Let Socialism with Chinese Characteristics “Become the Best System in the World”

2024 marks the 120th anniversary of Comrade Deng Xiaoping’s birth and the year in which further comprehensive deepening of reform was inaugurated. Comprehensive deepening of reform takes institutional development as its main thread, has achieved historic and great accomplishments in institutional development, and has propelled a profound transformation of the state system and governance system. In the course of initiating reform and opening up, modernization, and the process of socialism with Chinese characteristics, Deng Xiaoping put forward a comprehensive, profound, and systematic body of thought on socialist institutional development. This thought is the theoretical foundation of Deng Xiaoping’s thinking on reform and opening up. In practice, it not only propelled the partial explorations and ice-breaking stage of reform and opening up to achieve major systemic reform accomplishments, but also guided the systematic, coordinated, and comprehensively deepening stage of reform to achieve major institutional development accomplishments. At this historical juncture and from this contemporary height, as comprehensive deepening of reform is about to enter a stage of further in-depth advancement, revisiting Deng Xiaoping’s thought on institutional development not only helps to deeply grasp the essence and essential meaning of Deng Xiaoping Theory, but also helps to understand reform and opening up from the perspective of institutions and institutional development, and to grasp the theme and objectives of further comprehensively deepening reform.

2024年是邓小平同志诞辰120周年，也是进一步全面深化改革的开启之年。全面深化改革以制度建设为主线，取得了制度建设的历史性伟大成就，推动实现了国家制度和治理体系的深刻变革。在开创改革开放和现代化建设、中国特色社会主义的进程中，邓小平提出了全面、深刻、系统的社会主义制度建设思想。这一思想是邓小平改革开放思想的理论基础，在实践上不仅推动局部探索、破冰突围阶段的改革开放取得重大体制改革成就，而且指导系统协调、全面深化阶段的全面深化改革取得重大制度建设成就。在全面深化改革即将进入进一步深入推进阶段这一历史节点和时代高度，重温邓小平制度建设思想，不仅有助于深刻领会邓小平理论的精髓要义，而且有助于从制度、制度建设视角出发理解改革开放，把握进一步全面深化改革的主题与目标。

I. The Core of Deng Xiaoping’s Thought on Institutional Development: Let Socialism with Chinese Characteristics “Become the Best System in the World”

一、邓小平制度建设思想的核心：让中国特色社会主义“成为世界上最好的制度”

Deng Xiaoping attached great importance to institutions and institutional development. In his view, institutions are fundamental, overarching, stable, and long-term. Overall, Deng Xiaoping approached “institutions” and “institutional development” from a broad perspective. Regarding “institutions,” Deng Xiaoping used the two concepts of “institution” (制度) and “system” (体制) interchangeably or simultaneously, and sometimes used the formulation “regulations” (章程). Regarding “institutional development,” Deng Xiaoping successively used formulations such as institutionalization, establishing institutions, reforming institutions, systemic reform, and systemic adjustment.

邓小平高度重视制度与制度建设。在他看来，制度具有根本性、全局性、稳定性和长期性。总体上看，邓小平从广义的角度看待“制度”和“制度建设”。关于“制度”，邓小平交替使用或者同时使用“制度”“体制”两个概念，有时候使用“章程”的提法。关于“制度建设”，邓小平先后使用过制度化、建立制度、改革制度、体制改革、体制调整等提法。

In 1980, Deng Xiaoping unequivocally stated: “The socialist system is always far better than the capitalist system, which is based on the law of the jungle and the principle of ‘each for himself and the devil take the hindmost.’ Our system will improve day by day; it will absorb all progressive factors that we can absorb from any country in the world and become the best system in the world. This is something capitalism absolutely cannot achieve.” [1]1 Deng Xiaoping, “Carrying Forward the Socialist System Is Our Fundamental Task” (1980), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 2. “Becoming the best system in the world” was Deng Xiaoping’s long-term strategic vision for developing and perfecting the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and also a major strategic design for reform and opening up and institutional development. Deng Xiaoping pondered and elaborated on major questions such as what constitutes “the best system in the world,” why socialism with Chinese characteristics can be built into “the best system in the world,” how to build it into “the best system in the world,” and when it can be built into “the best system in the world.” Taking “the best system in the world” and “becoming the best system in the world” as the pivot, he formed a system of thought on institutions and institutional development that includes criteria for evaluating institutions, the superiority of the Chinese socialist system, Chinese-style modernization, and reform and opening up.

1980年，邓小平旗帜鲜明地提出：“社会主义制度总比弱肉强食、损人利己的资本主义制度好得多。我们的制度将一天天完善起来，它将吸收我们可以从世界各国吸收的进步因素，成为世界上最好的制度。这是资本主义所绝对不可能做到的”。“成为世界上最好的制度”是邓小平关于发展和完善中国特色社会主义制度的长远战略构想，也是关于改革开放与制度建设的重大战略设计。邓小平思考和阐述了什么是“世界上最好的制度”、中国特色社会主义为什么能够建设成为“世界上最好的制度”、如何建设成为“世界上最好的制度”、什么时候可以建设成为“世界上最好的制度”等重大问题，以“世界上最好的制度”和“成为世界上最好的制度”为枢纽，形成了包括制度评价标准、中国社会主义制度优越性、中国式的现代化以及改革开放等方面在内的制度与制度建设思想体系。

(A) What Is “the Best System in the World”: Criteria for Evaluating Institutions

（一）什么是“世界上最好的制度”：制度评价标准

After the October Revolution, the main components of the map of human social systems were the capitalist and socialist systems, and competition between the two systems became the main thread of international relations and even of the development of human history. Therefore, “the best system in the world” is defined in relation to the capitalist system. What is “the best system in the world”? Deng Xiaoping put forward a series of criteria and judgments. First, “the best system in the world” must be “correct.” In 1987, Deng Xiaoping proposed the “three can/cannot” criteria for evaluating the correctness of institutions: “In judging the political system, political structure, and policies of a country, the key lies in three points: first, whether the country’s political situation is stable; second, whether it can enhance the unity of the people and improve their lives; third, whether productive forces can achieve sustained development.” [2]2 Deng Xiaoping, “How to Evaluate a Country’s Political System” (1987), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 3. For a country, an institution that meets these three criteria is a correct institution. Second, “the best system in the world” must be “advanced.” Deng Xiaoping put forward propositions such as “the advanced socialist system” and “the characteristics by which socialism is superior to capitalism.” The advanced nature of the socialist system lies in its being “superior to” capitalism. This “superiority” is embodied in the fact that “socialism has the conditions to develop productive forces faster than capitalism, and moreover, only socialism can eliminate the various kinds of greed, corruption, and injustice inevitably engendered by capitalism and other systems of exploitation.” [3]3 Deng Xiaoping, “Speech at the National Conference of the Chinese Communist Party” (1985), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 3. Third, “the best system in the world” must be “superior.” “The superiority of the socialist system is manifested in the fact that its culture, science, and technology should develop faster and more advanced than those of capitalism.” [4]4 Deng Xiaoping, “We Shall Draw on the Experience of Other Countries” (1988), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 3. “Although we say we are building socialism now, in fact we are not yet qualified. Only when we reach the level of a moderately developed country by the middle of the next century can it be said that we are truly building socialism, and can we then say with full confidence that socialism is superior to capitalism.” [5]5 Deng Xiaoping, “We Are Building Socialism with Chinese Characteristics” (1984), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 3. The reason why China reaching the level of a moderately developed country can prove the superiority of the socialist system over the capitalist system is, first, because due to its large population, at the level of a moderately developed country, China’s gross domestic product, i.e., the total scale of its economy, will rank among the world’s foremost; second, because China implements a socialist distribution system, and at the level of a moderately developed country it will achieve common prosperity for all the people, without polarization. Finally, “the best system in the world” should be “one that makes a contribution to humanity.” China reaching the level of a moderately developed country by the middle of the twenty-first century “would be a real contribution to humanity,” “not only would it blaze a trail for the Third World, which comprises three-quarters of the world’s population, but more importantly, it would demonstrate to humanity that socialism is the only road to take, and that socialism is superior to capitalism.” [6]6 Deng Xiaoping, “Socialism Must Emancipate the Productive Forces” (1985), in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, vol. 3.

十月革命以后，人类社会制度版图的主体是由资本主义和社会主义两种制度构成的，两种制度的竞争成为国际关系乃至人类历史发展的主线。因此，“世界上最好的制度”是相对于资本主义制度而言的。什么是“世界上最好的制度”？邓小平提出一系列标准和论断。首先，“世界上最好的制度”必须是“正确的”。1987年，邓小平提出“三个能否”的制度正确评价标准：“评价一个国家的政治体制、政治结构和政策是否正确，关键看三条：第一是看国家的政局是否稳定；第二是看能否增进人民的团结，改善人民的生活；第三是看生产力能否得到持续发展”。对于一个国家而言，符合这三条标准的制度就是正确的制度。其次，“世界上最好的制度”必须是“先进的”。邓小平提出“先进的社会主义制度”“社会主义优于资本主义的特点”等命题。社会主义制度的先进性，就在于它“优于”资本主义。这个“优于”体现在，“社会主义有条件比资本主义更快地发展生产力，而且因为只有社会主义才能消除资本主义和其他剥削制度所必然产生的种种贪婪、腐败和不公正现象”。再次，“世界上最好的制度”必须是“优越的”。“社会主义制度的优越性表现在它的文化、科学技术水平应该比资本主义发展得更快、更先进”。“现在虽说我们也在搞社会主义，但事实上不够格。只有到了下世纪中叶，达到了中等发达国家的水平，才能说真的搞了社会主义，才能理直气壮地说社会主义优于资本主义。”中国之所以达到中等发达国家水平就能证明社会主义制度优于资本主义制度，是因为，其一，由于人口规模大，在中等发达国家水平上，中国国内生产总值即经济规模总量将属于世界前列；其二，中国实行社会主义分配制度，在中等发达国家水平上将实现全体人民共同富裕，不会两极分化。最后，“世界上最好的制度”应该是“对人类有贡献的”。中国到二十一世纪中叶达到中等发达国家水平，“是真正对人类做出了贡献”“这不但是给占世界总人口四分之三的第三世界走出了一条路，更重要的是向人类表明，社会主义是必由之路，社会主义优于资本主义。”

(B) Why China Can Be Built into “the Best System in the World”: The Superiority of the Socialist System

（二）为什么中国能建设成为“世界上最好的制度”：社会主义制度优越性

The reason socialism with Chinese characteristics can become “the best system in the world” is that the Chinese socialist system is superior, the Chinese Communist Party, the leader of the Chinese socialist cause, is good, and Marxism, the guiding ideology of Chinese socialism, is advanced.

中国特色社会主义之所以能够成为“世界上最好的制度”，是因为中国社会主义制度优越，中国社会主义事业领导者中国共产党好，中国社会主义的指导思想马克思主义先进。

First, the Chinese socialist system is superior. Socialism with Chinese characteristics possesses numerous institutional advantages, i.e., systemic superiority. According to the aforementioned criteria for a good system, “the socialist system we have established is a good system.” Although socialism with Chinese characteristics is not yet fully up to standard, it already possesses and displays many advantages over the capitalist system. Deng Xiaoping elaborated on the advantages of the Chinese socialist system from multiple levels. For example, “the leadership of the Communist Party is our superiority”; democratic centralism “is more conducive to uniting the people and is much better than Western democracy,” and “when it comes to getting something done, once a decision is made and a resolution passed, it is implemented immediately without being held up,” and “within this scope, our efficiency is high.” The system of regional ethnic autonomy “is relatively good and suits China’s conditions.” “The greatest superiority of socialism is common prosperity, which is something that embodies the essence of socialism.” Second, the Chinese Communist Party is good. The leadership of the Chinese Communist Party is both the fundamental feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics and an institutional advantage of that system. On February 6, 1962, Deng Xiaoping pointed out in a speech at the Enlarged Central Work Conference that the Chinese Communist Party has five merits, or five good points: “a good guiding ideology,” “a good Party Central Committee,” “a large number of good backbone cadres,” “good traditions and good work style,” and “good people.” Third, Marxist ideology is superior. Marxism is the guiding ideology of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Deng Xiaoping put forward the important thesis of “two superiorities,” namely, “Marxist ideology is superior to other ideologies, and the socialist system is superior to the capitalist system.” This is because “the truth of Marxism is irrefutable” and “Marxism is a science.” Finally, it is precisely because of the above three aspects that socialism with Chinese characteristics possesses the confidence and grounding to boldly absorb and draw upon all the achievements of civilization created by human society, including those of capitalist society, and to absorb and draw upon the advanced modes of operation and management methods of all countries in the world today, including developed capitalist countries, that reflect the laws of modern socialized production. “We have advantages: we have large and medium-sized state-owned enterprises, we have township enterprises, and more importantly, political power is in our hands.” Although this statement was made specifically in the context of vigorously developing “three kinds of foreign-invested enterprises,” it also expresses the confidence and grounding for becoming “the best system in the world.”

首先，中国社会主义制度优越。中国特色社会主义具有诸多制度优势，即制度优越性。按照前述好制度的标准，“我们建立的社会主义制度是个好制度”。尽管中国特色社会主义还不够格，但是已经具备和显现出诸多相对于资本主义制度的优越性。邓小平从多个层面阐述中国社会主义制度的优势。如，“共产党的领导就是我们的优越性”；民主集中制“更利于团结人民，比西方的民主好得多”，“干一件事情，一下决心，一做出决议，就立即执行，不受牵扯”“就这个范围来说，我们的效率是高的”。民族区域自治的制度“比较好，适合中国的情况”，“社会主义最大的优越性就是共同富裕，这是体现社会主义本质的一个东西”。其次，中国共产党好。中国共产党的领导，既是中国特色社会主义的根本特征，又是中国特色社会主义的制度优势。1962年2月6日，邓小平在扩大的中央工作会议上讲话指出，中国共产党有五个优点，有五好，即“好的指导思想”“好的党中央”“大批好的骨干”“好的传统、好的作风”“好的人民”。再次，马克思主义思想优越。马克思主义是中国特色社会主义的指导思想。邓小平提出“两个优越于”的重要论断，即“马克思主义的思想优越于其他的思想，社会主义制度优越于资本主义制度”。因为“马克思主义的真理颠扑不破”“马克思主义是科学”。最后，正是由于上述三个方面，中国特色社会主义具有大胆吸收和借鉴包括资本主义社会在内的人类社会创造的一切文明成果、吸收和借鉴当今世界各国包括资本主义发达国家的一切反映现代社会化生产规律的先进经营方式和管理方法的自信与底气。“我们有优势，有国营大中型企业，有乡镇企业，更重要的是政权在我们手里。”这段话虽然是针对大力发展“三资”企业讲的，但也是成为“世界上最好的制度”的自信与底气。

(III) When can “the best system in the world” be built: the logic of “two centenary struggles”

（三）什么时候能够建成“世界上最好的制度”：“两个百年奋斗”逻辑

In Deng Xiaoping’s view, consolidating and developing the socialist system requires a very long historical stage, requiring the unremitting efforts of several generations, a dozen generations, or even several dozen generations. Only by the middle of the 21st century, when China has reached the level of a moderately developed country, can it be said that socialism has truly been built, can it be said with full justification that socialism is superior to capitalism, and will socialism with Chinese characteristics “become the best system in the world.” After a century of struggle following the founding of New China, building China into “the best system in the world” is not only a conception of national institutional construction but also a reference point for some major strategies. For example, regarding the long-term nature of reform and opening up, Deng Xiaoping emphasized that reform and opening up is a long-term policy that will not change for at least fifty to seventy years. “Even if it changes, it can only become more open.” “Reform is not just a matter of three to five years, but of twenty years, and of the first fifty years of the next century.” For another example, regarding the method of democracy, Deng Xiaoping proposed advancing step by step, gradually transitioning, and realizing universal suffrage by the middle of the 21st century. “On the mainland, universal suffrage can be implemented after half a century in the next century. At present, indirect elections are held at and above the county level, while direct elections are only held at the county level and below at the grassroots level. This is because we have a population of one billion, the cultural quality of the people is not yet sufficient, and the conditions for universally implementing direct elections are not yet mature.” Furthermore, the assertions that the “one country, two systems” institutional arrangement will remain unchanged for fifty years and that there will be no need for change after fifty years are also based on the strategic conception of becoming “the best system in the world.”

在邓小平看来，巩固和发展社会主义制度，需要一个很长的历史阶段，需要几代人、十几代人，甚至几十代人坚持不懈地努力奋斗。只有到二十一世纪中叶，达到了中等发达国家的水平，才能说真的搞了社会主义，才能理直气壮地说社会主义优于资本主义，中国特色社会主义才会“成为世界上最好的制度”。经过新中国成立后的百年奋斗，中国建成“世界上最好的制度”，不仅是国家制度建设构想，也是一些重大战略的参照。例如，关于改革开放的长期性，邓小平强调，改革开放是个长期的政策，最少五十年到七十年不会变，“即使是变，也只能变得更加开放”。“改革不只是看三年五年，而是要看二十年，要看下世纪的前五十年。”再例如，关于民主方式，邓小平提出循序渐进、逐步过渡，到二十一世纪中叶实现普选的构想。“大陆在下个世纪，经过半个世纪以后可以实行普选。现在我们县级以上实行的是间接选举，县级和县以下的基层才是直接选举。因为我们有十亿人口，人民的文化素质也不够，普遍实行直接选举的条件不成熟。”此外，“一国两制”制度安排五十年不变、五十年以后没有必要变等论断，也是基于成为“世界上最好的制度”的战略构想。

Building socialism with Chinese characteristics into “the best system in the world” requires advancing in stages. Perfecting the leadership system of the Party and the state requires advancing in stages. Reforming and perfecting the leadership system of the Party and the state “may not be fully completed by our generation, but at least we have the responsibility to lay a solid foundation for its completion and establish the correct direction.” The construction of the national system also requires advancing in stages. In 1992, Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “I am afraid it will take another thirty years for us to form a more mature and more定型 [n7] system in all aspects. The policies and guidelines under this system will also become more定型.” This phased goal of institutional construction is highly consistent with the centenary of the founding of the Chinese Communist Party and the realization of the first centenary goal. From forming a “more mature and more定型” system by the centenary of the Party’s founding, to becoming a moderately developed country by the centenary of the founding of New China, and building socialist construction into “the best system in the world,” this embodies the inherent historical logic of the Chinese Communist Party’s two “centenary struggle” goals.

将中国特色社会主义建设成为“世界上最好的制度”，需要分阶段推进。完善党和国家领导制度需要分阶段推进。改革并完善党和国家领导制度，“我们这一代人也许不能全部完成，但是，至少我们有责任为它的完成奠定巩固的基础，确立正确的方向”。国家制度建设也需要分阶段推进。1992年，邓小平指出，“恐怕再有三十年的时间，我们才会在各方面形成一整套更加成熟、更加定型的制度。在这个制度下的方针、政策，也将更加定型化”。这个制度建设阶段性目标，与中国共产党成立一百周年、实现第一个百年奋斗目标是高度契合的。从建党一百年时形成“更加成熟、更加定型”的制度，到新中国成立一百年时建设成为中等发达国家，将社会主义建设“成为世界上最好的制度”，体现了中国共产党两个“百年奋斗”目标的内在历史逻辑。

(IV) How to build “the best system in the world”: reform and opening up and institutional construction

（四）如何建设“世界上最好的制度”：改革开放与制度建设

In Deng Xiaoping’s view, “the best system in the world” is proven by practice, and building it into “the best system in the world” is advanced through practice. “From now until the middle of the next century will be a very critical period; we must work hard with our heads down.”

在邓小平看来，“世界上最好的制度”靠实践证明，建设成为“世界上最好的制度”靠实践推进。“从现在起到下世纪中叶，将是很要紧的时期，我们要埋头苦干。”

First, develop the productive forces to lay the material foundation for “the best system in the world.” “Socialism has many tasks, but the fundamental one is to develop the productive forces. On the basis of developing the productive forces, we will demonstrate superiority over capitalism and create the material foundation for realizing communism.” On the basis of developing the productive forces, we will eliminate poverty, avoid polarization, and gradually achieve common prosperity. Deng Xiaoping envisioned that when China reaches the level of a moderately prosperous society by the end of the 20th century, “it will be necessary to prominently raise and resolve” the issue of regions that have developed first driving the development of regions that have developed later, ultimately achieving common prosperity.

首先，发展生产力，为“世界上最好的制度”奠定物质基础。“社会主义的任务很多，但根本一条就是发展生产力，在发展生产力的基础上体现出优于资本主义，为实现共产主义创造物质基础”。在生产力发展基础上，摆脱贫穷，避免两极分化，逐步实现共同富裕。邓小平设想，在20世纪末期达到小康水平的时候，“就要突出地提出和解决”先发展起来的地区带动后发展的地区，最终达到共同富裕的问题。

Second, advance reform and opening up to lay the institutional foundation for building “the best system in the world.” Reform is not only the necessary path to liberate and develop the productive forces but also the necessary path for the self-improvement of the socialist system. The process of improving socialism through reform is precisely the process of building it into “the best system in the world.” On the one hand, Deng Xiaoping emphasized the importance of reform and opening up from the perspective of liberating and developing the productive forces; on the other hand, he focused on the overall design of reform and opening up through institutional construction. Therefore, in Deng Xiaoping’s mind, reform and opening up actually had a dual role: first, based on reality, to continuously liberate and develop the productive forces; second, based on the long term, to “solve problems from the institutional aspect” and continuously improve the socialist system. “We are not only focusing on this century, but more on the next century. The problem we now face is that if we do not advance, we will retreat, and retreating has no way out. Only by deepening reform, and comprehensive reform at that, can we ensure that we reach the level of a moderately prosperous society within this century and advance better in the next century.” Reform and opening up, on the one hand, breaks down the factors constraining the productive forces at the levels of institutions, mechanisms, and policies; on the other hand, it breaks down the shortcomings at the institutional level and improves the socialist system. These two aspects are unified in the process of giving full play to the superiority of the socialist system and gradually approaching “the best system in the world.”

其次，推进改革开放，为建设成为“世界上最好的制度”奠定制度基础。改革既是解放和发展生产力的必由之路，也是社会主义制度自我完善的必由之路。通过改革完善社会主义的过程，就是建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的过程。邓小平一方面着眼于解放和发展生产力强调改革开放的重要性，另一方面着眼于通过制度建设对改革开放进行整体设计。因此，邓小平心目中的改革开放实际上具有双重作用，一是立足于现实，不断解放和发展生产力；二是立足于长远，“从制度方面解决问题”，不断完善社会主义制度。“我们不仅着眼于本世纪，更多的是着眼于下一个世纪。现在面临的问题是，不进则退，退是没有出路的。只有深化改革，而且是综合性的改革，才能够保证本世纪内达到小康水平，而且在下个世纪更好地前进。”改革开放，一方面是破除体制机制、政策层面存在的对生产力的制约因素，另一方面是破除制度层面的弊端、完善社会主义制度。这两者统一于发挥社会主义制度优越性，逐步逼近“世界上最好的制度”的过程中。

Finally, we must absorb and draw on the achievements of human institutional civilization to lay a realistic foundation for building “the best system in the world.” Deng Xiaoping emphatically stressed learning from and borrowing the advanced experience and good experience of capitalism from a high starting point. Building behind closed doors will not work, nor can problems be solved by relying solely on one’s own experience and lessons. “Opening up means not only developing international exchanges but also absorbing international experience.”[n8] In borrowing and absorbing advanced international experience, we must start from a high starting point. In introducing technology, “we must introduce advanced international technology and advanced equipment as the starting point for our development.” At the institutional level, we must absorb and draw on the achievements of institutional civilization, including the advanced experience of capitalism, as the foundation for institutional construction. At the end of April 1978, while listening to a report from members of a delegation led by Gu Mu[n9] on preparations for visiting Western capitalist countries such as France and Switzerland, Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “The advanced experience and good experience of capitalist countries—we should learn them back.” In his “Southern Talks,”[n10] Deng Xiaoping explicitly raised the question of whether institutions such as securities and stock markets were things unique to capitalism, stressing that for socialism to win advantages over capitalism, it must boldly absorb and draw on all the achievements of civilization created by human society, and absorb and draw on all advanced modes of operation and management methods that reflect the laws of modern socialized production.

最后，吸收和借鉴人类制度文明成果，为建设“世界上最好的制度”奠定现实基础。邓小平突出强调高起点学习和借鉴资本主义先进经验、好的经验。关起门来搞建设不行，光凭自己的经验和教训也解决不了问题，“开放不仅是发展国际间的交往，而且要吸收国际的经验”。借鉴和吸收国际先进经验，要高起点。在引进技术方面，“要引进国际上的先进技术、先进装备，作为我们发展的起点”。在制度层面，要吸收和借鉴包括资本主义的先进经验在内的制度文明成果，作为制度建设的基础。1978年4月底，在听取谷牧率领的代表团成员汇报前往法国、瑞士等西欧资本主义国家访问的准备工作情况时，邓小平指出，“资本主义国家先进的经验、好的经验，我们应当把它学回来”。在“南方谈话”中邓小平明确提出，证券、股市等制度是不是资本主义独有的东西的问题，强调社会主义要赢得与资本主义相比较的优势，就必须大胆吸收和借鉴人类社会创造的一切文明成果，吸收和借鉴一切反映现代社会化生产规律的先进经营方式和管理方法。

II. Forming a “More Mature and More定型”[n11] System: Laying the Foundation for Becoming the “Best System in the World”

二、形成“更加成熟、更加定型”的制度：为成为“世界上最好的制度”奠基

“The best system in the world” theoretically answers the question of the goal of socialist institutional construction with Chinese characteristics. How to achieve this goal? Since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC,[n12] the Communist Party of China has used Deng Xiaoping’s thought on socialist institutional construction to guide the practice of reform and opening up, and has explored specific paths and methods of institutional construction in practice.

“世界上最好的制度”从理论上回答了中国特色社会主义制度建设的目标问题。如何达成这一目标，党的十一届三中全会以来，中国共产党运用邓小平关于社会主义制度建设的思想指导改革开放实践，并在实践中探索出制度建设具体路径和方法。

Reform and opening up, as a great practice, is a process of ideological emancipation and institutional transformation, but at a deeper and more fundamental level, it is a process of institutional construction. Reform and opening up, especially comprehensive deepening of reform, is to a large extent the practical process of Deng Xiaoping’s thought on institutional construction. Reform and opening up, and especially the comprehensive deepening of reform since the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC,[n13] have yielded rich achievements in institutional construction. Over more than forty years, the Chinese Communists, centering on building socialism with Chinese characteristics, have comprehensively used various methods of institutional construction—such as rectifying institutions, restoring institutions, reforming institutions, innovating institutions, operating institutions, and integrating institutions—to preliminarily achieve the goal of forming a “more mature and more定型” institutional system by the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China. They have taken a solid step in the practice of creating, developing, and perfecting the socialist system with Chinese characteristics and building it into the “best system in the world,” laying a solid foundation for making socialism with Chinese characteristics the “best system in the world.”

改革开放作为一个伟大实践，是思想解放和体制变革的过程，但更深层、最根本的，是制度建设过程。改革开放特别是全面深化改革，在很大程度上就是邓小平制度建设思想的实践过程。改革开放特别是党的十八届三中全会以来的全面深化改革取得了丰富的制度建设成果。四十多年来，中国共产党人围绕建设中国特色社会主义，综合运用整顿制度、恢复制度，改革制度、创新制度，制度运行、制度集成等各种制度建设方式，初步达成在中国共产党成立一百周年之际形成“更加成熟、更加定型”的制度建设目标，在创立、发展、完善中国特色社会主义制度、建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的实践中迈出了坚实一步，为将中国特色社会主义建设成为“世界上最好的制度”奠定了坚实基础。

(I) Rectifying Institutions, Restoring Institutions: Institutional Construction within the Original Socialist Framework, 1975 and 1977–1978

（一）整顿制度、恢复制度：1975年、1977-1978年间在原有社会主义框架内的制度建设

The comprehensive rectification led by Deng Xiaoping from 1974 to 1975 was a prelude to reform and opening up. The practice of institutional construction during this period mainly took the form of rectifying institutions and restoring institutions. In October 1987, Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “In fact, we had already experimented with a period from 1974 to 1975. The reform at that time was called rectification. The emphasis was on getting the economy moving, first of all restoring production order.”

1974年至1975年间邓小平领导的全面整顿是改革开放的预演。这一时期制度建设实践主要采取整顿制度与恢复制度的方式。1987年10月，邓小平指出，“其实在一九七四年到一九七五年我们已经试验过一段。那时的改革，用的名称是整顿。强调把经济搞上去，首先是恢复生产秩序”。

In February 1975, Deng Xiaoping began to preside over the daily work of the State Council, and in July, he began to preside over the daily work of the Party Central Committee. At that time, the situation was that the “Gang of Four”[n14] and their factional forces had not only ideologically confused the understanding of socialism but also destroyed institutions in various fields. In particular, they created factionalism and incited armed conflict, leading to blockages on main railway lines and the suspension or semi-suspension of production in some industrial and mining enterprises; the military suffered from five problems: bloatedness, laxity, arrogance, extravagance, and indolence; in addition, science and technology, agriculture, and Party building all faced a situation where institutions were severely damaged. From an institutional perspective, factionalism undermined the Party’s system of centralized and unified leadership, undermined the leadership system of democratic centralism, undermined the system of post responsibility in production and operation, and undermined the system of production and operation management—it was a reaction against institutions. Therefore, institutional construction at this stage mainly took the form of rectifying institutions and restoring institutions, attempting to comprehensively restore various historically effective but destroyed institutions in order to restore order and develop the productive forces.

1975年2月，邓小平开始主持国务院日常工作，7月，开始主持党中央日常工作。当时的情况是，“四人帮”及其帮派势力不仅从思想上搞乱了对社会主义的理解，而且破坏了各个方面的制度。特别是制造派性、挑动武斗，导致铁路干线阻塞、一些工矿企业停产半停产；军队出现肿、散、骄、奢、惰五个问题；此外，科技、农业、党的建设都面临制度被严重破坏的局面。从制度层面看，派性破坏党的集中统一制度，破坏民主集中制领导制度，破坏生产经营岗位责任制度，破坏生产经营管理制度，是对制度的反动。因此，这一阶段制度建设主要采取整顿制度、恢复制度的方式，试图全面恢复历史上行之有效而被破坏的各项制度，以恢复秩序，发展生产力。

First, restore various management systems for railway transport and industrial and mining enterprises, and restore production order. Railways are the arteries of the economy; industrial and mining production is the material foundation of economic and social development. By convening a national conference of secretaries of industry, issuing and implementing the “Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Strengthening Railway Work,” adjusting leadership teams, and eliminating factionalism, the production management system and post responsibility system for railway transport were restored, initially achieving smooth, unblocked, safe, and punctual railway transport. The restoration of the railway transport system and order created conditions for rectifying institutions in various industries such as metallurgy and electric power. Institutional rectification thus extended to industrial and mining enterprises. By restoring and establishing rules and regulations, the production and operation management systems of industrial and mining enterprises were quickly restored, promoting the recovery of industrial and mining production.

首先，恢复铁路运输和工矿企业各项管理制度，恢复生产秩序。铁路是经济的动脉，工矿生产是经济社会发展物质基础。通过召开全国工业书记会议，出台并实施《中共中央关于加强铁路工作的决定》，调整领导班子，消除派性，恢复了铁路运输的生产管理制度和岗位责任制度，初步实现铁路运输畅通无阻、四通八达、安全正点。铁路运输制度与秩序的恢复为冶金、电力等各行各业整顿制度创造条件。制度整顿因此向工矿企业延伸，通过恢复和建立规章制度，迅速恢复了工矿企业生产经营管理制度，推动工矿生产的恢复。

Second, solve the problems of the military and military-industrial enterprises from an institutional perspective. The root of the five problems—bloatedness, laxity, arrogance, extravagance, and indolence—lay in the destruction caused by Lin Biao[n15] and the “Gang of Four” and the spread of factionalism. Factionalism destroyed the military’s fine traditions and discipline, and destroyed the production order of the military industry. From an institutional perspective, the military’s fine traditions belong to the category of “soft institutions,” while discipline belongs to the category of “hard institutions.” Factionalism destroyed the system of the Party’s absolute leadership over the military, and destroyed the production management and quality assurance systems of military-industrial enterprises. By strengthening leadership over the military, strengthening discipline, and eliminating factionalism, the problem of “laxity” was solved; by strengthening and implementing the establishment system and implementing downsizing plans, the problem of “bloatedness” was solved, pushing military construction onto a track of regularization and modernization; by strengthening the construction of leadership teams, the resolution of various problems in the military was promoted; by establishing responsibility systems such as those for chief engineers and chief accountants, the normal production order and product quality of military-industrial enterprises were ensured.

其次，从制度上解决军队和军工生产企业问题。肿、散、骄、奢、惰五个问题的根源在于林彪、“四人帮”的破坏和派性泛滥。派性破坏了军队优良传统和纪律性，破坏了军工生产秩序。从制度视角看，军队优良传统属于“软制度”范畴，而纪律属于“硬制度”范畴。派性破坏了党对军队的绝对领导制度，破坏了军工企业的生产管理和质量保障制度。通过加强对军队的领导，加强纪律性，消除派性，解决“散”的问题；通过加强和实施编制制度，实施缩编方案，解决“肿”的问题，推动军队建设进入正规化、现代化轨道；通过加强领导班子建设，推动解决军队各个方面的问题；通过建立总工程师、总会计师责任制等制度建设，保证了军工企业正常生产秩序和产品质量。

Finally, plan and promote “comprehensive rectification” centered on Party rectification. On September 15, 1975, Deng Xiaoping pointed out that there were problems requiring rectification in various aspects across the country: “Industry needs rectification, agriculture needs rectification, commerce also needs rectification, culture and education need rectification, and the scientific and technological workforce also needs rectification. Literature and art—Chairman Mao called it adjustment, but adjustment is actually rectification.” Deng Xiaoping proposed that “the Party also needs rectification,” and deployed a “comprehensive rectification” centered on Party rectification to be carried out from the winter of 1975 to the spring of 1976. He guided the drafting of two regulations—one for industry and one for science and technology—and guided the drafting of an editorial on comprehensive rectification based on the “Three Directives as the Key Link.”[n16] Due to the launch of the “Criticize Deng, Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend” campaign,[n17] the “comprehensive rectification” did not unfold and was forcibly interrupted in November of that year.

最后，谋划和推进以整党为核心的“全面整顿”。1975年9月15日邓小平指出，现在全国存在各方面要整顿的问题，“工业要整顿，农业要整顿，商业也要整顿，文化教育也要整顿，科学技术队伍也要整顿。文艺，毛主席叫调整，实际上调整也就是整顿”。邓小平提出“党也要整顿”，并部署1975年冬到1976年春开展以整党为核心的“全面整顿”，指导起草了工业和科技两个条例，指导起草了关于以“三项指示为纲”全面整顿的社论，由于“批邓，反击右倾翻案风”运动的发动，“全面整顿”没有展开，于当年11月被迫中断。

Although the 1975 rectification was forcibly interrupted, it achieved significant results in institutional construction and yielded preliminary experience in institutional construction. It was a prelude to reform and opening up and an experiment in institutional construction. The total gross output value of industry and agriculture for the whole year of 1975 increased by 11.9% over 1974, and grain output and foreign trade volume reached historic highs—it was the best year for economic development during the decade of internal turmoil.[n18] The reason why the 1975 rectification is said to be a prelude to reform and opening up is that, on the one hand, rectifying institutions and restoring institutions was in fact an institutional setting things right, which in practice provided an initial understanding of the importance of institutions and institutional construction; on the other hand, rectification was also an initial practice of socialist institutional construction, accumulating preliminary experience in reform and institutional construction. For example, the establishment of the State Council Political Research Office to seize the initiative in theoretical innovation and ideological public opinion; starting institutional construction from weak links, linking one step to the next, and advancing gradually.

1975年整顿虽然被迫中断，但取得了显著的制度建设效果，取得了初步的制度建设经验，是改革开放的预演和制度建设的试验。1975年全年工农业总产值比1974年增长11.9%，粮食产量、进出口贸易额创历史最高水平，是十年内乱中经济发展状况最好的一年。之所以说1975年整顿是改革开放的预演，是因为，一方面，整顿制度与恢复制度实际上是一次制度上的拨乱反正，在实践中初步认识到制度与制度建设的重要性；另一方面，整顿也是社会主义制度建设的初步实践，积累了改革和制度建设的初步经验。例如，成立国务院政治研究室，掌握理论创新和思想舆论主动权；制度建设从薄弱环节入手，环环相扣，逐步推进等。

From Deng Xiaoping’s return to work in July 1977 to the convocation of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, Deng Xiaoping, on the one hand, followed the logic of advancing the restoration of order, ideological emancipation, and opening the country’s doors, promoting the formation of the decision on reform and opening up, thereby expanding the space for thought and practice in institutional building; on the other hand, he practically advanced the building of specific institutions. The institutional building of this period was still primarily focused on restoring institutions, supplemented by reforming institutions. “Lin Biao and the ‘Gang of Four’ destroyed even the reasonable rules and regulations. Now the reasonable ones must be restored, and the bad ones must be improved.” [17]17 The “Gang of Four” (四人帮) was a political faction Deng Xiaoping set about further restoring the original effective institutions. First, he promoted the restoration of democratic centralism. In his closing speech at the 11th National Congress of the CPC, Deng Xiaoping pointed out that “if we restore and develop Comrade Mao Zedong’s Party-building theory and the whole set of the Party’s work style, then the political situation Comrade Mao Zedong spoke of will certainly be achieved.” Second, he restored reasonable institutions in the fields of science, technology, and education. The “ten years of turmoil” [18]18 “Four beams and eight pillars” (四梁八柱) is a Chinese architectural metaphor for the main supporting framework of a structure; in political discourse it refers to the fundamental institutional framework of a system. had the greatest impact on the systems and management institutions of science, technology, and education. Deng Xiaoping placed the reform, development, and institutional building of science, technology, and education in a position of outstanding importance. First, he restored the unified leadership system for scientific and technological work. On September 18, 1977, the Party Central Committee issued the “Decision on the Establishment of the State Science and Technology Commission,” to unify the planning and leadership of university research and national defense research. Second, he restored the college entrance examination system. In October 1977, the State Council approved and transmitted the “Opinions on the Recruitment of Students for Higher Education Institutions in 1977,” abolishing the recommendation system and restoring the college entrance examination system of cultural examinations and recruiting students from among current-year graduates. Third, he restored the management systems of enterprises, research institutes, colleges and universities, and other units, including leadership systems such as the factory manager responsibility system under the leadership of the Party committee, the institute director responsibility system under the leadership of the Party committee, and the university president responsibility system under the leadership of the Party committee; restored the professional title evaluation system for scientific researchers and teachers; restored the establishment of posts such as university presidents and department heads; restored post responsibility systems such as chief engineer, chief designer, and chief technologist in enterprises; and restored rules and regulations such as the reward and punishment system, the distribution according to work system, and the bonus system. In addition, it restored the dual leadership system of ministries and local governments for some key enterprises and key universities, with the ministries as the main body; restored the establishment of the Central United Front Work Department and the Central Overseas Chinese Affairs Office; and restored the systems for united front work and overseas Chinese affairs work. In the military, it restored the three-in-one system of field armies, local forces, and militia.

从1977年7月邓小平复出到党的十一届三中全会召开，邓小平一方面沿着推进拨乱反正、思想解放、开启国门逻辑，推动改革开放决策的形成，为制度建设拓展思想和实践空间；另一方面，切实推进具体制度建设。这一时期的制度建设，仍然以恢复制度为主，辅之以改革制度。“林彪、‘四人帮’把合理的规章制度也破坏了。现在合理的要恢复起来，不好的要改进”。邓小平着手进一步恢复原有行之有效的制度。首先，推动恢复民主集中制。邓小平在党的“十一大”闭幕词中指出，要“把毛泽东同志的建党学说和党的一整套作风恢复起来，发扬起来，那末，毛泽东同志所说的那样一种政治局面，就一定会达到”。其次，恢复科技教育领域合理制度。“十年动乱”对科技教育事业制度和管理制度冲击最大，邓小平把科技教育改革发展和制度建设放在突出重要位置。一是恢复科技工作统一领导制度。1977年9月18日，中共中央发出《关于成立国家科学技术委员会的决定》，统一规划和领导大学科研、国防科研。二是恢复高考制度。1977年10月，国务院批转《关于一九七七年高等学校招生工作的意见》，废除推荐制度，恢复文化考试、从应届生中招生的高考制度。第三，恢复企业、科研院所、大专院校等单位管理制度，包括党委领导下的厂长负责制、党委领导下的所长负责制、党委领导下的校长负责制等领导制度，恢复科研人员和教师职称评定制度，恢复大专院校长、系主任等岗位设置，恢复企业总工程师、总设计师、总工艺师等岗位责任制，恢复奖惩制度、按劳分配制度、奖金制度等规章制度。此外，恢复部分重点企业、重点大学的部委与地方双重领导、以部委为主的领导体制，恢复设立中央统战部和中央侨务机构，恢复统一战线工作和侨务工作制度。军队方面恢复野战军、地方军、民兵三结合体制等。

Overall, the institutional rectification of 1975 and the institutional restoration of 1977-1978 were both institutional building within the framework of the original socialist system. In the two years 1977 and 1978, “China was still in a state of hesitation.” [19]19 The “Cultural Revolution” (1966–1976) was a political movement launched by Mao Zedong that caused widespread social and economic disruption; the text refers to the destruction of the distribution system during this period. Nevertheless, in 1977 and 1978, Deng Xiaoping promoted criticism of the “Two Whatevers” [20]20 The Chinese term 定型 (dìngxíng) means “finalized” or “fixed in form”; it is left untranslated in the quotation to preserve the original phrasing. and supported the discussion on the criterion of truth, opening up space for ideological emancipation for the Party and the people; he promoted a series of visits and inspections to capitalist countries, and Deng Xiaoping himself visited Japan, discovering the huge development gap between China and developed countries, discovering a series of specific institutions in developed countries that conform to the requirements of socialized productive forces, providing new references for institutional building; he proposed the central task of “concentrating wholeheartedly on the Four Modernizations,” providing a new practical basis for institutional building. More importantly, Deng Xiaoping proposed a new perspective: “It cannot be said that everything was done by the ‘Gang of Four’; there are some things for which we ourselves must bear responsibility.” All this promoted a major shift in the guiding ideology of institutional building, namely, recognizing that the original socialist system itself had “relations of production and superstructure that do not meet the needs of the productive forces,” and that merely rectifying and restoring institutions would make it difficult to meet the requirements of modernization. “It is necessary to change the relations of production, change the superstructure, and change the management methods of industrial and agricultural enterprises and the state’s management methods of industrial and agricultural enterprises in many aspects, so as to adapt them to the needs of a modern large-scale economy” and “to carry out major reforms in institutions and organizations.” The important lesson from the forced interruption of the 1975 rectification and the two years of “hesitation” in 1977-1978 was that it was difficult to advance institutional building within the framework of the original socialist system, let alone to build it into “the best system in the world.” To become “the best system in the world,” it was necessary to break through the original socialism through ideological emancipation and reform and opening up, and to explore a new path and model for socialism.

总体上看，1975年的制度整顿和1977-1978年间的制度恢复，都是在原有社会主义制度框架内的制度建设。1977、1978年两年，“中国还处于徘徊状态”。尽管如此，1977、1978年，邓小平推动批评“两个凡是”、支持真理标准讨论，打开了党和人民的思想解放空间；推动一系列对资本主义国家的出访考察，邓小平本人出访日本，发现了中国与发达国家的发展上的巨大差距，发现了发达国家一系列符合社会化生产力要求的具体制度，为制度建设提供了新的参照；提出了“一心一意搞四化”的中心任务，为制度建设提供了新的实践基点。更重要的是，邓小平提出一个新的视角，“总不能说什么都是‘四人帮’搞的，有些事情还要自己负责”。所有这些，推动形成制度建设指导思想上的一个重大转变，即认识到原有社会主义制度本身存在“不适应生产力需要的生产关系和上层建筑”，仅仅靠整顿制度、恢复制度，难以适应现代化的要求，“要多方面地改变生产关系，改变上层建筑，改变工农业企业的管理方式和国家对工农业企业的管理方式，使之适应于现代化大经济的需要”“进行制度上、组织上的重大改革”。1975年整顿被迫中断、1977-1978年两年“徘徊”的重要启示，就是在原有社会主义制度框架内，是难以推进制度建设的，遑论建设成为“世界上最好的制度”。成为“世界上最好的制度”，必须以思想解放、改革开放突破原有社会主义，探索社会主义新的道路与模式。

(2) Reforming and Innovating Institutions: The Establishment and Development of the Socialist System with Chinese Characteristics from the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the 18th National Congress of the CPC

（二）改革制度、创新制度：党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大中国特色社会主义制度的创立与发展

The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC made the major decision on reform and opening up. Reform was a reform of the original socialism, a self-improvement of the socialist system. Therefore, institutional building shifted from focusing on rectifying and restoring institutions to focusing on reforming and innovating institutions. The institutional reform and innovation of this period established and constructed the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, laying a solid foundation for building socialism with Chinese characteristics into “the best system in the world.”

党的十一届三中全会作出改革开放重大决策。改革是对原有社会主义的改革，是社会主义制度的自我完善，因此，制度建设从整顿和恢复制度为主转向改革和创新制度为主。这一时期的制度改革和创新，创立和构建了中国特色社会主义制度，为将中国特色社会主义建设成为“世界上最好的制度”奠定了坚实基础。

Reform and opening up prompted the emergence of the question “what is socialism and how to build socialism.” In July 1979, Deng Xiaoping proposed, “How exactly to build socialism still requires accumulating experience.” In April 1980, Deng Xiaoping proposed, “On the question of what is called socialism, we must also emancipate our minds.” The 12th National Congress of the CPC proposed building socialism with Chinese characteristics, initially answering the question of what socialism is and how to build it. Proposing the building of socialism with Chinese characteristics implied a major ideological shift, namely, from negating the ten years of the “Cultural Revolution” to reflecting on the entire socialist period since the 8th National Congress of the CPC. What Deng Xiaoping meant by “there are some things for which we ourselves must bear responsibility” was, to a large extent, that the original socialism was not yet up to standard. On the one hand, it was not up to standard in developing productive forces and eliminating poverty; on the other hand, the system was immature. It was precisely for this reason that Deng Xiaoping pointed out that the 12th National Congress of the CPC “was the most important congress since the 7th National Congress of the CPC.” Although the 8th National Congress of the CPC had put forward a correct line, because the Party’s ideological preparation for comprehensively building socialism was insufficient, the correct line of the 8th National Congress could not be persisted in practice. Since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, the Party’s understanding of the laws of socialist construction has become much deeper, its experience much richer. By summing up long-term experience, it formed the basic conclusion of taking its own path and building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The 13th National Congress of the CPC defined “socialism with Chinese characteristics” as “the second historic leap, following the discovery of the Chinese path of the New Democratic Revolution and the realization of the first historic leap, in the process of integrating Marxism with Chinese practice.”

改革开放推动“什么是社会主义、如何建设社会主义”问题的出场。1979年7月，邓小平提出，“社会主义究竟如何搞，还要积累经验”。1980年4月，邓小平提出“什么叫社会主义这个问题也要解放思想”。党的十二大提出建设有中国特色的社会主义，初步回答了什么是社会主义、如何建设社会主义的问题。提出建设有中国特色的社会主义，蕴含着一个重大思想转变，即从否定“文革”十年到反思党的“八大”以来的整个社会主义时期。邓小平讲的“有些事情还要自己负责”，很大程度上是指原有的社会主义还不够格。一方面在发展生产力、消除贫困上不够格，另一方面制度上不成熟。正因为如此，邓小平指出，党的十二大“是党的第七次全国代表大会以来一次最重要的会议”。党的八大尽管提出了正确的路线，但由于党对于全面建设社会主义的思想准备不足，党的“八大”的正确路线没有能够在实践中坚持下去。党的十一届三中全会以来，党对社会主义建设规律的认识深刻多了，经验丰富多了，通过总结长期经验，形成了走自己的路，建设有中国特色的社会主义的基本结论。党的十三大将“有中国特色的社会主义”确定为“马克思主义与中国实践相结合的过程中，继找到中国新民主主义革命道路、实现第一次历史性飞跃之后的第二次历史性飞跃”。

Taking the original socialism as the object of reform and building socialism with Chinese characteristics as the goal of reform provided a new basis for institutional building, requiring institutional building to transcend the rectification and restoration of institutions and enter the level of reforming and innovating institutions. From the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the convocation of the 18th National Congress of the CPC, institutional building centered on socialism with Chinese characteristics unfolded comprehensively. The 17th National Congress of the CPC proposed and systematically elaborated the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The 18th National Congress of the CPC proposed and systematically elaborated the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, summarizing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and its connotations from four levels: the fundamental political system, the basic political systems, the basic economic system, and various specific institutions. It emphasized that “the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the path to realization, the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the guide to action, and the socialist system with Chinese characteristics is the fundamental guarantee. These three are unified in the great practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics, which is the most distinctive feature formed by the Party leading the people in the long-term practice of building socialism.” The “socialist system with Chinese characteristics” formally proposed and elaborated at the 18th National Congress of the CPC was the concentrated embodiment of the achievements of institutional reform and innovation since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC.

以原有社会主义为改革对象，以建设有中国特色的社会主义为改革目标，为制度建设提供了新的基点，要求制度建设超越整顿制度与恢复制度，进入到改革制度和创新制度的层面。从党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大召开，围绕中国特色社会主义的制度建设全面展开。党的十七大提出和系统阐述中国特色社会主义道路、中国特色社会主义理论体系，党的十八大提出并系统阐述中国特色社会主义制度，从根本政治制度、基本政治制度、基本经济制度以及各项具体制度四个层面概括中国特色社会主义制度体系及其内涵，强调“中国特色社会主义道路是实现途径，中国特色社会主义理论体系是行动指南，中国特色社会主义制度是根本保障，三者统一于中国特色社会主义伟大实践，这是党领导人民在建设社会主义长期实践中形成的最鲜明特色”。党的十八大正式提出和阐述的“中国特色社会主义制度”，是党的十一届三中全会以来制度改革与制度创新成果的集中体现。

First, reform the leadership system of the Party and the state, and advance the institutionalization and legalization of socialist democratic politics. Since reform and opening up, planned and step-by-step reforms actually first unfolded in the political system. On October 11, 1978, Deng Xiaoping proposed “changing the superstructure” at the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Trade Unions, which in effect raised the task of political system reform and the construction of democratic politics. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee put forward a series of principles and requirements around perfecting the Party’s democratic centralism and reforming the leadership system of the Party and the state, including: implementing collective leadership of the Party Central Committee and Party committees at all levels; fully guaranteeing the right of Party members to raise critical opinions within the Party toward leaders at higher levels, up to and including members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau; placing legislative work high on the agenda of the National People’s Congress and its Standing Committee; ensuring that procuratorial and judicial organs maintain their due independence; guaranteeing that all people are equal before their own laws, and not permitting anyone to have privileges beyond the law; and making democracy institutionalized and codified in law, so that such institutions and laws possess stability, continuity, and authority.

首先，改革党和国家领导制度，推进社会主义民主政治制度化、法制化。改革开放以来，有计划有步骤的改革实际上最先是在政治体制领域展开的。1978年10月11日邓小平在中国工会第九次全国代表大会上提出“改变上层建筑”，实际上提出了政治体制改革、进行民主政治建设的任务。党的十一届三中全会围绕健全党的民主集中制、党和国家领导制度改革提出一系列原则和要求，包括：实行党中央和各级党委集体领导；充分保障党员在党内对上级领导直至中央常委提出批评性意见的权利；把立法工作提到全国人民代表大会及其常委会的重要议程上来；检察机关和司法审判机关保持应有的独立性；保证人民在自己的法律面前人人平等，不允许任何人有超于法律之上的特权；使民主制度化、法律化，使这种制度和法律具有稳定性、连续性和权威性等。

The establishment of these principles and requirements opened the curtain on the reform of the leadership system of the Party and the state, political system reform, and the construction of democratic politics. First, reform of the Party’s leadership system, including: establishing Party discipline inspection commissions to ensure that from Party leaders to every Party member, all are equal before Party discipline and state law; setting up an advisory system as a transitional form, abolishing the de facto lifelong tenure of leading cadres, implementing a cadre retirement system, and changing the situation of bloated institutions and overstaffing; re-establishing the Secretariat of the Central Committee as the standing working organ under the leadership of the Political Bureau and its Standing Committee, forming a three-tier Central Committee leadership structure of the Secretariat, the Political Bureau, and the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau, and changing the situation of excessive concentration of power in the hands of a few or even a single individual. Second, implementing a division of labor between the Party and the government, increasing local authority, expanding grassroots democratic rights, effectively guaranteeing the judicial and prosecutorial powers enjoyed by judicial and procuratorial organs in accordance with the Constitution, and exploring forms for realizing the democratization of national political life. Third, centering on building socialist democracy and a socialist legal system, advancing administrative system reforms such as institutional reform, delegation of power, transformation of government functions, and separation of government from enterprises, and continuously enhancing the vitality of the Party, administrative organs, and the entire state system. The 13th National Congress of the CPC systematically elaborated on the purpose, methods, objectives, and specific plans for political system reform. After the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, the third generation of the Party’s collective leadership focused on deepening political system reform and formulated major institutional documents such as the “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Upholding and Improving the Party’s Ties with the Masses” and the “Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Upholding the System of Multiparty Cooperation and Political Consultation under the Leadership of the Communist Party of China.” The amendment to the Party Constitution adopted at the 14th National Congress absorbed the achievements of previous political system reforms and made major supplements to democratic legal construction and Party institutional construction. The 15th National Congress emphasized that the main tasks of political system reform were to develop democracy, strengthen the legal system, separate government from enterprises, streamline institutions, improve democratic oversight, and maintain stability and unity. The 16th National Congress stressed focusing on strengthening institutional construction to achieve the institutionalization, standardization, and proceduralization of socialist democratic politics. The 17th National Congress deployed measures to deepen political system reform around six aspects: expanding people’s democracy, developing grassroots democracy, building a socialist country governed by the rule of law, strengthening the patriotic united front, accelerating administrative system reform, and improving oversight and restraint mechanisms. The 18th National Congress pointed out that since reform and opening up, continuous advancement of political system reform had achieved major progress in the construction of socialist democratic politics, successfully opening up and adhering to the political development path of socialism with Chinese characteristics.

这些原则和要求的确立，拉开了党和国家领导制度改革、政治体制改革、民主政治建设序幕。一是党的领导制度改革，包括成立党的纪律检查委员会，确保从党的领导者到每一个党员在党纪和国法面前人人平等；设立顾问制度作为过渡形式，废除领导干部职务终身制，实行干部退休制度，改变机构臃肿、人浮于事状况；重新设立中央书记处，作为中央政治局和它的常委会领导下的经常工作机构，形成中央书记处、中央政治局、中央政治局常委会三个层次中共中央领导体制，改变权力过分集中于少数人甚至个人的状况。二是实行党政分工，增加地方权力，扩大基层民主权利，切实保障司法、检察机关依据宪法享有的审判和检察权，探索国家政治生活民主化的实现形式。三是围绕建设社会主义民主和社会主义法制，推进机构改革、权力下放、政府职能转变、政企分开等行政体制改革，不断增强党和行政机构以及整个国家体制的活力。党的十三大系统阐述了政治体制改革的目的、方法、目标和具体方案，党的十三届四中全会以后，党的第三代领导集体着力深化政治体制改革，制定了《中共中央关于坚持和完善共产党同人民群众的联系的决定》《中共中央关于坚持共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度的意见》重大制度。党的十四大通过的党章修正案吸收此前政治体制改革成果，对民主法制建设、党的制度建设做出重大补充。党的十五大强调，政治体制改革的主要任务是，发展民主，加强法制，实现政企分开，精简机构，完善民主监督，维护安定团结。党的十六大强调着重加强制度建设，实现社会主义民主政治的制度化、规范化和程序化。党的十七大围绕扩大人民民主、发展基层民主、建设社会主义法治国家、壮大爱国统一战线、加快行政管理体制改革、完善制约和监督机制等六个方面部署深化政治体制改革的措施。党的十八大指出，改革开放以来，不断推进政治体制改革，社会主义民主政治建设取得重大进展，成功开辟和坚持了中国特色社会主义政治发展道路。

Second, reform the economic system, and innovate and perfect the socialist economic system. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee proposed that there existed the drawback of excessive concentration of power in

其次，改革经济体制，创新和完善社会主义经济制度。党的十一届三中全会提出，我国经济管理体制中存在权力过于集中的弊端，要对经济管理体制和经营管理方法着手改革。经济体制改革是改革开放的重点。在经济体制改革领域，有计划有步骤有领导的改革和制度建设最先发生在对外开放领域。围绕对外开放，逐步推进外汇管理体制、审批体制改革和有关外资、外贸的法制建设。农村是传统计划经济体制比较薄弱的环节，改革得以率先突破，并从放开政策迅速转向制度建设，形成了家庭联产承包责任制、发展社队企业（乡镇企业）政策、政社分设制度等新的制度安排和制度规定。在城市，通过向企业下放经营自主权、试行企业基金制度、恢复奖金制度等举措，构建了企业权责统一、监督激励约束相协同的制度安排。在此基础上，党的十二届三中全会通过的《中共中央关于经济体制改革的决定》集成对外开放、农村改革、城市改革的制度创新成果，围绕有计划的商品经济体制部署一系列制度安排与制度创新。党的十四届三中全会通过的《关于建立社会主义市场经济体制若干问题的决定》，确立社会主义市场经济体制的基本制度框架。党的十六届三中全会出台的《关于完善社会主义市场经济体制若干问题的决定》围绕建成完善的社会主义市场经济体制，围绕社会主义制度和市场经济有机结合的途径和方式做出一系列新的制度安排。

From the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the convening of the 18th National Congress of the CPC, through the deepening of economic system reform, the innovation and improvement of the economic system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the “four beams and eight pillars” [18]18 “Four beams and eight pillars” (四梁八柱) is a Chinese architectural metaphor for the main supporting framework of a structure; in political discourse it refers to the fundamental institutional framework of a system. of the basic economic system of socialism with Chinese characteristics were basically established. First, the ownership system of socialism with Chinese characteristics was created and established. While advancing the reform of the state-owned economy and the collective economy, vigorous efforts were made to develop individual, private, foreign-funded and other non-public sectors of the economy. The 12th National Congress of the CPC for the first time designated the individual economy as a necessary and beneficial supplement to the public economy. The constitutional amendment passed at the First Session of the Seventh National People’s Congress in 1988 stated that the state permits the private economy to exist and develop within the scope prescribed by law. The 15th National Congress of the CPC proposed that keeping public ownership as the mainstay and allowing diverse forms of ownership to develop side by side is a basic economic system for the primary stage of socialism. Since the 15th National Congress of the CPC, on the one hand, multiple forms of public ownership have been implemented, the reform of state-owned enterprises has been deepened, the state-owned assets management system has been improved, and the vitality, control and influence of the state-owned economy have been enhanced; on the other hand, the development of the non-public sector of the economy has been encouraged, supported and guided. Second, the socialist market economy system was created and improved, and a series of institutional arrangements organically integrating socialism and the market economy were established and perfected. In particular, handling the relationship between the government and the market was taken as the core of economic system reform. On the one hand, by improving market institutions, perfecting the market system, transforming government functions, and strengthening the institutionalization of macroeconomic regulation targets and policy instruments, institutional arrangements that better respect market laws and better play the role of the government were improved; on the other hand, reforms in finance, taxation, banking, trade, labor and other fields were advanced, and macroeconomic management departmental economic systems compatible with the socialist market economy system were constructed. After the 16th National Congress of the CPC proposed improving the socialist market economy system, departmental economic systems in various aspects were continuously improved through reforms such as the tax-sharing system reform, the construction of a modern financial system, and the establishment of an operational mechanism adapted to internationally accepted economic rules. Third, the socialist distribution system with distribution according to work as the mainstay and multiple modes of distribution coexisting was created and improved. The socialist distribution principle of distribution according to work was destroyed during the “Cultural Revolution.” [19]19 The “Cultural Revolution” (1966–1976) was a political movement launched by Mao Zedong that caused widespread social and economic disruption; the text refers to the destruction of the distribution system during this period. The 12th National Congress of the CPC proposed “reforming the labor system and the wage system.” The Third Plenary Session of the 12th Central Committee of the CPC proposed that the principle of distribution according to work should be earnestly implemented. Within enterprises, wage differentials should be widened and grades should be differentiated, so as to fully reflect rewarding the diligent and punishing the lazy, rewarding the good and punishing the bad, and fully reflecting more pay for more work and less pay for less work. The 13th National Congress of the CPC established the distribution principle with distribution according to work as the mainstay and other modes of distribution as supplements. The report of the 15th National Congress of the CPC explicitly proposed the institutional stipulation of distribution according to work as the mainstay and multiple modes of distribution coexisting, proposed combining distribution according to work with distribution according to factors of production, and allowed and encouraged capital, technology and other factors of production to participate in income distribution, for the first time recognizing the important position of factors of production in income distribution. The 16th National Congress of the CPC established the principle that factors of production such as labor, capital, technology and management participate in distribution according to their contribution. Through the deepening of reform, the 18th National Congress of the CPC established the socialist distribution system with distribution according to work as the mainstay and multiple modes of distribution coexisting.

党的十一届三中全会以来，到党的十八大召开，通过经济体制改革的深化，创新和完善中国特色社会主义经济制度，中国特色社会主义基本经济制度的“四梁八柱”基本确立。首先，创立和确立了中国特色社会主义所有制制度。在推进国有经济、集体经济改革的同时，大力发展个体经济、私营经济、外资经济等非公有制经济。党的十二大第一次把个体经济确定为公有制经济必要的、有益的补充。1988年第七届全国人大第一次会议通过的宪法修正案指出，国家允许私营经济在法律规定的范围内存在和发展。党的十五大提出，公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展是社会主义初级阶段的一项基本经济制度。党的十五大以来，一方面推行公有制多种实现形式，深化国有企业改革，完善国有资产管理体制，增强国有经济活力、控制力和影响力；另一方面鼓励、支持、引导非公有制经济发展。其次，创立和完善社会主义市场经济体制，确立和完善社会主义与市场经济有机结合的一系列制度安排。特别是把处理好政府和市场的关系作为经济体制改革的核心，一方面通过完善市场制度、健全市场体系、转变政府职能、加强宏观调控目标和政策手段机制化建设，完善更加尊重市场规律和更好发挥政府作用的制度安排；另一方面，推进财政、税收、金融、贸易、劳动等领域改革，构建与社会主义市场经济体制相适应的宏观经济管理部门经济制度，党的十六大提出完善社会主义市场经济体制以后，通过分税制改革、构建现代金融体系、建立适应国际经济通行规则的运行机制等改革，不断完善各个方面的部门经济制度。第三，创立和完善按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的社会主义分配制度。按劳分配这一社会主义分配制度在“文革”期间被破坏。党的十二大提出“改革劳动制度和工资制度”。党的十二届三中全会提出，要认真贯彻按劳分配原则。在企业内部，要扩大工资差距，拉开档次，以充分体现奖勤罚懒、奖优罚劣，充分体现多劳多得，少劳少得。党的十三大确立以按劳分配为主体、其他分配方式为补充的分配原则。党的十五大报告明确提出按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的制度规定，提出把按劳分配和按生产要素分配结合起来，允许和鼓励资本、技术等生产要素参与收益分配，首次承认生产要素在收入分配中的重要地位。党的十六大确立劳动、资本、技术和管理等生产要素按贡献参与分配的原则。通过改革的深化，党的十八大确立按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的社会主义分配制度。

Finally, the systems in various fields were reformed, and specific institutions in each field were created and improved. The reform since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC was comprehensive from the outset, that is, centering on economic system reform, it accelerated the reform of systems and the construction of institutions in education, science and technology, the rule of law, culture, society and other fields. For example, after the Third Plenary Session of the 12th Central Committee of the CPC in October 1984 made the decision on economic system reform, in 1985, the “Decision on the Reform of the Science and Technology System” and the “Decision on the Reform of the Education System” were successively issued. Reforms in the fields of science and technology and education gradually unfolded, initially forming a strategic layout and institutional system to promote science and technology, education and talent to support modernization. In the field of the rule of law, on the one hand, legal construction such as the civil code, the compulsory education law and the foreign-funded enterprise law was strengthened; on the other hand, legal popularization education was strengthened, and the “Five-Year Plan for Popularizing Basic Legal Knowledge among All Citizens” was issued. By the time of the 18th National Congress of the CPC, seven such legal popularization plans had been implemented. In the field of cultural development, the “Resolution on the Guiding Principles for Socialist Cultural-Ethical Progress” was issued and implemented, establishing the strategic position of cultural-ethical progress in the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics and related institutional arrangements.

最后，改革各领域体制，创立和完善各领域具体制度。党的十一届三中全会以来的改革一开始就具有全面性，即以经济体制改革为中心，加快推进教育、科技、法治、文化、社会等各个领域的体制改革与制度建设。例如，1984年10月党的十二届三中全会做出经济体制改革决定后，1985年，先后出台《关于科学技术体制改革的决定》《关于教育体制改革的决定》，科技、教育领域的改革逐步展开，初步形成推动科技、教育、人才支撑现代化建设的战略布局和制度体系。在法治方面，一方面加强民法、义务教育法、外资企业法等法制建设；另一方面加强普法教育，出台《关于向全体公民基本普及法律常识的五年规划》，到党的十八大召开，先后实施七个普法规划。在文化建设方面，出台和实施《关于社会主义精神文明建设指导方针的决议》，确立了精神文明建设在中国特色社会主义建设中的战略地位和相关制度安排。

The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC opened a historic turning point in exploring a new path for socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the 12th National Congress of the CPC proposed building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The reform and opening up and institutional innovation since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC created, developed and improved socialism with Chinese characteristics, established the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, laid the institutional foundation for building “the best system in the world” in China, and answered the question of what kind of socialism should be built into “the best system in the world.”

党的十一届三中全会开启探索中国特色社会主义新道路的历史性转折，党的十二大提出建设有中国特色的社会主义。党的十一届三中全会以来的改革开放和制度创新，创立、发展和完善了中国特色社会主义，确立了中国特色社会主义制度，为在中国建设“世界上最好的制度”确立了制度基础，回答了将什么样的社会主义建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的问题。

(III) Institutional Integration and Institutional Operation: The Improvement and Development of the System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics since the 18th National Congress of the CPC

（三）制度集成、制度运行：党的十八大以来中国特色社会主义制度的完善与发展

After answering the question of through what kind of socialism China will build “the best system in the world,” the next step is to use practice to promote the construction of “the best system in the world.” The 18th National Congress of the CPC put forward the requirement of developing socialism with Chinese characteristics and continuously promoting the self-improvement and development of our socialist system. The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC made the “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reform,” clarifying that the overall goal of comprehensively deepening reform is to improve and develop the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and to modernize the national governance system and governance capacity; and clarifying that during the stage of comprehensively deepening reform, greater attention must be paid to the systemic, holistic and coordinated nature of reform. This clarified the basic path of institutional construction in the stage of comprehensively deepening reform, namely, institutional integration and institutional operation. Institutional integration means, through comprehensively deepening reform, advancing reform integration and systemic institutional integration, to form a system of institutions that is complete, scientifically standardized, and effective in operation. Institutional operation means implementing and operating the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, transforming institutional advantages into governance effectiveness, and promoting the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity.

回答中国通过什么样的社会主义建设“世界上最好的制度”的问题之后，接下来需要用实践推动“世界上最好的制度”的建设。党的十八大提出发展中国特色社会主义、不断推进我国社会主义制度自我完善和发展的要求，党的十八届三中全会做出《中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定》，明确全面深化改革的总目标，是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化；明确全面深化改革阶段必须更加注重改革的系统性、整体性、协同性。这就明确了全面深化改革阶段制度建设的基本途径，即制度集成和制度运行。制度集成，就是通过全面深化改革，推进改革集成和制度系统集成，形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系。制度运行，就是执行和运行中国特色社会主义制度，将制度优势转化为治理效能，推动国家治理体系和治理能力现代化。

Comprehensively deepening reform is a profound transformation of the national system and governance system. At the end of 2020, Xi Jinping made the following judgment on the achievements of comprehensively deepening reform: “The basic institutional frameworks in various fields have been basically established, and many fields have achieved historic transformations, systemic reshaping, and overall reconstruction, laying a solid foundation for promoting the formation of a complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operating institutional system and making institutions in all aspects more mature and more定型 [20]20 The Chinese term 定型 (dìngxíng) means “finalized” or “fixed in form”; it is left untranslated in the quotation to preserve the original phrasing.. Comprehensively deepening reform has achieved historic and great accomplishments.” Starting in 2021, comprehensively deepening reform entered a new stage of development reform, centering on implementing the new development philosophy, constructing the new development pattern, and focusing on Chinese-path modernization, with reform advancing toward deeper-level institutional construction.

全面深化改革是一场国家制度和治理体系的深刻变革。2020年年底，习近平对全面深化改革的成就做出如下判断，“各领域基础性制度框架基本确立，许多领域实现历史性变革、系统性重塑、整体性重构，为推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型奠定了坚实基础，全面深化改革取得历史性伟大成就”。2021年开始，全面深化改革开启新发展阶段改革进程，围绕落实新发展理念、构建新发展格局、聚焦中国式现代化展开，改革向更深层次制度建设推进。

First, promote institutional integration, drive the formation of a complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operating institutional system, and make institutions in all aspects more mature and more定型. Since the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC, comprehensively deepening reform has centered on the main line of institutional construction, with the focus of work gradually evolving. The 17th meeting of the “Central Commission for Comprehensively Deepening Reform” on December 30, 2020, summarized this evolutionary process as three distinct periods of focus: “the early period of laying foundations, setting up pillars and beams,” “the middle period of advancing on all fronts, accumulating momentum and building strength,” and “the current period of systemic integration, coordination and efficiency.”

首先，推进制度集成，推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型。党的十八届三中全会以来，全面深化改革围绕制度建设这一主线，工作重点逐步演变。2020年12月30日“中央深改委”第17次会议将这一演变过程概括为“前期夯基垒台、立柱架梁”“中期全面推进、积厚成势”“现阶段系统集成、协同高效”这三个重点不同的时段。

The first period: 2014–2016, laying foundations, erecting beams and pillars, and constructing the main framework for comprehensively deepening reform. The main framework of reform is the basic architecture of institutional building, that is, the “four beams and eight pillars” of institutional building.[21]21 “Four beams and eight pillars” (四梁八柱) is a Chinese architectural metaphor for the main supporting framework of a structure, used here to describe the foundational components of the institutional system. Constructing the main framework of reform means, in accordance with the top-level design of the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee,[22]22 The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC, held in November 2013, adopted the “Decision on Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reforms,” which set the overall plan for reform. launching foundational and pillar reforms and erecting the basic framework of reform. The focus of reform during this period was to erect pillars and beams, i.e., to give priority to foundational and pillar reforms in various fields and to launch major institutional building that plays a structural supporting role. For example, in the reform of the economic system, foundational reforms to improve the socialist market economy system were introduced, such as the negative list system for market access, encouraging and regulating the introduction of non-state capital into state-owned enterprise investment projects, and establishing a fair competition review system. Another example: in the reform of the science and technology system, management reforms of central government science and technology plans (special projects, funds, etc.) were deepened, and an open and unified national science and technology management platform, a science and technology planning system with Chinese characteristics, management systems, and a new management system for science and technology plans (special projects, funds) were established, laying the foundation for deepening reforms in other areas of science and technology. Overall, in the three years from 2014 to 2016, reform focused on foundational and supporting reforms in important areas and key links, including state-owned enterprises, fiscal and taxation, finance, science and technology innovation, the land system, opening up, culture and education, judicial fairness, environmental protection, pensions and employment, medical and health care, and Party building and discipline inspection. A number of landmark and key major reform plans were introduced and implemented, and the main framework for comprehensively deepening reform was basically established.

第一个时段：2014-2016年，夯基垒台、立梁架柱，构建全面深化改革主体框架。改革的主体框架，就是制度建设的基本架构，即制度建设的“四梁八柱”。构建改革主体框架，就是按照党的十八届三中全会的顶层设计，推出基础性、支柱性改革，搭建改革的基本框架。这一期间的改革重点，是立柱架梁，即优先推进在各个领域具有基础性和支柱性的改革，推出具有结构支撑作用的重大制度建设。例如，在经济体制改革方面，推出市场准入负面清单制度、鼓励和规范国有企业投资项目引入非国有资本、建立公平竞争审查制度等完善社会主义市场经济体制的基础性改革。再例如，在科技体制改革方面，深化中央财政科技计划（专项、基金等）管理改革，建立公开统一的国家科技管理平台和具有中国特色的科技计划体系、管理制度和新型科技计划（专项、基金）管理体制，为科技领域其他方面的改革向纵深推进奠定基础。总体上看，2014-2016年三年间，改革聚焦国有企业、财税金融、科技创新、土地制度、对外开放、文化教育、司法公正、环境保护、养老就业、医药卫生、党建纪检等重要领域和关键环节的基础性、支撑性改革，推出一批具有标志性、关键性重大改革方案出台实施，全面深化改革主体框架基本确立。

The second period: 2017–2019, advancing comprehensively, accumulating thickness and building momentum, and achieving decisive results in important areas and key links of reform. Advancing comprehensively means unfolding reform in all areas. Accumulating thickness and building momentum means expanding the thickness of institutional building and accumulating kinetic energy and potential energy for promoting the systematic integration of reform and the integration of institutions. Important areas include basic fields such as state-owned enterprises, fiscal and taxation, and finance that support the in-depth advancement of comprehensively deepening reform. Key links are the fundamental and overall key and difficult points in the institutional system and governance system, major measures to maintain healthy economic development and overall social stability, as well as issues such as finance, tax and fee reductions, the business environment, science and technology, the rule of law, government management, education, medical care, employment, and environmental protection that market entities and the people are deeply concerned about and urgently need to solve. Compared with the earlier period, which mainly introduced foundational and supporting reforms, these three years saw the introduction of a number of key and leading reforms. For example, in the reform of the economic system, the introduction of reforms to improve the market exit system for market entities, to create a better development environment to support the reform and development of private enterprises, and to promote the reform of the social mobility system for labor and talent have a pioneering and leading role in improving the socialist market economy system. In the reform of the science and technology system, focusing on difficulties and blockages, the introduction of reforms to deepen the evaluation of scientific research projects, talent evaluation, and institutional evaluation, and to grant scientific researchers ownership or long-term use rights of job-related scientific and technological achievements, are targeted and leading in solving deep-seated problems in education, science and technology, and talent. Overall, the reforms during this period were comprehensively unfolded and deeply expanded, creating conditions for comprehensively deepening reform to enter the stage of systematic integration and institutional integration.

第二个时段：2017-2019年，全面推进、积厚成势，在重要领域和关键环节改革上取得决定性成果。全面推进，就是在各个领域全面展开改革。积厚成势，就是拓展制度建设的厚度，为推进改革系统集成和制度集成积蓄动能和势能。重要领域，包括国企、财税、金融等支撑全面深化改革纵深推进的基本领域。关键环节，就是制度体系和治理体系中具有根本性、全局性的重点难点部位，保持经济健康发展和社会大局稳定的重大举措，以及金融、减税降费、营商环境、科技、法治、政府管理、教育、医疗、就业、环保等市场主体和人民群众牵肠挂肚、急难愁盼问题。与前期主要出台基础性、支撑性改革相比，这三年推出一批关键性、引领性改革。如经济体制改革方面，出台的完善市场主体退出制度改革、营造更好发展环境支持民营企业改革发展、促进劳动力和人才社会性流动体制机制改革，对于完善社会主义市场经济体制具有先导性和引领性。科技体制改革方面围绕难点、堵点，出台的深化科研项目评估、人才评价、机构评估改革，赋予科研人员职务科研成果所有权或长期使用权改革，对于破解教育、科技、人才的深层次问题，具有针对性和引领性。总体上看，这一期间的改革全面展开并深入拓展，为全面深化改革进入系统集成、制度集成阶段创造了条件。

The third period: 2020–2023, systematic integration, synergy and high efficiency, promoting the systems in all areas to become more mature and more定型.[23]23 “定型” (dìngxíng) means to become fixed or finalized in form; it is a key term in Chinese political discourse referring to the maturation and stabilization of institutions. Systematic integration, synergy and high efficiency means consolidating and deepening the institutional achievements made in the previous stage in resolving institutional obstacles, mechanistic blockages, and policy innovations, and promoting the systems in all areas to become more mature and more定型; handling the relationship between top-level design and hierarchical alignment, coordinating the matching of all aspects, up and down, left and right, and focusing on the coordinated advancement of various reforms so that the various systems complement each other. During this period, on the one hand, a number of tough reforms were introduced, such as the “Three-Year Action Plan for State-Owned Enterprise Reform (2020–2022)” and the “Three-Year Plan for Tackling Key Problems in Science and Technology System Reform (2021–2023)”; on the other hand, a number of strategic reforms were introduced, such as strengthening and improving the management of the state-owned economy to strongly support Chinese-path modernization, and building a basic data system, pushing reforms and institutional building in all areas to focus on Chinese-path modernization. Overall, during this period, on the one hand, through the systematic integration of institutions, a series of overall institutional arrangements were formed, such as the “Opinions on Accelerating the Improvement of the Socialist Market Economy System in the New Era,” the “Implementation Plan for Deepening Rural Reform,” and the “Overall Plan for Deepening the Reform of Education Evaluation in the New Era”; on the other hand, new summaries of institutional provisions were made. For example, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee[24]24 The Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC, held in October 2019, focused on upholding and improving the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. made a new summary of the basic socialist economic system, for the first time clarifying “keeping distribution according to work as the mainstay and allowing multiple forms of distribution to coexist” and “the socialist market economy system” together with “keeping public ownership as the mainstay and allowing multiple forms of ownership to develop side by side” as China’s basic socialist economic system. Expanding the basic economic system from the ownership system to the distribution system and the economic system reflects the inherent logical connection among the three, reflects that “keeping public ownership as the mainstay and allowing multiple forms of ownership to develop side by side,” “keeping distribution according to work as the mainstay and allowing multiple forms of distribution to coexist,” and “the socialist market economy system” have already formed a closely linked and effectively operating system, and reflects the maturity and定型 of the three aspects of the system and the basic socialist economic system.

第三个时段：2020-2023年，系统集成、协同高效，推动各方面制度更加成熟更加定型。系统集成、协同高效，就是巩固和深化前一阶段解决体制性障碍、机制性梗阻、政策性创新方面取得的制度成果，推动各方面制度更加成熟更加定型；处理好顶层设计和分层对接的关系，搞好上下左右、方方面面的配套，注重各项改革协调推进，使各项制度相得益彰。这一期间，一方面推出《国企改革三年行动方案（2020-2022年）》《科技体制改革三年攻坚方案（2021-2023）》等一批攻坚性改革；另一方面，推出加强和改进国有经济管理有力支持中国式现代化建设、数据基础制度建设等一批战略性改革，推动各个方面改革和制度建设向中国式现代化聚焦。总体上看，这一期间一方面通过制度系统集形成了《关于新时代加快完善社会主义市场经济体制的意见》《深化农村改革实施方案》《深化新时代教育评价改革总体方案》等一系列总体性制度安排；另一方面对制度规定进行新的概括。例如党的十九届四中全会对社会主义基本经济制度做出新的概括，第一次把“按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存”“社会主义市场经济体制”与“公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展”共同明确为我国社会主义基本经济制度。将基本经济制度从所有制制度拓展到分配制度和经济体制，体现了三者之间内在的逻辑联系，体现了“公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展”“按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存”“社会主义市场经济体制”三者之间已经构成紧密联系、运行有效的体系，体现三个方面制度以及社会主义基本经济制度的成熟与定型。

Overall, by 2020, the basic institutional frameworks in areas such as the economic system, the ecological civilization system, democracy and the rule of law, the cultural system, the social system, the Party building system, and the discipline inspection system had been basically established. By 2023, the basic institutional frameworks in various areas were further enriched and improved. In terms of the construction of the institutional system and governance system, institutions in areas such as the state-owned economy underwent historic changes, institutions in areas such as science and technology underwent systematic reshaping, and institutions in areas such as ecological civilization construction underwent overall reconstruction, presenting a diverse picture of institutional change. The institutional system thus formed initially presents a pattern and characteristics of being systematic, complete, scientific, standardized, and effective in operation.

总体上看，到2020年，经济体制、生态文明体制、民主法治、文化体制、社会体制、党的建设制度、纪律检查体制等领域基础性制度框架已经基本确立，到2023年，各领域基础性制度框架进一步充实和完善。在制度体系和治理体系建设方面，国有经济等领域制度实现历史性变革，科技等领域制度实现系统性重塑，生态文明建设等领域制度实现整体性重构，呈现出多样态的制度变迁图景。由此形成的制度体系初步呈现系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的格局和特征。

Secondly, promote the operation of institutions, coordinate institutional reform and institutional operation, and transform institutional advantages into governance effectiveness. The vitality of an institution lies in its implementation; the advantages and effectiveness of an institution must be tested in practice. The ultimate purpose of institutional building is national governance; whether an institution is mature and consolidated needs to be tested by governance effectiveness. Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC,[25]25 The 18th National Congress of the CPC, held in November 2012, marked the beginning of the New Era under Xi Jinping’s leadership. not only has the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics been developed and improved through comprehensively deepening reform, but the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has also been operated in the process of modernizing the national governance system and governance capacity, effectively transforming institutional advantages into governance effectiveness.

其次，推进制度运行，统筹制度改革和制度运行，把制度优势转化为治理效能。制度的生命力在于执行，制度的优势和效能要在实践中检验。制度建设最终是为了国家治理，制度的成熟与否和巩固与否需要治理效能检验。党的十八大以来，不仅通过全面深化改革发展和完善中国特色社会主义制度，而且通过在国家治理体系和治理能力现代化进程中运行中国特色社会主义制度，将制度优势有效转化为治理效能。

The “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Upholding and Improving the System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Advancing the Modernization of the National Governance System and Governance Capacity,” adopted at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee, made a new summary of the national system and national governance system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and comprehensively summarized the advantages of the national system and national governance system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The plenary session pointed out that the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a scientific institutional system, that all work and activities of national governance are carried out in accordance with the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and that the national governance system and governance capacity are the concentrated embodiment of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and its implementation capacity. Xi Jinping pointed out: “Strictly abide by and implement the system,” “we must strengthen the execution of the system and strengthen the supervision of the implementation of the system.” The national system and national governance system of socialism with Chinese characteristics have many significant advantages. Only by better transforming institutional advantages into national governance effectiveness can the great power of the institution be better demonstrated and its fundamental guarantee role be played. This raises institutional building to a new height in the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, reflecting a new approach to governing the country that uses reform to improve institutions, uses institutional operation to advance national governance, and uses the modernization of the governance system and governance capacity to ensure the implementation of institutions.

党的十九届三中全会通过的《中共中央关于坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化若干重大问题的决定》，对中国特色社会主义国家制度和国家治理体系进行新的概括，对中国特色社会主义国家制度和治理体系优势进行全面总结。全会指出，中国特色社会主义制度是科学制度体系，国家治理一切工作和活动都依照中国特色社会主义制度展开，国家治理体系和治理能力是中国特色社会主义制度及其执行能力的集中体现。习近平指出：“严格遵守和执行制度”“必须强化制度执行力，加强对制度执行的监督”。中国特色社会主义国家制度和国家治理体系具有多方面的显著优势，只有把制度优势更好转化为国家治理效能，才能更好彰显制度伟力、发挥制度根本保障作用。这就将制度建设提到国家治理体系和治理能力现代化建设新高度，体现了以改革完善制度、以制度运行推进国家治理、以治理体系和治理能力现代化保障制度实施的治国理政新思路。

Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, comprehensive and deep-going reform has introduced a series of reforms that promote the integration of reform and development, and the transformation of institutional building into governance effectiveness, thereby turning institutional advantages into governance effectiveness. For example, reforms such as improving the efficiency of government oversight, unifying the planning system to better leverage the strategic guiding role of national development plans, and building an institutional system for digital government have helped refine the government’s macro-governance system, enhance its macro-governance capacity, and facilitate the transformation of government reform into macro-governance effectiveness. Deepening the integration and sharing of public resource platforms, and promoting the experience of Beijing’s “streets and townships whistle, departments report” [26]26 “Streets and townships whistle, departments report” (街乡吹哨、部门报到) is a Beijing grassroots governance innovation in which township or street-level Party organizations “whistle” (i.e., signal a problem) and higher-level government departments are required to “report” (respond and coordinate) to solve issues at the local level. Party-building-led grassroots governance system and mechanism innovation, as well as Zhejiang’s “maximum one visit” [27]27 “Maximum one visit” (最多跑一次) is a Zhejiang provincial reform initiative aimed at streamlining administrative approvals so that citizens or businesses need to visit a government office at most once to complete a procedure. reform in streamlining approval services for public convenience, have helped turn grassroots reform into grassroots governance effectiveness. In the face of the sudden and unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, on the one hand, institutional advantages were fully leveraged, such as the value concepts of “people first” and “life first,” a strong central command center and joint prevention and control mechanisms, and the “whole-nation system” [28]28 “Whole-nation system” (举国体制) refers to a national mobilization mechanism that concentrates resources and efforts across the entire country to achieve major objectives, historically used in areas such as science, technology, and crisis response. formed by the combination of military and civilian, medical and local, and peacetime and wartime efforts. On the other hand, reforms and institutional building were rapidly initiated in areas such as tiered diagnosis and treatment, medical-prevention coordination, public hospitals, medical insurance payment methods, medical insurance fund supervision, the public health emergency物资 support system, the rural medical and health system, the capacity of grassroots medical and health institutions, and the drug supply guarantee system. This accelerated the improvement of the epidemic prevention and control system, the major epidemic prevention, control, and treatment system, the major disease medical insurance and assistance system, the emergency material support system, and the major epidemic prevention and control mechanisms and institutions. It promoted the institutional integration of the national public health emergency management system and the medical and health system, effectively transforming institutional advantages into governance effectiveness in responding to the pandemic.

党的十八大以来的全面深化改革推出一批促进改革与发展融合、制度建设与治理效能转化的改革，推动制度优势转化为治理效能。例如，推出提高政府监管效能、统一规划体系更好发挥国家发展规划战略导向作用、构建数字政府建设制度体系等改革，有利于完善政府宏观治理体系，提升政府宏观治理能力，促进政府改革转化为宏观治理效能。深化公共资源平台整合共享改革，推广北京“街乡吹哨、部门报到”党建引领基层治理体制机制创新和浙江“最多跑一次”审批服务便民化改革经验，有利于推动基层改革转化为基层治理效能。面对突如其来且前所未有的新冠肺炎疫情，一方面充分发挥“人民至上”“生命至上”的价值理念、强有力的中央指挥中心和联防联控机制以及军民、医地、平战结合形成的“举国体制”等制度优势；另一方面，迅速启动分级诊疗、医防协同、公立医院、医保支付方式、医保基金监管、公共卫生应急物资保障体系、乡村医疗卫生体系、基层医疗卫生机构能力、药品供应保障体系等方面的改革和制度建设，加快完善了疫情防控体系、重大疫情防控救治体系、重大疾病医疗保险和救助制度、应急物资保障体系和重大疫情防控体制机制，推进国家公共卫生应急管理体系和医疗卫生体系的制度集成，将制度优势有效转化为应对疫情的治理效能。

Merely building institutions without operating them makes it difficult to generate institutional effectiveness. Comprehensive and deep-going reform emphasizes the implementation of institutions, stressing that the vitality of institutions lies in their implementation, and strengthening institutional execution. In response to the long-standing problem of insufficient implementation and weak execution in the operation of institutions, comprehensive and deep-going reform has, from the very beginning, placed institutional implementation in a position of prominent importance, emphasizing that one part is deployment and nine parts are implementation. In the course of reform, to address the problem of insufficient implementation of some reform measures, a full-coverage mechanism for supervising institutional implementation has been established, embedding institutional implementation and supervision throughout the entire process of regional governance, departmental governance, industry governance, grassroots governance, and unit governance, ensuring the transformation and integration of institutional effectiveness and governance effectiveness.

只建设制度，不运行制度，难以形成制度效能。全面深化改革注重制度的执行，强调制度的生命力在于执行，强化制度执行力。针对长期以来制度运行中抓落实不够、执行力不强的问题，全面深化改革一开始就把制度落实放在突出重要地位，强调一分部署、九分落实。在改革进程中，针对一些改革举措落实不够的问题，构建了全覆盖的制度执行监督机制，把制度执行和监督贯穿区域治理、部门治理、行业治理、基层治理、单位治理全过程，保障制度效能与治理效能转化融合。

In summary, since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, and especially since the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee, comprehensive and deep-going reform has, through institutional integration, promoted the formation of a system of institutions that is complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operational. Through the operation of institutions, it has transformed institutional advantages into governance effectiveness, advanced the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, developed and improved the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and achieved a profound transformation of the national system and governance system.

总之，党的十八大特别是党的十八届三中全会以来，全面深化改革通过制度集成，推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系。通过运行制度，将制度优势转化为治理效能，推动国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，发展和完善了中国特色社会主义制度，实现了国家制度和治理体系的深刻变革。

From the 12th National Congress of the CPC, which explicitly proposed building socialism with Chinese characteristics, to the 18th National Congress, which established the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the question of what kind of socialism to build into “the best system in the world” was answered. Reform and opening up, and especially comprehensive and deep-going reform, has answered the question of how to build the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics into “the best system in the world.” In the process of building it into “the best system in the world,” the period from the 12th to the 18th National Congresses created and established the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Since the 18th National Congress, the institutional integration and institutional operation promoted through comprehensive and deep-going reform have developed and improved the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, laying the foundation for building the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics into “the best system in the world.”

从党的十二大明确提出建设有中国特色的社会主义，到党的十八大确立中国特色社会主义制度，回答了将什么样的社会主义建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的问题，改革开放特别是全面深化改革，回答了如何将中国特色社会主义制度建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的问题。在建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的进程中，党的十二大到党的十八大期间创立并确立中国特色社会主义制度，党的十八大以来通过全面深化改革推进的制度集成与制度运行，发展和完善中国特色社会主义制度，是将中国特色社会主义制度建设成为“世界上最好的制度”奠定了基础。

III. “Reform in the New Development Stage”: A Key Step in Building “the Best System in the World”

三、“新发展阶段改革”：建设“世界上最好的制度”的关键步骤

In December 2020, Xi Jinping stated, “Comprehensive and deep-going reform has achieved historic and great accomplishments. We must strengthen reform confidence, gather reform synergy, continue to work hard, forge ahead with determination, and promote reform in the new development stage to achieve greater breakthroughs and demonstrate greater achievements.” [29]29 Xi Jinping, speech at the 17th meeting of the Central Committee for Deepening Overall Reform, December 30, 2020. “Reform in the new development stage” is a major proposition. If reform and opening up laid the foundation for the creation, development, and improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics in order to build “the best system in the world,” then “reform in the new development stage” will be a key step in building “the best system in the world.”

2020年12月，习近平提出，“全面深化改革取得历史性伟大成就。要坚定改革信心，汇聚改革合力，再接再厉，锐意进取，推动新发展阶段改革取得更大突破、展现更大作为”。“新发展阶段改革”是一个重大命题。如果说改革开放以来中国特色社会主义制度的创立、发展和完善，为建设“世界上最好的制度”奠定了基础，“新发展阶段改革”将是建设“世界上最好的制度”的关键步骤。

“Reform in the new development stage” is a key step in developing and improving the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The proposition of the “new development stage” contains a series of ideas concerning socialism with Chinese characteristics, particularly the stage-specific nature of the primary stage of socialism. Regarding the positioning of the new development stage, it is an important stage in the development process of China’s socialism, and at the same time a new stage within the primary stage of socialism. “The new development stage is a stage within the primary stage of socialism, and at the same time a stage that, after decades of accumulation, has stood at a new starting point.” [30]30 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Opening Ceremony of a Seminar on Studying and Implementing the Spirit of the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee,” January 11, 2021. Regarding the temporal node of the new development stage, the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC proposed that completing the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and achieving the first centenary goal, embarking on a new journey of comprehensively building a modern socialist country, and striving for the second centenary goal, marks China’s entry into a new development stage. “Comprehensively building a modern socialist country and basically realizing socialist modernization are both requirements of China’s development in the primary stage of socialism and requirements for China’s socialism to advance from the primary stage to a higher stage.” [31]31 Ibid. It can be seen that, according to the strategic deployment of Chinese-path modernization at the 20th National Congress of the CPC, the new development stage includes the period from the completion of the first centenary goal to the basic realization of socialist modernization. Regarding the connotation of the new development stage, it is a process of demonstrating the vitality of socialism, a process of continuous development and progress of socialism, and a process of quantitative accumulation and qualitative change in the development of socialism. The primary stage of socialism “is a dynamic, proactive, and vibrant process, a process of stepwise progression, continuous development and progress, and quantitative accumulation and qualitative change that increasingly approaches a leap in quality.” [32]32 Ibid. Overall, the new development stage is a stage for developing and improving socialism with Chinese characteristics. Promoting “reform in the new development stage” is a major measure and key step in building “the best system in the world.”

“新发展阶段改革”是发展和完善中国特色社会主义制度的关键步骤。“新发展阶段”命题蕴含着一系列关于中国特色社会主义特别是社会主义初级阶段发展阶段性的思想。关于新发展阶段的定位，新发展阶段是我国社会主义发展进程中的一个重要阶段，又是社会主义初级阶段中的一个新阶段。“新发展阶段，就是社会主义初级阶段中的一个阶段，同时是其中经过几十年积累、站到了新的起点上的一个阶段。”关于新发展阶段的时间节点，党的十九届五中全会提出，全面建成小康社会、实现第一个百年奋斗目标，开启全面建设社会主义现代化国家新征程、向第二个百年奋斗目标进军，标志着我国进入了一个新发展阶段。“全面建设社会主义现代化国家、基本实现社会主义现代化，既是社会主义初级阶段我国发展的要求，也是我国社会主义从初级阶段向更高阶段迈进的要求。”可见，根据党的二十大关于中国式现代化的战略部署，新发展阶段包括从完成第一个百年奋斗目标以后到基本实现社会主义现代化的时期。关于新发展阶段的内涵，新发展阶段是彰显社会主义生机活力的过程，是社会主义不断发展进步的过程，是社会主义发展量的积累和发展变化的过程。社会主义初级阶段“是一个动态、积极有为、始终洋溢着蓬勃生机活力的过程，是一个阶梯式递进、不断发展进步、日益接近质的飞跃的量的积累和发展变化的过程”。总体上看，新发展阶段是发展和完善中国特色社会主义的阶段，推进“新发展阶段改革”，是建设“世界上最好的制度”的重大举措和关键步骤。

Plan and advance “reform in the new development stage” with the orientation of “becoming the best system in the world.” On April 30, 2024, a meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee decided that the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee would study and plan further comprehensive and deep-going reform. The year 2024 will be the year of top-level design and initiation of “further comprehensive and deep-going reform.” “Further comprehensive and deep-going reform” is both a continuation of the comprehensive and deep-going reform since the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee and a concrete manifestation of the “new development stage.” The “further comprehensive and deep-going reform” in the new development stage needs to follow Deng Xiaoping’s strategic vision of “becoming the best system in the world,” and further deepen and expand with institutional building as the main thread.

以“成为世界上最好的制度”为导向谋划和推进“新发展阶段改革”。2024年4月30日中共中央政治局会议决定党的二十届三中全会研究部署进一步全面深化改革，2024年将是“进一步全面深化改革”顶层设计和开局之年。“进一步全面深化改革”既是十八届三中全会以来全面深化改革的接续，又是“新发展阶段”的具体体现。新发展阶段的“进一步全面深化改革”需要遵循邓小平“成为世界上最好的制度”战略构想，进一步以制度建设为主线深化和拓展。

First, focus on the institutional system, deepen institutional construction, and further advance the “quantitative accumulation, development and change” of institutional construction so that it “increasingly approaches a qualitative leap.” The development of any thing has two stages: “quantitative accumulation, development and change” and “qualitative leap.” The same is true of the formation and development of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. From the launch of reform and opening up to the convening of the 18th National Congress of the CPC, this was a process of “quantitative accumulation, development and change” in the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The 18th National Congress proposed and elaborated “the socialist system,” which was a “qualitative leap.” [33]33 The 18th National Congress of the CPC was held in 2012. The reference is to the congress’s formal elaboration of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, marking a qualitative shift in the Party’s theoretical self-understanding of the system. The primary stage of socialism is a process combining the two stages of “quantitative accumulation, development and change” and “qualitative leap” of socialism. The new stage of development is a process of “quantitative accumulation, development and change that increasingly approaches a qualitative leap” within this. [34]34 “New stage of development” (新发展阶段) is a term used by Xi Jinping to characterize the period following China’s achievement of moderate prosperity ( As embodied in institutional construction, this means advancing the “quantitative accumulation, development and change” of institutions so that they increasingly approach a “qualitative leap,” that is, completing the primary stage of socialism and entering a new stage of socialist development. The institutional foundation for this “qualitative leap” is to “become the best system in the world.” To “increasingly approach” this leap, the key is to develop and perfect the socialist system through further comprehensive and deepening reform.

首先，聚焦制度体系，深化制度建设，进一步推进制度建设“量的积累和发展变化”并“日益接近质的飞跃”。任何事物的发展都有“量的积累和发展变化”与“质的飞跃”两个阶段。中国特色社会主义制度的形成和发展也是如此。改革开放启动到党的十八大召开，是中国特色社会主义制度建设“量的积累和发展变化”的过程，党的十八大提出并阐释“社会主义制度”，是“质的飞跃”。社会主义初级阶段是社会主义“量的积累和发展变化”与“质的飞跃”两个阶段相结合的过程，新发展阶段是其中“日益接近质的飞跃的量的积累和发展变化”过程。体现在制度建设上，就是要推进制度发生“量的积累和发展变化”，使之日益接近“质的飞跃”，即完成社会主义初级阶段，进入社会主义新的发展阶段。这种“质的飞跃”的制度基础，就是“成为世界上最好的制度”。而要“日益接近”这种飞跃，关键是通过进一步全面深化改革发展和完善社会主义制度。

The decade of comprehensive deepening reform since the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee has basically established the basic institutional framework in various fields, achieving profound changes in four aspects: ideological theory, the mode of reform organization, the national system and governance system, and broad popular participation. This has laid a solid foundation for forming a system of institutions that is complete, scientific, standardized, and effective in operation, and for making institutions in all areas more mature and more定型. [35] Further comprehensive deepening reform requires, on the one hand, building on the already established basic institutional framework and the profound changes that have occurred, to form a system of institutions that is complete, scientific, standardized, and effective in operation. “Complete” means that, guided by both objectives and problems, the institutional system and governance system are systematic and comprehensive, with synergy and integration among institutions. “Scientific and standardized” means being reasonable, compliant, and legally grounded. “Effective in operation” means that institutions are practically enforceable and effective in implementation. These three form an organic whole. Among them, “effective in operation” is the fundamental criterion, while “complete” and “scientific and standardized” are the prerequisites and foundation for effective operation. Therefore, in the process of further comprehensive deepening reform, it is necessary not only to carry out comprehensive and deep reform in accordance with the requirements of completeness, scientificity, and standardization, but more importantly, to promote the transformation and integration of institutional construction and governance effectiveness in accordance with the requirement of effective operation, thereby enhancing the vitality and efficacy of institutions.

党的十八届三中全会以来的十年全面深化改革，已经基本确立各领域基础性制度框架，实现了思想理论、改革组织方式、国家制度和治理体系、人民广泛参与四个方面的深刻变革，为推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型奠定了坚实基础。进一步全面深化改革，一方面要在已经确立的基础性制度框架和已经发生的深刻变革的基础上，形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系。系统完备，就是根据目标导向和问题导向，制度体系和治理体系具有系统性、全面性，制度之间具有协同性、融通性。科学规范，就是合理合规、于法有据。运行有效，就是制度具有实际可执行性和执行有效性。三者是一个有机整体。其中，运行有效是根本标准，系统完备、科学规范是运行有效的前提和基础。因此，在进一步全面深化改革进程中，既要按照系统完备、科学规范的要求全面改革、深化改革，更重要的是，按照运行有效的要求推进制度建设与治理效能的转化融合，增强制度的活力与效能。

On the other hand, it is necessary to make institutions in all areas more mature and more定型. Making institutions in all areas more mature and more定型 is the foundation for the effective operation of the institutional system. Institutional maturity means that institutions conform to the objective requirements of the productive forces and the economic base, and meet the practical needs of modernization and modern governance. Institutional定型 means the stabilization of institutional provisions and the legalization of institutional implementation. The Third Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee, [36] focusing on the requirements that institutions in all areas be more complete by 2035 and that the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics be more consolidated by the centenary of the founding of New China, [37] put forward institutional construction deployments in twelve areas, including Party leadership, people’s democracy, the rule-of-law system, the administrative system, the basic economic system, the system for advanced culture, and the system for ensuring people’s wellbeing. These constitute the top-level design for the construction of fundamental institutions, basic institutions, and important institutions in each field, and are also the institutional construction goals to be achieved in the stage of further comprehensive deepening reform.

另一方面，要推动各方面制度更加成熟更加定型。各方面制度更加成熟更加定型是制度体系运行有效的基础。制度成熟，就是制度符合生产力、经济基础的客观要求，切合现代化和现代治理的现实需求；制度定型，就是制度规定稳定化和制度执行法治化。党的十九届三中全会围绕到二0三五年各方面制度更加完善、到新中国成立一百年时中国特色社会主义制度更加巩固的要求，提出了党的领导、人民民主、法治体系、行政体制、基本经济制度、先进文化制度、民生保障制度等十二个方面的制度建设部署，这是各个领域根本制度、基本制度和重要制度建设的顶层设计，也是进一步全面深化改革阶段需要实现的制度建设目标。

Second, focus on institutional demand, optimize institutional supply, and provide institutional guarantees for Chinese-path modernization. Reform and institutional construction are a process of institutional supply. Modernization is not only a process of transforming economic and social development from tradition to modernity, but also a process of modernizing the national system and governance system. The degree of realization of Chinese-path modernization is the fundamental criterion for measuring the superiority of the system. The deepening and comprehensive unfolding of Chinese-path modernization will also generate enormous institutional demand. Further comprehensive deepening reform needs to focus on new institutional demands, prioritize the construction of urgently needed institutions, and promptly supply essential institutions, thereby providing strong impetus and institutional guarantees for Chinese-path modernization. For example, Chinese-path modernization is the modernization of common prosperity for all the people. Common prosperity is both the goal and the driving force of Chinese-path modernization. Since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, [38] reform has focused on promoting common prosperity, but mainly under the principle of “efficiency first, with due consideration to fairness,” and has been concentrated primarily at the level of income distribution policies. As the modernization process unfolds comprehensively, it is necessary to place fairness in a more important position, to transcend the policy level, and to comprehensively construct an institutional system for common prosperity. For another example, high-quality development is the support for modernization, and new quality productive forces are the support for high-quality development. New quality productive forces are not only a leap in the quantity of productive forces but also an iteration in the quality of productive forces. This requires the formation of a social system in which new productive forces and relations of production, the superstructure and the economic base, and national governance and social development are mutually adapted. In the process of further comprehensive deepening reform, on the one hand, it is necessary to further implement and advance the indicator system, policy system, standard system, statistical system, performance evaluation, and assessment methods for outlook on political performance for high-quality development; on the other hand, it is necessary to comprehensively deepen reforms in the areas of relations of production, superstructure, and national governance around the requirements for the development of new quality productive forces, and to construct an institutional system that supports the development of new quality productive forces.

其次，聚焦制度需求，优化制度供给，为中国式现代化提供制度保障。改革和制度建设是一个制度供给的过程。现代化不仅是经济社会发展从传统向现代的转换过程，也是国家制度与治理体系的现代化过程。中国式现代化的实现程度是衡量制度优越性的根本标准，中国式现代化深入推进和全面展开也将衍生出巨大制度需求。进一步全面深化改革需要聚焦新的制度需求，优先建设急需制度，及时供给必备制度，为中国式现代化提供强大动力和制度保障。例如，中国式现代化是全体人民共同富裕的现代化，共同富裕既是中国式现代化的目标，又是中国式现代化的动力。党的十一届三中全会以来的改革注重推动共同富裕，但主要是在“效率优先、兼顾公平”原则下进行，主要集中在收入分配政策层面。伴随现代化进程全面展开，需要把公平放在更加重要位置，需要超越政策层面，全面构建共同富裕制度体系。再例如，高质量发展是现代化的支撑，新质生产力是高质量发展的支撑。新质生产力不仅是生产力量的跃升，更是生产力质的迭代，需要形成新的生产力和生产关系、上层建筑和经济基础、国家治理和社会发展相适应的社会系统。在进一步全面深化改革进程中，一方面要进一步落实推进高质量发展指标体系、政策体系、标准体系、统计体系、绩效评价和政绩考核办法；另一方面，需要围绕新质生产力发展要求，全面深化生产关系、上层建筑、国家治理领域的改革，构建支撑新质生产力发展的制度体系。

Further comprehensive deepening reform also requires reforming and optimizing the mode of institutional supply in light of the new situation, ensuring the supply of effective institutions and the effective supply of institutions. The meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee on April 30, 2024, proposed that further comprehensive deepening reform must achieve three “more” — namely, paying more attention to systemic integration, paying more attention to highlighting key points, and paying more attention to reform effectiveness. [39] These three “more” require that while advancing institutional construction and institutional supply, reform itself be reformed — that is, further improving the mode of reform organization and optimizing institutional supply. “Paying more attention to systemic integration” requires incorporating systemic integration into the top-level design of reform, coordinating the design and implementation of reform; requires strengthening and improving the Party’s centralized and unified leadership over comprehensive deepening reform, coordinating top-level promotion with the hierarchical docking of grassroots reforms; and requires strengthening forward-looking institutional design and institutional reserves, and strengthening the continuity and coordination of reforms. “Paying more attention to highlighting key points” requires integrating the goal orientation and problem orientation of reform, coordinating the priority order and sequential follow-up of reform projects, and prioritizing the urgently needed, essential, and fundamental institutions for advancing Chinese-path modernization. “Paying more attention to reform effectiveness” requires implementing the concept of “people’s wellbeing as paramount,” focusing on the construction of institutions for the development of people’s wellbeing, and enhancing the “substance” of reform measures; increasing the participation of the people in reform design and reform evaluation, promoting third-party evaluation, and taking the people’s evaluation as the basic criterion for reform effectiveness; enhancing the “penetrating power” of reform measures to break down deep-seated solidified interest barriers; responding to the uncertainties in the modernization process, constructing more “resilient” institutions, and making the institutional system more adaptable and flexible; and constructing a closed-loop system of institutional design, institutional implementation, institutional execution, and institutional evaluation for reform and institutional construction, ensuring that institutions are implemented and take effect.

进一步全面深化改革还需要根据新的形势改革和优化制度供给方式，确保供给有效制度，有效供给制度。2024年4月30日中共中央政治局会议提出进一步全面深化改革必须做到三个“更加”，即更加注重系统集成，更加注重突出重点，更加注重改革实效。三个“更加”要求在推进制度建设和制度供给的同时，对改革本身进行改革，即进一步完善改革组织方式，优化制度供给。更加注重系统集成，要求将系统集成纳入改革顶层设计，协同推进改革设计、改革实施；要求加强和改善党对全面深化改革的集中统一领导，统筹顶层推动与基础改革分层对接；要求加强前瞻性制度设计和制度储备，加强改革接续和配套。更加注重突出重点，要求整合改革目标导向和问题导向，统筹安排改革项目优先次序和接续跟进，优先安排中国式现代化推进的急需制度、必备制度和基础制度。更加注重改革实效，需要落实“民生为大”理念，聚焦民生发展制度建设，提升改革措施“含金量”；提升人民群众改革设计、改革评估参与度，推动第三方评估，将人民群众的评价作为改革实效基本评价标准；提升改革举措“穿透力”，破除深层次利益固化藩篱；回应现代化进程中的不确定性，构建更具“韧性”的制度，推动制度体系更具适应性和灵活性；构建制度设计、制度落实、制度执行、制度评估改革与制度建设闭环系统，确保制度落地见效。

Finally, focus on institutional openness, expand institutional learning, and further enhance the international competitive advantage of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Institutional advantage is the greatest advantage of a country, and institutional competition is the most fundamental competition between countries. From the perspective of institutional competition between countries, the process of building “the best system in the world” is a process of enhancing institutional competitive advantage. Enhancing institutional competitive advantage relies on reform, but even more on openness, especially institutional openness and institutional learning — that is, the “two bold absorptions and learnings” proposed by Deng Xiaoping: boldly absorbing and learning from all the achievements of civilization, and absorbing and learning from all advanced modes of operation and management methods that reflect the laws of modern socialized production. [40]

最后，聚焦制度开放，扩大制度借鉴，进一步增强中国特色社会主义制度国际竞争比较优势。制度优势是一个国家最大的优势，制度竞争是国家间最根本的竞争。从国家间制度竞争视角看，建设成为“世界上最好的制度”的过程，就是增强制度竞争优势的过程。增强制度竞争优势，依靠改革，更依靠开放，特别是制度开放和制度借鉴，即邓小平提出的“两个大胆吸收和借鉴”：大胆吸收和借鉴一切文明成果、吸收和借鉴一切反映现代社会化生产规律的先进经营方式和管理方法。

In the process of modernization, it is possible and necessary to advance institutional opening and institutional learning with greater force. First, socialism is a social system that conforms to the laws of development of large-scale socialized production; it should be a system more open than capitalism, more capable of learning from and absorbing all advanced institutional elements and institutional cultures. Second, the contemporary system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is maturing, stabilizing, and improving; compared with socialism in the early period of reform and opening up, it has a greater capacity to resist the erosion and interference of capitalism. Third, institutional opening is the frontier of opening between nations. China’s opening up today has already begun to shift from a flow-based opening of goods and factors of production to an institutional opening of rules, regulations, management, and standards. Fourth, and more importantly, in the process of modernization, if one cannot stand at the commanding heights of human institutional civilization to advance opening and learning, it is difficult to build “the best system in the world” that is superior to the capitalist system.

在现代化进程中，可以也必须以更大的力度推进制度开放和制度借鉴。其一，社会主义是符合社会化大生产发展规律的社会制度，应该是比资本主义更开放的制度，更能够借鉴和吸收一切先进的制度元素和制度文化。其二，当代中国特色社会主义制度正在走向成熟、稳定和完善，与改革开放初期的社会主义相比更具有抵御资本主义侵蚀和干扰的能力。其三，制度开放是国家间开放的前沿。当今中国的对外开放已经开始从商品和要素流动型开放向规则、规制、管理、标准等制度型开放转变。其四，更重要的是，在现代化进程中，如果不能站在人类制度文明制高点上推进开放和借鉴，是难以建成优越于资本主义制度的“世界上最好的制度”的。

To achieve the “two bold acts of learning from and absorbing” [35], the key is to further open up the space of thought and the space of practice. Here, it is necessary to revisit Deng Xiaoping’s “two clarifications” [36] thought, namely, that besides clarifying what socialism is, one must also “clarify what capitalism is,” and it must be made clear that “some things cannot be said to be capitalism,” that advanced management “is useful for any social system,” and that advanced management largely falls within the category of institutions. In the stage of further deepening reform comprehensively, it is necessary to stand at the height of modernization, adopt the perspective of institutional construction, and, on the basis of further deepening the understanding of socialism with Chinese characteristics and strengthening institutional confidence in “becoming the best system in the world,” further deepen the understanding of capitalism, distinguishing the fundamental system of capitalism from its specific institutions, distinguishing its class-based institutions from those without class character, and distinguishing specific institutional arrangements from deep-level institutional civilization. This will open up the space of thought and practice for institutional opening and institutional learning, effectively achieve the “two bold acts of learning from and absorbing,” and make the path to “becoming the best system in the world” ever broader!

要做到“两个大胆吸收和借鉴”，关键要进一步打开思想空间和实践空间。在此，有必要重温邓小平“两个弄清”思想，即除了弄清什么是社会主义以外，还“要弄清什么是资本主义”，必须明确“有些东西并不能说是资本主义的”，先进的管理“对任何社会制度都是有用的”，而先进的管理在很大程度上属于制度范畴。在进一步全面深化改革阶段，有必要站在现代化高度，运用制度建设视角，在进一步深化对中国特色社会主义的认识、增强“成为世界上最好的制度”的制度自信的基础上，进一步深化对资本主义的认识，将资本主义根本制度和具体制度区别开来，将其具有阶级性的制度和没有阶级性的制度区别开来，将具体制度安排和深层制度文明区别开来，打开制度开放和制度借鉴的思想与实践空间，切实做到“两个大胆吸收和借鉴”，让“成为世界上最好的制度”的道路越走越宽广！

Deng Xiaoping’s thought on “becoming the best system in the world” has provided scientific practical guidance for the practice of building the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics since reform and opening up; it has made profound theoretical contributions to the innovative development of the Marxist theory on the stages of socialist development, the theory of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the theory of China’s state system and state governance; and it has provided far-reaching ideological guidance for further deepening reform comprehensively. The contribution and value of Deng Xiaoping’s thought on “becoming the best system in the world” are enormous and profound, and should be discussed in a separate article. Here, I cite the following passage from Xi Jinping as the conclusion of this article: “More than forty

邓小平关于“成为世界上最好的制度”的思想，对于改革开放以来中国特色社会主义制度建设实践，形成了科学的实践指导；对于马克思主义关于社会主义的发展阶段理论、中国特色社会主义制度理论、中国国家制度与国家治理理论的创新发展，做出了深刻的理论贡献；对于进一步全面深化改革，提供了深远的思想引领。邓小平“成为世界上最好的制度”的思想的贡献与价值是巨大而深远的，当辟另文专述。在此引用习近平如下一段话作为本文结尾：“四十多年的改革开放有力推动中国特色社会主义制度和国家治理体系在革除体制机制弊端的过程中不断走向成熟，特别是党的十八大以来，我们全面深化改革，充分显示出我国国家制度和国家治理体系的强大自我完善能力。可以预期，随着全面深化改革向纵深推进，我国国家制度和国家治理体系必将在国际竞争中赢得更大的比较优势，展现出更为旺盛的生机活力。”这段话概括了中国共产党人40多年来建设“世界上最好的制度”的实践过程，揭示了当代中国在“成为世界上最好的制度”征程上的历史方位，展示了当代中国共产党人建设“世界上最好的制度”的坚定自信，是邓小平“成为世界上最好的制度”思想及其价值的最好诠释！

(Author’s bio: Zhao Lingyun, professor and doctoral supervisor at the School of Marxism, Central China Normal University)

（作者简介：赵凌云，华中师范大学马克思主义学院教授、博士生导师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心