chinese square-character writing. The conservative faction, represented by Liang Qichao, Zhang Junmai, and Liang Shuming, under the banner of defending Confucius and tradition, and “promoting national essence and melting new knowledge,” fundamentally denied that Chinese culture needed epoch-making great transformation and innovation. Unlike the views of “wholesale Westernization” and “Confucian restoration,” the Chinese Communists adopted a dialectical attitude toward traditional Chinese culture. Mao Zedong repeatedly emphasized the need to absorb the essence of traditional Chinese culture, from Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, to seriously summarize, discard the dross, and select the essence. In successive movements, Confucius and his Confucian teachings were criticized as typical examples of turning back the wheel of history, and traditional culture suffered unprecedented calamities. In the 1980s, with the influx of Western philosophical trends, traditional Chinese culture was again denigrated and negated, most notably in the television series *River Elegy*, which completely negated Chinese civilization, claiming that China’s yellow “continental civilization” was inferior to the West’s blue “maritime civilization.” After the 1990s, in the process of constructing a socialist market economy, some people simply equated the market economy with a “profit-seeking,” “deceitful” egoism, and the Confucian views of benevolence, righteousness, and trustworthiness emphasized by traditional Chinese culture were replaced by the utilitarianism, individualism, and pragmatism of fraud and deception. General Secretary Xi Jinping proposed the “Second Integration,” fully affirming the contemporary value of excellent traditional Chinese culture, drawing a conclusion to the “ancient-modern, East-West” debate in modern Chinese history, and the thought of mutual subjectivity in traditional Chinese culture fundamentally manifests the contemporary value of excellent traditional Chinese culture.

中华民族历来以拥有灿烂悠久的文明史而自豪。但到近代，1840年鸦片战争打开了中国大门，古老的中华文明受到空前冲击。如何认识和重建中华文明成为无数政治家、思想家思考的重大课题。洋务运动期间，张之洞、左宗棠、李鸿章等人提出“中学为体，西学为用”主张，即在不违背封建伦理与君主专制的原则下，引进西学，兴办近代工商业，将西方“器数工艺”及“政教义理”付诸实践的有益尝试。从戊戌变法到辛亥革命，实质上采取的是有保留的“全盘西化”。五四新文化运动期间，激进派在积极主张现代化革新的同时，简单机械地全盘否定以儒家为代表的中国传统文化，乃至中国方块汉字。以梁启超、张君劢、梁漱溟等为代表的保守派则以标榜维护孔子、维护传统，“昌明国粹，融化新知”为名，根本否定中国文化需要进行划时代的大变革、大创新。与“全盘西化论”和“儒学复古论”的观点不同，中国共产党人对中国传统文化采取辩证的态度。毛泽东一再强调要吸收中国传统文化的精华，从孔夫子到孙中山，要认真总结，去其糟粕，取其精华。在历次运动中，孔子及其儒家学说都被作为开历史倒车的典型而受到批判，传统文化遭受了空前的劫难。20世纪80年代，随着西方哲学思潮的涌入，中国传统文化再次遭受贬低和否定，最为突出的是电视剧《河殇》，对中华文明进行了全盘否定，说什么中国黄色“大陆文明”不如西方蓝色“海洋文明”。20世纪90年代后，在建构社会主义市场经济的过程中，一些人又把市场经济简单等同于“唯利是图”、“尔虞我诈”的唯“我”主义，中国传统文化所强调的仁爱观、义利观、诚信观被坑蒙拐骗的功利主义、个人主义、实用主义所取代。习近平总书记提出“第二个结合”，充分肯定中华优秀传统文化的时代价值，为近代以来中国历史上的“古今东西”之争画上了一个句号，而中国传统文化中的互主体思想则从根本上彰显了中华优秀传统文化的时代价值。

(2) A Prominent Point of Mutual Achievement between Marxism and Traditional Culture

（二）马克思主义与传统文化相互成就的突出之点

Marx denounced capitalist labour as “alienated labour”; under the domination of alienated labour, relations between people are completely reduced to naked relations of interest, “everyone becomes a means for everyone else”, and “the motive of those who engage in exchange is not humanity but egoism” [15]15 Laozi, Chapter 17. The original Chinese: 信不足焉，有不信焉.236, 240. The bourgeoisie has even turned family relations “into a purely monetary relationship” [16]16 Laozi, Chapter 63. The original Chinese: 夫轻诺必寡信，多易必多难.34. “They also regard mutual seduction of each other’s wives as the greatest pleasure.” [16]16 Laozi, Chapter 63. The original Chinese: 夫轻诺必寡信，多易必多难.34 Marx demonstrated the inevitability of the demise of capitalism and called on the proletariat to unite, smash the bourgeois state machine by violent means, and establish a “free association of individuals” in order to realise the free and comprehensive development of the human person. However, after the proletariat has seized political power, under socialist conditions, Marx did not provide a very concrete exposition of how to elevate the subjective cultivation of the proletariat and construct relations between different subjects. In this respect, traditional Chinese culture happens to provide a series of methods for cultivating personal virtue and constructing inter-subjective relations. For example, Laozi advocated acting without relying on one’s achievements, benefiting others without contending, reducing selfish desires and few wants, being broad-minded like rivers and seas, being adept at occupying the lower position, and “taking the people’s heart as one’s own heart” (Laozi, Chapter 49). Confucius held that the key to “loving others” lies in one’s own personal effort: “To practise benevolence depends on oneself – does it depend on others?” He also said: “Is benevolence far away? As soon as I desire benevolence, benevolence is at hand.” (The Analects, Shu Er) He termed “filial piety, fraternal duty, loyalty, trustworthiness, propriety, righteousness, integrity, and a sense of shame” as the “eight virtues”, advocated practising the way of “loyalty and reciprocity”, and held that in conducting oneself one should “be respectful in daily life”, “be mindful of respectfulness in one’s demeanour”, “be reverent in handling affairs”, “be sincere and respectful in one’s actions”, “be mindful of reverence in sacrifices”, and “cultivate oneself with reverence”. For the sake of benevolence, one sometimes needs to make great sacrifices, even to give up one’s life: “A determined scholar and a benevolent man will not seek life at the expense of benevolence; they will sacrifice themselves to achieve benevolence.” (The Analects, Wei Ling Gong) Mencius proposed an intellectual line of “exhausting one’s mind – knowing one’s nature – knowing Heaven – knowing others”; concretely, this means developing one’s innate “good beginnings” and cultivating “flood-like vital force”. Mozi advocated “universal love”, treating others as one treats oneself: “Let the strong hasten to help others, the wealthy endeavour to share with others, and those with the Way earnestly teach others.” (Mozi, Exalting the Virtuous, Part II) Zhu Xi proposed: “One who practises benevolence must first overcome selfishness; overcoming selfishness leads to impartiality; impartiality leads to benevolence; benevolence leads to love. If one does not first overcome selfishness, how can impartiality be preserved? If one has not yet attained benevolence, how can love be taken as the foundation?” (Collected Works of Master Zhu, Volume 42) Wang Yangming held that the purpose of knowledge lies precisely in “extending innate knowledge”, restraining selfish desires, “preventing them before they sprout, and overcoming them at the moment they begin to sprout” (Instructions for Practical Living, Reply to Lu Yuanjing’s Letter). These discussions undoubtedly provide us with important cultural resources for strengthening personal moral cultivation, constructing core socialist values, and forming new types of interpersonal relations. Only by elevating the concept of inter-subjectivity to the level of a worldview and value system, and treating it as a basic principle for handling relations between different subjects, can we enhance the self-cultivation of subjects, establish good social customs, raise the level of civilisation in the whole society, and truly embody the Chinese characteristics of Chinese-path modernization. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “Only when a person understands great virtue, upholds public virtue, and strictly practises private virtue can his talents be put to proper use. … At the same time, one must start from doing small things well and managing small details well, ‘seeing goodness, move towards it; having faults, correct them’, earnestly cultivate public and private virtue, learn to work, learn to be frugal, learn to be grateful, learn to help others, learn to be modest, learn to be tolerant, learn to introspect, and learn to exercise self-discipline.” [17]17 Laozi, Chapter 49. The original Chinese: 信者吾信之，不信者吾亦信之，德信.7 Traditional Chinese culture supplements and enriches Marxism from the level of subjective cultivation.

马克思将资本主义劳动斥之为“异化劳动”，受异化劳动的支配，人与人之间的关系完全变成了赤裸裸的利害关系，“人人互为手段”，“进行交换的人们的动机不是人性而是利己主义”［15］236，240。资产阶级甚至将家庭关系“变成了纯粹的金钱关系”［16］34。“他们还以互相诱奸妻子为最大的享乐。”［16］34马克思论证了资本主义灭亡的必然性，号召无产阶级联合起来，用暴力打碎资产阶级的国家机器，建立“自由人联合体”，以便实现人的自由全面发展。然而，在无产阶级夺取政权以后，在社会主义条件下，如何提升无产阶级的主体修养，建构不同主体间的关系，马克思并没有作出十分具体的论述。在这方面，中国传统文化恰好提供了一系列促进个人德性、建构互主体关系的修养方法。比如，老子主张为而不恃，利而不争，少私寡欲，要像江海一样胸怀宽广，善于处下，“以百姓心为心”（《老子·第四十九章》）。孔子认为，“爱人”的关键在于个人自身的努力，“为仁由己，而由人乎哉’”。又说：“仁远乎哉？我欲仁斯仁至矣。”（《论语·述而》）将“孝、悌、忠、信、礼、义、廉、耻”称为“八德”，主张行“忠恕”之道，做人要“居处恭”、“貌思恭”、“执事敬”、“行笃敬”、“祭思敬”和“修己以敬”。为了仁，有时需要付出重大牺牲，甚至献出生命，“志士仁人，无求生以害仁，有杀身以成仁”（《论语·卫灵公》）。孟子提出了一条“尽心—知性—知天—知人”的思想路线，具体来讲就是要发挥自己先天的“善端”，修养“浩然正气”。墨子主张“兼爱”，像对待自己一样对待他人，“有力者疾以助人，有财者勉以分人，有道者劝以教人”（《墨子·尚贤下》）。朱熹提出：“为仁者必先克己，克己则公，公则仁，仁则爱矣。不先克己则公岂可得而徒存？未至于仁，则爱胡可以先体哉？”（《朱子文集》卷四十二）王阳明认为，认识的目的正在于“致良知”，克制私欲，“防于未萌之先，而克于方萌之际”（《传习录·答陆原静书》）。这些论述无疑给我们加强个人道德修养、构建社会主义核心价值观、形成新型人际关系提供了重要文化资源。只有把互主体思想上升到世界观、价值观的高度，作为处理不同主体间关系的基本原则，才可能提升主体的自我修养，建立良好的社会风尚，提高全社会的文明程度，真正体现中国式现代化的中国特色。习近平总书记指出：“一个人只有明大德、守公德、严私德，其才方能用得其所。……同时，还得从做好小事、管好小节开始起步，‘见善则迁，有过则改’，踏踏实实修好公德、私德，学会劳动、学会勤俭，学会感恩、学会助人，学会谦让、学会宽容，学会自省、学会自律。”［17］7中国传统文化从主体修养层面补充和丰富了马克思主义。

(3) The Cultural Foundation for Building a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind

（三）构建人类命运共同体的文化基础

After the end of the Second World War, a world governance system dominated by Western countries such as Britain and the United States was formed. In essence, it is based on the theoretical foundations of individualism, utilitarianism, pragmatism, and narrow nationalism that the West has long cultivated, and it pursues the hegemonic logic of “zero-sum game” and “a strong country is bound to seek hegemony”, imposing its own national interests and values as overriding values on other nations and countries of the world. The result has led humanity into an unprecedented crisis, prominently manifested as an ecological and environmental crisis, a nuclear war crisis, a crisis of the North-South wealth gap, and a crisis of civilisation. The question “Where is the world going, and where is humanity going?” confronts thinkers and politicians of all countries, who have put forward various different proposals. There is Francis Fukuyama’s “end of history” thesis, which holds that the future society will be the “unified rule” and “millennial kingdom” of capitalism, especially neoliberalism; there is Huntington’s “clash of civilisations” thesis, which asserts that the future world will be a “clash of Eastern and Western civilisations”, especially a conflict between Western Christian civilisation and Islamic-Confucian civilisation; there is Brzezinski’s “chaos and loss of control” thesis, which asserts that future world history will move towards global chaos, losing control, losing purpose, and losing direction. Different from the above views, General Secretary Xi Jinping, on the basis of refuting Western hegemonic logic, put forward the concept of a community with a shared future for mankind. Its scope includes multiple connotations such as a community of shared responsibility, a community of shared interests, a community of shared development, a community of shared national destiny, and a community with a shared future for mankind. In essence, it is a unity of a new type of development concept, a new type of concept of interaction, a new type of concept of righteousness and benefit, and a new type of concept of civilisation. Its deep cultural foundation is precisely the inter-subjective relations advocated by traditional Chinese culture. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “In this world, the degree of interconnection and interdependence among countries is deeper than ever before. Humanity lives in the same global village, in the same time and space where history and reality intersect, and is increasingly becoming a community of shared destiny in which you have me and I have you.” [18]18 Zhuangzi, Miscellaneous Chapters, Robber Zhi. The original Chinese: 无行则不信，不信则不任，不任则不利.2 Only by adopting a broad global perspective, starting from inter-subjectivity, and while considering the interests and development of one’s own country and nation, also fully considering the interests and development needs of other countries, can we solve the common problems facing humanity and create a world of peaceful development.

第二次世界大战结束后，形成了以英美等西方国家主导下的世界治理体系，本质上以西方长久以来形成的个人主义、功利主义、实用主义、狭隘民族主义为其理论基础，奉行“零和博弈”、“国强必霸”的霸权主义逻辑，将本国利益和价值作为压倒一切的价值而强加于世界其他民族和国家，其结果将人类引向前所未有的危机，突出表现为生态环境的危机、核战争的危机、南北贫富分化的危机、文明的危机。“世界向何处去，人类将向何处去”的问题摆在了各国思想家、政治家的面前，纷纷提出各种不同方案。有弗朗西斯·福山（Francis Fukuyama）提出的“历史终结论”，认为未来社会将是资本主义，尤其是新自由主义的“一统天下”、“千年王国”；有亨廷顿提出的“文明冲突论”，断言未来世界将是“东西文明的冲突”，尤其是西方基督教文明与伊斯兰文明—儒教文明之间的冲突；有布热津斯基提出的“混乱失控论”，断言未来世界历史将走向失去控制、失去目标、失去方向的全球混乱。与上述各类观点不同，习近平总书记在批驳西方霸权逻辑的基础上，提出人类命运共同体的构想。其范畴所指，包括责任共同体、利益共同体、发展共同体、民族命运共同体与人类命运共同体等多种内涵，本质上是新型发展观、新型交往观、新型义利观、新型文明观的统一。其深层文化基础正是中国传统文化倡导的互主体关系。习近平总书记指出：“这个世界，各国相互联系、相互依存的程度空前加深，人类生活在同一个地球村里，生活在历史和现实交汇的同一个时空里，越来越成为你中有我、我中有你的命运共同体。”［18］2只有站在世界大视野，从互主体性出发，在思考本国、本民族利益及其发展的同时，也充分考虑他国利益及其发展的需要，才可能解决人类面临的共同难题，创造和平发展的世界。

(About the author: Cheng Long, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the School of Marxism, Zhejiang University; Chief Expert of the Zhejiang Provincial Key Research Base of Philosophy and Social Sciences, the Centre for Marxist Theoretical Innovation and Communication Research at Zhejiang University; Research Fellow at the Zhejiang University Research Centre for Socialism with Chinese Characteristics; Expert enjoying a special government allowance from the State Council. Main research direction: the Sinicisation of Marxist philosophy.)

（作者简介：成龙，浙江大学马克思主义学院教授，博士生导师，浙江省哲学社会科学重点研究基地浙江大学马克思主义理论创新与传播研究中心首席专家，浙江大学中国特色社会主义研究中心研究员，享受国务院特殊津贴专家，主要研究方向为马克思主义哲学中国化）

Online editor: Tong Xin

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