Mao Zedong’s Exploration of Chinese-Path Modernization as a Civilizational Domain

Modernization was Mao Zedong’s lifelong pursuit and outstanding contribution; it constitutes the inexhaustible source for deepening and expanding Chinese-path modernization, and provides a broad path and a solid foundation for building a Chinese modern civilization. A comprehensive view of Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization shows that he took socialist civilization as his ideal and faith and as the driving force of his struggle, and at the same time advanced the construction of socialist civilization through Chinese-path modernization, so that Chinese-path modernization entered the domain of modern civilization from the very beginning. This article, based on Mao Zedong’s life and thought in exploring Chinese-path modernization, analyzes the high ground, the hinterland, and the key terrain of the civilizational domain it contains, so as to provide inspiration and reference for deepening and expanding Chinese-path modernization and the modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the New Era.

现代化是毛泽东毕生的不懈追求和卓著贡献，构成深化和拓展中国式现代化的不竭源泉，为构建中国现代文明提供了宽广道路和宽厚基础。纵观毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，既以社会主义文明为理想信念和奋斗动力，又经过中国式现代化推进社会主义文明建设，使中国式现代化自始即进入现代文明境域。本文根据毛泽东探索中国式现代化的生平思想，剖析其蕴涵的文明境域高地、腹地、要地，为新时代深入拓展中国式现代化和中华民族现代文明提供启示和借鉴。

I. Firmly Upholding the Ideal of Socialist Civilization: The Civilizational High Ground of Mao Zedong’s Exploration of Chinese-Path Modernization

一、坚定社会主义文明理想：毛泽东探索中国式现代化的文明高地

Between Chinese-path modernization and socialist civilization, one must grasp the latter from the former through the logic of “generation” (生成论), and also grasp the former from the latter through the logic of “teleology” (目的论). Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization was historically prior in terms of the logic of teleology, and he always unswervingly adhered to the socialist ideal; thus, from the very beginning, Chinese-path modernization entered the high ground of socialist civilization.

在中国式现代化与社会主义文明之间，既要以“生成论”逻辑从前者把握后者，又要以“目的论”逻辑从后者把握前者。毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，是“目的论”逻辑历史地在先的，并且始终毫不动摇地坚持社会主义理想，因而自始便使中国式现代化进入社会主义文明的高地。

The young Mao Zedong’s transformation into a Marxist took place amid the great transformation of world history. Modern China encountered “a change unseen in three thousand years” [1]1 A phrase used by Li Hongzhang, a late Qing official, to describe the unprecedented crisis China faced in the 19th century, later widely cited to refer to the profound transformation of the old order. and faced the epochal question of “where is China going?” The repeated defeats in wars against the capitalist powers since 1840 awakened progressive Chinese from the dream of the “Celestial Empire,” and they pressed forward one after another on the path of modernization, but no path succeeded. On the surface, this was a defeat before the capitalist powers that represented Western civilization; in essence, however, it was a defeat by the “domination-subordination” net under the capitalist world history, and China was reduced to an object to be carved up and plundered by the Western powers. The salvo of the October Revolution turned socialism from an ideal into reality, “changed the direction of world history, and divided the epoch of world history.” [2]2 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy” (1940). The establishment of the first socialist state enabled people not only to see a breach in the capitalist world history, but also to see the dawn of a new civilization that would change its “domination-subordination” situation in the new century. On New Year’s Day 1919, Li Dazhao wrote: “This new epoch brings a new life, a new civilization, a new world, vastly different from the life, civilization, and world before 1914, as if separated by several centuries.” [3]3 Li Dazhao, “New Era” (1919). The young Mao Zedong, from praising the October Revolution to deciding to “take the road of the Russians,” was not only a critical period in his transformation into a Marxist, but also constituted the civilizational high ground of his exploration of Chinese-path modernization, with a distinct and prominent logic and orientation of teleology.

青年毛泽东转变为马克思主义者，正处于世界历史交替的大变局中。近代中国遭遇“三千年未有之大变局”，面临“中国向何处去”的时代之问。1840年以来与资本主义列强战争的屡屡失败，使先进的中国人从“天朝上国”梦中惊醒，前赴后继在现代化道路上奋起直追，但没有一条道路开辟成功。表面上这是在代表西方文明的资本主义列强面前败阵，实质上则是输给了资本主义世界历史下的“支配-从属”罗网，沦为了西方列强瓜分和掠夺的对象。十月革命一声炮响使社会主义由理想变为现实，“改变了整个世界历史的方向，划分了整个世界历史的时代”。第一个社会主义国家的创立使人们不仅看到了资本主义世界历史被冲破缺口，而且看到了新世纪改变其“支配-从属”局面的新文明曙光，1919年元旦李大钊撰文指出：“这个新纪元带来新生活、新文明、新世界，和一九一四年以前的生活、文明、世界，大不相同，仿佛隔几世纪一样。”青年毛泽东从赞颂十月革命到决定“走俄国人的路”，既是其转变为马克思主义者的关键时期，又构成其探索中国式现代化的文明高地，具有鲜明而突出的“目的论”逻辑和指向。

Mao Zedong was the founder and trailblazer of Chinese-path modernization. On the basis of establishing the ideal of socialist civilization, he explored Chinese-path modernization, and through exploring Chinese-path modernization, he strove to realize the ideal of socialist civilization. The former is the logic of teleology, the latter the logic of generation. Examining the origins of Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization, without the establishment of the ideal of socialist civilization, Chinese-path modernization would lack the logical premise and theoretical foundation for its inception. Chinese-path modernization creates a Chinese modern civilization; it is a historical generation toward a new type of socialist civilization, a civilizational practice with purpose, direction, principles, and height. Therefore, the logic of generation must not cause us to forget or obscure the logic of teleology. First, the “victory” of the Western powers in turning China into a colony and semi-colony inevitably doomed the path of modernization in modern China to failure. The purpose of the Western powers’ invasion of China “was by no means to turn feudal China into capitalist China”; on the contrary, “it was to turn China into their semi-colony and colony.” [4]4 Mao Zedong, “The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party” (1939). Second, the Western powers used their gunboats to flaunt human “advanced” civilization, but exposed the decadence of capitalist civilization through plunder and war. In 1919, Li Dazhao pointed out: “This ‘Greater Asianism’ is not a doctrine of peace, but a doctrine of aggression; not a doctrine of national self-determination, but an imperialism that swallows up weak and small nations.” [5]5 Li Dazhao, “Greater Asianism and New Asianism” (1919). Third, socialist civilization, having turned from theory into reality in Russia, helped guide China to put the socialist ideal into practice. The victory of the Russian October Revolution brought Marxism-Leninism to the Chinese people, pointed the socialist ideal for the Chinese people in catching up with modernization, and became the civilizational high ground for Mao Zedong’s lifelong exploration and advancement of Chinese-path modernization.

毛泽东是中国式现代化的开创者和奠基人，在确立社会主义文明理想基础上探索中国式现代化，又通过探索中国式现代化奋力实现社会主义文明理想。前者为“目的论”逻辑，后者为“生成论”逻辑。从毛泽东探索中国式现代化的源头考察，没有社会主义文明理想的确立，中国式现代化就缺少开启的逻辑前提和理论基础。中国式现代化创造中国现代文明，是向着社会主义新型文明的历史生成，是有目的有方向有原则有高度的文明实践，因而不能因“生成论”逻辑而淡忘和遮蔽“目的论”逻辑。一是西方列强变中国为殖民地半殖民地的“胜利”，使近代中国的现代化道路必然遭致失败。西方列强侵入中国的目的，“决不是要把封建的中国变成资本主义的中国”，相反“是要把中国变成它们的半殖民地和殖民地”。二是西方列强用坚船利炮标榜人类“先进”文明，却以掠夺和战争暴露出资本主义文明的腐朽。1919年李大钊指出：“这‘大亚细亚主义’不是平和的主义，是侵略的主义；不是民族自决主义，是吞并弱小民族的帝国主义。”三是社会主义文明在俄国从理论变为现实，帮助指导中国把社会主义理想付诸实践。俄国十月革命胜利给中国人民送来了马克思列宁主义，为中国人民追赶现代化指引了社会主义理想，成为毛泽东毕生探索和推进中国式现代化的文明高地。

First, establish the ideal of socialist civilization and set the goal and direction of Chinese-path modernization.

第一，树立社会主义文明理想，确立中国式现代化目标方向。

The young Mao Zedong’s establishment of the ideal of socialist civilization was the formal establishment of his belief in Marxism, and it also determined the direction of his lifelong career. Mao Zedong’s exploration of civilization began in his youth and underwent a transformation from human civilization to socialist civilization. Before 1913, Mao Zedong mainly studied traditional Chinese classics and texts, and learned about Western celebrities, masterpieces, and civilizations. After entering the Hunan First Normal School, influenced by Yang Changji, Mao began to view Eastern and Western civilizations in a dichotomous way, believing that both had essence and dregs and should be reformed simultaneously. In 1917, while reading Paulsen’s *System of Ethics*, Mao annotated: “Ideas create civilization. Indeed, indeed,” and advocated “new ideals” and “ideals of life.” In the same year, Mao pointed out: “Great harmony (大同) is our goal.” [6]6 A classical Confucian concept referring to an ideal, harmonious society, often translated as “Great Unity.” In 1920, during his transformation into a Marxist, Mao wrote an article praising “Russia as the world’s first civilized country.” [7]7 Mao Zedong, “The Russian Revolution and the Weak and Small Nations” (1920). Mao explored the “question of the convergence of Eastern and Western civilizations” from the perspective of a new human civilization, emphasizing that one must take the essence and use it broadly to have deep roots and abundant fruits, rejecting “wholesale Westernization” and the “Chinese cultural standard,” and initially establishing the ideal of socialist civilization that transcends both Eastern and Western civilizations. Ideals are important, but the key is to find the method to realize them. Mao Zedong experimented with reformism and made errors. Cai Hesen’s letter to Mao pointed the direction: “The starting point of the Russian social revolution = historical materialism. Method = class struggle + class dictatorship. Goal = create a communist society.” [8]8 Letter from Cai Hesen to Mao Zedong, August 13, 1920. At the beginning of 1921, the Xinmin Institute held a meeting, at which Mao endorsed the purpose of “transforming China and the world” and adopted “the communism of radical methods,” [9]9 The Xinmin Institute (新民学会) was a progressive student society founded by Mao Zedong and Cai Hesen in 1918. solving the problem of realizing the ideal of socialist civilization. This marked Mao Zedong’s true transformation into a Marxist, and he began to use actual class struggle to create the social preconditions for Chinese-path modernization.

青年毛泽东树立社会主义文明理想，是对马克思主义信仰的正式确立，又确定了其毕生事业的发展方向。毛泽东对文明的探索始于青年时期，并经历了从人类文明到社会主义文明的转变。1913年之前毛泽东主要学中国传统典籍文章，了解西方名人、名著和文明。进入湖南第一师范学校学习之后，毛泽东受杨昌济影响开始一分为二看待东西方文明，认为东西方文明精华和糟粕俱在，应该进行同时改造。1917年，毛泽东读泡尔生《伦理学原理》时批注“观念造成文明。诚然，诚然”，主张“新理想”“生活理想”。同年毛泽东指出：“大同者，吾人之鹄也。”1920年毛泽东在转化为马克思主义者期间，撰文赞扬“俄国是世界第一个文明国”。毛泽东从人类新的文明探究“东西文明会合问题” ，强调取精用宏方能根茂实盛，否定“全盘西化”和“中国文化本位”，初步确立了超越东西方文明的社会主义文明理想。理想固然重要，但关键是找到实现理想的方法。毛泽东就改良主义进行了试错，蔡和森给毛泽东信指引了方向：“俄社会革命出发点=唯物史观。方法=阶级战争+阶级专政。目的=创造共产主义的社会。” 1921年初新民学会召开会议，会上毛泽东赞同“改造中国及世界”的宗旨，赞成采取“激烈方法的共产主义”，解决了社会主义文明理想的实现问题，标志着毛泽东真正转变为马克思主义者，开始以实际的阶级斗争为中国式现代化创造社会前提条件。

Second, firmly uphold the direction of socialist civilization and persist in developing the modernity of the Chinese revolution.

第二，坚定社会主义文明方向，坚持发展中国革命现代性。

Standing on the high ground of socialist civilization, Mao Zedong devoted himself to the great cause of the Chinese revolution. In 1925, when filling out the “Survey Form of the Reorganization Committee of the Young China Association,” Mao wrote: “I believe in communism and advocate the proletarian social revolution.” Socialism was the high ground of civilization for the Chinese revolution, and revolution was the necessary path for China to reach socialism. The New Democratic Revolution led by the Communist Party of China aimed to establish a people’s democratic republic. This was precisely a revolutionary modernity distinct from Enlightenment modernity, encompassing two aspects: “first, the imagination of a modern nation-state, and second, the standpoint of the proletariat,” thereby constructing an essential connection between the goal of modernity and the means of revolution. The warlord separatism and warfare in modern China stemmed precisely from the absence of revolutionary modernity. Hence, even when facing the Fifth “Encirclement and Suppression” campaign [10]10 “One industrialization” refers to socialist industrialization; the “three transformations” refer to the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft industry, and capitalist industry and commerce, collectively known as the transition period’s general line. by the Kuomintang, Mao still firmly believed that the masses of the people were the truly unbreakable “iron bastion”; even during the difficult stage of strategic stalemate in the War of Resistance, he remained steadfast in the prospect of socialism and communism. On the eve of the full-scale outbreak of the War of Resistance, Mao proposed the “two essays” [11]11 The “Second Integration” refers to Mao Zedong’s proposal in 1956 to integrate the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with China’s concrete reality for a second time, drawing lessons from the Soviet Union’s experience. of the Chinese revolution, stating: “Resolutely leading the democratic revolution is the condition for winning the victory of socialism. We are fighting for socialism.” The Chinese revolution both followed the general logic of human modernity and highlighted the revolutionary particularity of Chinese modernity; it both faced modern society to overthrow the rule of the “three great mountains” [12]12 The “three transformations” (三改) refer to the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft industry, and capitalist industry and commerce, carried out during the transition period (1953–1956). and explored the establishment of a new state, a new society, and a new civilization. In 1940, Mao sketched the blueprint for a new China: “We must not only transform a China that is

立足社会主义文明高地，毛泽东投身中国革命宏伟事业。1925年毛泽东填写《少年中国学会改组委员会调查表》道：“本人信仰共产主义，主张无产阶级的社会革命。”社会主义是中国革命的文明高地，革命是中国通达社会主义的必经之路。中国共产党领导新民主主义革命，目的是建立一个人民民主的共和国。这正是与启蒙现代性相区别的革命现代性，包括两个方面的内涵，“一是现代民族国家想象，二是无产阶级的立场”，构建起现代性目标与革命手段的本质联系。近代中国军阀割据和混战，正是源于革命现代性的阙如。因而毛泽东即使面对国民党第五次“围剿”，仍坚信人民群众才是真正打不破的“铜墙铁壁”;即使抗战进入战略相持的困难阶段，仍坚定社会主义和共产主义的前途。全面抗战爆发前夕毛泽东提出中国革命“两篇文章”，指出：“坚决地领导民主革命，是争取社会主义胜利的条件。我们是为着社会主义而斗争。”中国革命既遵循人类现代性的一般逻辑，又凸显中国现代性的革命特殊性；既面向现代社会推翻“三座大山”的统治，又探索建立新国家新社会新文明。1940年，毛泽东描绘了新中国蓝图：“我们不但要把一个政治上受压迫、经济上受剥削的中国，变为一个政治上自由和经济上繁荣的中国，而且要把一个被旧文化统治因而愚昧落后的中国，变为一个被新文化统治因而文明先进的中国。”新民主主义社会“三位一体”推进革命现代性，既形成一种与苏联和西方相区别的文明体系，又找到了一条跨越性通向社会主义文明的革命道路。

Third, to construct Chinese socialist civilization and build a powerful modern socialist country.

第三，建构中国社会主义文明，建设社会主义的现代化强国。

The path of the people’s republic is the fundamental way for the Party to lead the people in creating socialist civilization, and it is the broad road to building a powerful modern socialist country. In 1949, Mao Zedong, summing up the 28-year history of the CPC and standing on the high ground of socialist civilization, concluded: “the civilization of the Western bourgeoisie” had gone bankrupt in the hearts of the Chinese people, and the only road was “to reach socialism and communism through the people’s republic.” The victory of the New Democratic Revolution and the founding of New China had landmark significance for modernity in Chinese and world history, creating the fundamental social conditions for Chinese-path modernization to realize its civilizational ideal. “We have stood up,” no longer a nation to be insulted, but steadily achieving our goals through indomitable effort; the era of being humiliated and uncivilized has passed, and we will “create our own civilization and happiness,” thereby opening a new era in Chinese history. During the transition period, the Party simultaneously carried out “one industrialization” and “three transformations” [10]10 “One industrialization” refers to socialist industrialization; the “three transformations” refer to the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft industry, and capitalist industry and commerce, collectively known as the transition period’s general line., establishing socialist relations of production and the basic socialist system, laying the institutional and industrial foundations for building China’s socialist modernization. In 1955, Mao Zedong proposed “building a powerful, highly socialist-industrialized country.” In 1956, Mao Zedong, “taking the Soviet Union as a mirror,” creatively put forward the “Second Integration” [11]11 The “Second Integration” refers to Mao Zedong’s proposal in 1956 to integrate the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with China’s concrete reality for a second time, drawing lessons from the Soviet Union’s experience., calling for striving to build a powerful socialist country, thereby opening the historical voyage of realizing the socialist civilizational ideal through Chinese-path modernization. In 1964, the government work report, revised by Mao Zedong, stated the aim of striving “within a not-too-long historical period to build China into a powerful socialist country with modern agriculture, modern industry, modern national defense, and modern science and technology.” Through a decade of construction, China’s socialist modernization achieved great accomplishments that had been impossible in the previous century, accumulating valuable experience in creating socialist civilization in a country with a very low level of productive forces.

人民共和国道路是党领导人民创造社会主义文明的根本出路，是建设社会主义的现代化强国的康庄大道。1949年毛泽东总结中国共产党28年历史，立足社会主义文明高地得出结论：“西方资产阶级的文明”在中国人民心中破产了，唯一的路是“经过人民共和国到达社会主义和共产主义”。新民主主义革命胜利和新中国的成立，在中国和世界历史上具有里程碑式的现代性意义，为中国式现代化实现文明理想创造了根本社会条件。“我们已经站起来了”，再不是一个被人侮辱的民族了，而以不屈不挠的努力稳步达到自己的目的；被辱不文明的时代已经过去了，我们将“创造自己的文明和幸福”，从此开辟中国历史的一个新时代。党在过渡时期“一化”与“三改”同时进行，建立社会主义生产关系和确立社会主义基本制度，为建设我国社会主义现代化事业奠定了制度基础和工业化基础。1955年，毛泽东提出“要建成为一个强大的高度社会主义工业化的国家”。1956年毛泽东“以苏为鉴”创造性提出“第二次结合”，号召为建设一个强大的社会主义国家而奋斗，开启以中国式现代化实现社会主义文明理想的历史航程。1964年，经毛泽东修改的政府工作报告指出，争取“在不太长的历史时期内，把我国建设成为一个具有现代农业、现代工业、现代国防和现代科学技术的社会主义强国”。中国社会主义现代化事业经过十年建设，取得了过去百年来所不可能有的伟大成就，积累起了在生产力水平十分落后的国家创造社会主义文明的宝贵经验。

Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization entered the high ground of the socialist civilizational ideal from the very beginning. Therefore, on the new journey to comprehensively advance the building of a strong country and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization, we must not forget the original aspiration and founding mission established when the CPC was founded. Mao Zedong, exploring Chinese-path modernization from the high ground of socialist civilization, while avoiding a Hegelian “teleology of history,” implicitly contained the logic of the “generation of socialist civilization,” thus, after the founding of New China, he continuously delved deeper into the heartland of socialist civilization construction.

毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，自始便进入社会主义文明理想的高地。因而新征程上以中国式现代化全面推进强国建设、民族复兴伟业，务必不忘中国共产党成立时确立的初心使命。毛泽东从社会主义文明高地探索中国式现代化，在避免黑格尔式“历史目的论”的同时，又潜在地蕴含着社会主义文明的“生成论”逻辑，因而在新中国成立之后不断深入到社会主义文明建设的腹地。

II. Constructing the Form of Socialist Civilization: The Civilizational Heartland of Mao Zedong’s Exploration of Chinese-Path Modernization

二、构建社会主义文明形态：毛泽东探索中国式现代化的文明腹地

The modernization Mao Zedong explored was broad rather than narrow modernization; it signified the transformation from traditional society to modern society, from traditional civilization to modern civilization, and from traditional people to modern people, shaping a socialist civilizational form integrating modernization, modernity, and modern people, thereby continuously deepening and expanding Chinese-path modernization into a “trinity” of socialist civilization.

毛泽东探索的现代化属于广义的而非狭义的现代化，它意味着传统社会向现代社会转型、传统文明向现代文明转换、传统的人向现代的人转变，塑造现代化、现代性、现代人一体的社会主义文明形态，使中国式现代化不断深入并拓展为“三位一体”的社会主义文明。

The modernity of the Chinese revolution aimed to establish a modern nation-state, which inevitably raised the question of the modern planning of the people’s republic. The founding of the Chinese Soviet Republic in November 1931 marked the first step in building a new type of state power. From the Workers’ and Peasants’ Soviet Republic, to the People’s Republic, the Democratic Republic, the New Democratic Republic, and finally the People’s Republic of China, Mao Zedong tirelessly explored the fundamental question of “what kind of republic to build,” gradually clarifying the value orientation of the republic. Drawing on Marx’s metaphor comparing humans and bees, Mao Zedong pointed out: “To build the house of the Chinese revolution, we must first have a blueprint of the Chinese revolution.” The theory of New Democracy sketched the blueprint for New China. After the victory of the War of Resistance Against Japan, Mao Zedong proposed building “an independent, free, democratic, united, and prosperous China.” Peaceful nation-building was aborted due to the sabotage of the Chiang Kai-shek government, but these good wishes grew stronger in the hearts of the people. At the world-historical moment of founding New China, Mao Zedong solemnly declared to the world: “Build a new China that is independent, democratic, peaceful, unified, and prosperous.” In 1952, Mao Zedong also called on the entire nation and army to “build a new China that is independent, free, prosperous, and strong.” Mao Zedong’s planning of modernity continuously matured and took shape at the national level, coalescing into modern value consensus such as independence, equality, democracy, civilization, and prosperity, steadily advancing the socialist civilizational ideal of realizing the people’s freedom and liberation.

中国革命现代性旨在建立现代民族国家，必然提出人民共和国的现代性谋划问题。1931年11月中华苏维埃共和国成立，标志着新型国家政权建设迈出第一步。从工农苏维埃共和国，到人民共和国、民主共和国，再到新民主主义共和国，最后到中华人民共和国，毛泽东不懈探索“建设什么样的共和国”的根本问题，逐步明确共和国的价值取向。毛泽东借鉴马克思关于人和蜜蜂不同的比喻，指出：“我们要建筑中国革命这个房屋，也须先有中国革命的图样。”新民主主义理论描绘了新中国的蓝图，抗战胜利之后，毛泽东提出，建立“一个独立的、自由的、民主的、统一的、富强的中国”。和平建国因蒋介石政府破坏而流产，但这些美好愿望却在人民心中日渐增强。在成立新中国的世界历史时刻，毛泽东向全世界庄严宣告：“建设独立民主和平统一富强的新中国。”1952年毛泽东还号召全国军民“建立一个独立、自由、繁荣、富强的新中国”。毛泽东对现代性的谋划在国家层面不断成熟定型，凝聚形成了独立、平等、民主、文明、富强等现代价值共识，不断推进中国人民实现自由解放的社会主义文明理想。

The socialist civilizational ideal of New China is not an abstract concept but a modernization movement of “how to build a new China.” Mao Zedong, following the Marxist historical materialist perspective in his exploration, did not propose a corresponding civilizational hierarchical structure based on its “two pairs of basic contradictions,” but provided original theoretical guidance in light of the actual practice of socialist construction in China. Civilization is the concrete and overall historical achievement of a given social formation. Mao Zedong summarized Chinese civilization in his article “The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party,” and subsequently put forward a “three-in-one” civilizational system of politics, economy, and culture in “On New Democracy,” which became the theoretical logic for exploring Chinese-path modernization after the founding of New China. First, the two pairs of contradictions in historical materialism are merely formal elements constituting a given social formation, not the specific content of Chinese-path modernization construction; the “three-in-one” of politics, economy, and culture deepens the theory of the basic contradictions of society in historical materialism. Second, the relationship among politics, economy, and culture follows the basic principles of historical materialism. Mao Zedong pointed out: “A given culture (as a form of ideology) is a reflection of the politics and economy of a given society, and in turn exerts a great influence and effect upon the politics and economy of that society; economy is the base, and politics is the concentrated expression of economy.” Third, summing up the historical experience of handling the relationship among politics, economy, and culture opens a path for building socialist civilization through Chinese-path modernization. Mao Zedong pointed out: “First, create public opinion, seize state power, then solve the problem of ownership, and then greatly develop the productive forces—this is a general law.” Therefore, Mao Zedong began from the political sphere, and then advanced Chinese-path modernization through the economic and cultural spheres.

新中国的社会主义文明理想不是抽象的概念，而是“怎么样建设新中国”的现代化运动。毛泽东遵循马克思主义唯物史观进行探索，虽未根据其“两对基本矛盾”提出相应的文明层次结构，但结合我国社会主义建设实际提供了原创性理论指导。文明是一定社会形态具体而总体的历史成就，毛泽东在《中国革命和中国共产党》一文中对中华文明进行了概述，进而在《新民主主义论》中提出了政治、经济、文化“三位一体”的文明体系，成为新中国成立之后探索中国式现代化的理论逻辑。其一，唯物史观的两对矛盾只是构成一定社会形态的形式要素，而非中国式现代化建设的具体内容，政治、经济、文化“三位一体”则深化了唯物史观的社会基本矛盾理论。其二，政治、经济、文化三者关系遵循唯物史观基本原理，毛泽东指出：“一定的文化（当作观念形态的文化）是一定社会的政治和经济的反映，又给予伟大影响和作用于一定社会的政治和经济；而经济是基础，政治则是经济的集中的表现。”其三，总结处理政治、经济、文化三者关系的历史经验，为经过中国式现代化建设社会主义文明开辟蹊径，毛泽东指出：“首先制造舆论，夺取政权，然后解决所有制问题，再大大发展生产力，这是一般规律。”因此，毛泽东是从政治上开始，进而从经济和文化上推进中国式现代化。

First, transform social relations to build a modern society where the people are the masters of the country.

第一，经改造社会关系建设人民当家作主的现代社会。

The key to realizing the transformation from a traditional society to a modern society lies in transforming the social relations after the founding of New China, which must be addressed politically first and with force. Human subjectivity is the most core guiding principle of modernity and constitutes the fundamental issue in the transformation of social relations. First, the relationship between people. This is the core of social relations transformation, namely, changing dependent individuals into independent individuals and making them equal members of the Chinese national community. Mao Zedong consistently upheld equality between men and women and equality of personality. In 1958, he even pointed out: “Abolish the patriarchal system, make all members of society equal, men and women, old and young are all members of society… this is a great liberation.” Second, the transformation of relations of production. This is the foundation of social relations transformation, namely, transforming private ownership of the means of production into socialist public ownership. The “three transformations” [12]12 The “three transformations” (三改) refer to the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft industry, and capitalist industry and commerce, carried out during the transition period (1953–1956). in the general line for the transition period were precisely the transformation of ownership of the means of production, “basically completing the socialist transformation of private ownership of the means of production, basically realizing public ownership of the means of production and distribution according to work,” which laid the economic foundation for the people of New China to be the masters of the country. Third, democratic political relations. This is the key to social relations transformation, namely, realizing the historical leap from feudal autocracy to people’s democracy. The founding of New China ushered the Chinese people into an era of people’s democracy, and subsequently established the system of people’s congresses, the system of multiparty cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, and the system of regional ethnic autonomy, providing institutional guarantees for the people to be the masters of the country at all links, in all aspects, at all levels, in all organs, and of all types. The 1954 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulated that all citizens of the People’s Republic of China are equal before the law, and all citizens who have reached the age of eighteen have the right to vote and stand for election. The “two revolutions” [13]13 The “two revolutions” (两篇革命) likely refers to the socialist revolution in the relations of production and the cultural-ideological revolution, though the term is not a standard Party slogan; it may be the authors’ own formulation. continuously advanced the modernity of the individual, relationships, and society, penetrating deep into the rights-power hinterland of modern civilization, and gradually transforming the traditional false community into a true community.

实现传统社会向现代社会转型，重点在于对新中国成立后的社会关系进行改造，必须从政治上先行和着力解决。人的主体性是现代性最核心的主导原则，构成社会关系改造的根本问题。一是人与人之间的关系。这是社会关系改造的核心，即使依附型个人变为独立型个人，并成为中华民族共同体的平等成员。毛泽东一贯坚持男女平等、人格平等，1958年更是指出：“废除家长制，社会成员平等，男女老少都是社会成员……，这是一个很大的解放。”二是生产关系的变革。这是社会关系改造的根本，即将生产资料私有制改造为社会主义公有制。过渡时期总路线中的“三改”就是生产资料所有制变革，“基本上完成对生产资料私有制的社会主义改造，基本上实现生产资料公有制和按劳分配”，为新中国人民当家作主奠定了经济基础。三是民主政治关系。这是社会关系改造的关键，即实现从封建专制向人民民主的历史飞跃。新中国的成立使中国人民进入人民民主时代，进而确立人民代表大会制度、中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度，为人民当家作主提供了各环节、各方面、各层级、各机关、各类型的制度保证。1954年《中华人民共和国宪法》规定，中华人民共和国公民在法律上一律平等，凡年满十八岁的公民都有选举权和被选举权。“两篇”革命持续推进个体、关系、社会现代性提升，深入到了现代文明的权利-权力腹地，使传统虚假的共同体日益质变成为真正的共同体。

Second, take industrialization as the core to advance the construction of a powerful socialist modern country.

第二，以工业化为核心推进社会主义的现代化强国建设。

The key to realizing the transformation from traditional civilization to modern civilization lies in turning an agricultural country into an industrial country, which must advance modernization with industrialization as the core from the economic sphere. In the revolution to overthrow the “three great mountains” [14]14 The “three great mountains” (三座大山) is a standard Maoist metaphor for imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucratic capitalism, which were seen as oppressing the Chinese people before 1949. leading the Chinese people, Mao Zedong deeply recognized the extreme importance of industrialization. In 1944, he pointed out: “For China’s national independence to have a solid guarantee, industrialization is necessary.” In 1949, the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the Party [15]15 The Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC was held in March 1949, on the eve of the nationwide victory of the Chinese revolution, and laid out the Party’s tasks for the transition from rural to urban focus and economic construction. deployed the Party’s tasks and objectives after the founding of New China, one of which was to transform the backward agricultural country into an advanced industrial country. With the continuous advancement of socialist revolution and construction, Mao Zedong focused on exploring an industrialization path suitable for China’s national conditions, the core of which was correctly handling the relationship among agriculture, light industry, and heavy industry, and “taking the Soviet Union as a mirror” to summarize and form a basic law: “Under the condition of giving priority to the development of heavy industry, simultaneously develop industry and agriculture.” At the end of 1959, while reading the Soviet textbook *Political Economy*, Mao Zedong pointed out, “The original requirements for building socialism were the modernization of industry, the modernization of agriculture, and the modernization of science and culture; now we must add the modernization of national defense,” basically forming the strategic framework of the “four modernizations.” [16]16 The “four modernizations” (四个现代化) were the goals of modernizing agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology, formally adopted in 1964 and later revived by Deng Xiaoping. In 1963, the Fourth Session of the Second National People’s Congress called for “striving to build China into a powerful socialist country with modern agriculture, modern industry, modern national defense, and modern science and technology,” formally establishing the standardized expression of the “four modernizations.” In 1964, while reviewing the draft of the *Government Work Report*, Mao Zedong emphasized the need to break conventions and adopt advanced technology as much as possible, firmly advancing the construction of a powerful socialist modern country with a leapfrog development strategy. Using advanced science and technology to achieve industrialization, industrialization to achieve modernization, and the “four modernizations” to achieve comprehensive modernization, Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization penetrated deep into the technology-strategy hinterland of modern civilization, establishing a relatively complete industrial system and national economic system, and achieving major breakthroughs in cutting-edge national defense science and technology such as the “two bombs and one satellite.” [17]17 “Two bombs and one satellite” (两弹一星) refers to China’s achievements in developing the atomic bomb, the hydrogen bomb, and the artificial satellite, symbolizing breakthroughs in defense technology during the 1960s and 1970s.

实现传统文明向现代文明变迁，关键在于将农业国变为工业国，必须从经济上推进以工业化为核心的现代化。毛泽东在领导中国人民推翻“三座大山”的革命中，深刻认识到工业化的极端重要性。1944年，他指出：“要中国的民族独立有巩固的保障，就必需工业化。”1949年党的七届二中全会部署了新中国成立后党的任务目标，其中一项即由落后的农业国变成先进的工业国。随着社会主义革命和建设的不断推进，毛泽东重点探索适合我国国情的工业化道路，核心是正确处理农、轻、重的关系，并“以苏为鉴”总结形成基本规律：“在优先发展重工业的条件下，工农业同时并举。”1959年底，毛泽东读苏联《政治经济学教科书》时指出，“建设社会主义，原来要求是工业现代化，农业现代化，科学文化现代化，现在要加上国防现代化”，基本形成“四个现代化”战略格局。1963年第二届全国人民代表大会第四次会议号召“为把中国建设成为一个具有现代农业、现代工业、现代国防和现代科学技术的强大的社会主义国家而奋斗”，正式确立“四个现代化”的规范化表达。1964年毛泽东在审阅《政府工作报告》草稿时，强调必须打破常规和尽量采用先进技术，坚定以跨越发展战略推进社会主义的现代化强国建设。以先进科技实现工业化，以工业化实现现代化，以“四个现代化”实现全面现代化，毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索深入到了现代文明的科技-战略腹地，建立起了较为完整的工业体系和国民经济体系，并取得“两弹一星”等国防尖端科技重大突破。

Third, use advanced culture to cultivate new people of the era for socialist civilization construction.

第三，用先进文化培育社会主义文明建设的时代新人。

The essence of realizing the transformation of the quality of the people of New China from tradition to modernity lies in cultivating modern people capable of undertaking socialist civilization construction, which must be done from the cultural sphere by using advanced culture to cultivate new people of the era. “Renewing the people” [18]18 “Renewing the people” (新民) is a classical Confucian concept from the *Great Learning*, reinterpreted by Mao to mean the transformation of the population into modern, socialist subjects. runs through Mao Zedong’s lifelong thought and career, creating the great undertaking of revolutionary modernity. When Mao Zedong revisited Jinggangshan in 1965, he pointed out: “Why did our army become a new type of army? It was because, while transforming old China, we also transformed ourselves.” The poverty and ignorance left behind by old China, and the wanton corrosion and infiltration of capitalism, made the transformation of people extremely arduous and difficult. Socialist transformation was both a transformation of the system and a transformation of people, but the transformation of people was not yet complete. Mao Zedong pointed out that everyone must be transformed into “both red and expert” [19]19 “Both red and expert” (又红又专) was a Mao-era slogan demanding that cadres and workers be both politically loyal (red) and professionally competent (expert). socialist laborers. “Expert” points to intellectual rationality, thus “using reason to investigate things,” becoming an expert and skilled hand. “It is impossible to build socialism relying on illiterates; we need tens of millions of intellectuals.” Through measures such as nationwide literacy campaigns, universal education, and economic accounting, the overall quality and scientific-technological level of China’s working people were greatly improved. “Red” points to moral rationality, thus “transforming through culture and education,” enabling them to serve the people and serve socialism. Mao Zedong emphasized communist lofty ideals and aspirations, criticized the “world outlook of cowards and lazybones,” adhered to independence and self-reliance, worked hard and strove to be strong, was unyielding, worked hard and lived frugally, and used a spirit of revolution plus hard work to overcome all difficulties. The technological revolution and cultural revolution since the founding of New China were, in essence, socialist transformations of people, turning them into culturally aware and politically conscious socialist laborers. Mao Zedong integrated tradition and modernity, enhancing the modern rationality of the individual, mutual relations, and the whole, which not only allowed Chinese-path modernization to penetrate deep into the rational-spiritual hinterland of modern civilization but also overcame the rational predicament of Western capitalist modernity.

实现新中国人的素质从传统向现代转变，实质在于培养担当社会主义文明建设的现代人，必须从文化上用先进文化培育时代新人。“新民”贯穿毛泽东毕生思想和事业，造就了革命现代性伟业。1965年毛泽东重上井冈山时指出：“我们这支军队为什么成为新型的军队，就是在改造旧中国的同时，也改造我们自己。”旧中国留下来的贫穷和愚昧，资本主义的肆意腐蚀和渗透，使人的改造无比繁重而艰难。社会主义改造既是对制度的改造，又是对人的改造，但对人的改造还没有完成。毛泽东指出人人都要改造成为“又红又专”的社会主义劳动者。“专”指向理智理性，从而“以理格物”，成为专家能手。“靠文盲建设不起社会主义，我们要有上千万的知识分子。”通过全民扫盲、全民教育、经济核算等措施，我国劳动者的整体素质和科学技术水平得到了很大提高。“红”指向道德理性，从而“人文化成”，使其为人民服务、为社会主义服务。毛泽东强调共产主义的雄心壮志，批评“懦夫和懒汉的世界观”，坚持独立自主、自力更生，奋发图强、不屈不挠，艰苦奋斗、勤俭节约，用革命加拼命的精神去克服一切困难。新中国成立以来的技术革命和文化革命等，实质上都是对人的社会主义改造，使之成为有文化有觉悟的社会主义劳动者。毛泽东将传统与现代会通融合，增强个体、相互、整体的现代理性，既使中国式现代化深入到理性-精神的现代化文明腹地，又克服了西方资本主义现代性的理性困境。

Mao Zedong’s “three-in-one” Chinese-path modernization of politics, economy and culture not only penetrated the hinterland of socialist civilization from three dimensions at a preliminary level, but also, through the mutual supplementation, interaction and coordination of these three dimensions, created in its entirety a vast space for the hinterland of socialist civilization. While opening up prospects for modern civilization in Chinese-path modernization, this also realized, from the perspective of civilization theory, a Sinicized innovation of historical materialism, becoming the foundation on which Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization entered the essential terrain of civilization.

毛泽东政治经济文化“三位一体”的中国式现代化，不仅从三个维度初步深入到社会主义文明腹地，而且三者相互补充、相互作用、相互协调，整体创造社会主义文明腹地的广阔空间。这在为中国式现代化开创现代文明前景的同时，又从文明论视域实现了对唯物史观的中国化创新，成为毛泽东探索中国式现代化进入到文明要地的根基所在。

III. Consolidating the Foundation of Socialist Civilization: The Essential Terrain of Civilization in Mao Zedong’s Exploration of Chinese-Path Modernization

三、筑牢社会主义文明根基：毛泽东探索中国式现代化的文明要地

Mao Zedong conceived of “creating a political situation in which there is both centralism and democracy, both discipline and freedom, both unity of will and personal ease of mind and liveliness.” [20]20 Mao Zedong, “Speech at the Enlarged Central Work Conference” (January 30, 1962), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 8, p. 293. This passage describes the political goal of “six have’s” (六个有), a classic formulation of the desired political atmosphere under socialism. This not only depicted a beautiful blueprint for the form of socialist civilization in our country, but also provided a basic guideline for Chinese-path modernization. While overcoming the shortcomings of traditional Chinese civilization, the Soviet model and Western modernization, it also enabled Chinese-path modernization to discover the essential terrain of socialist civilization.

毛泽东构想“造成一个又有集中又有民主，又有纪律又有自由，又有统一意志、又有个人心情舒畅、生动活泼，那样一种政治局面”，既描绘了我国社会主义文明形态的美好蓝图，又为中国式现代化提供了基本遵循。这在克服中国传统文明、苏联模式和西方现代化弊端的同时，又使中国式现代化探寻到社会主义文明的要地。

Mao Zedong continuously explored Chinese-path modernization and planned the construction of the form of socialist civilization, not only overcoming the shortcomings of Soviet socialist civilization but also transcending the civilizational foundation of capitalist modernization. In his arduous exploration of Chinese socialist modernization, Mao Zedong reviewed history and pointed out: “In the first eight years we copied foreign experience. But from 1956, when we put forward the Ten Major Relationships, we began to find a path of our own suited to China’s conditions.” [21]21 Mao Zedong, “Talk on the Question of the Ten Major Relationships” (April 25, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 5, p. 267. The Ten Major Relationships was a key report analyzing ten pairs of contradictions in socialist construction, marking a turn away from wholesale copying of the Soviet model. Had it not been for Mao Zedong’s exploration, Chinese-path modernization would have groped in the dark for many long years, and it would have been even more impossible for it to be deepened and expanded into the successful path of the New Era. The crux of the question lies in how Mao Zedong explored; the answer clearly lies in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. In 1956, Mao Zedong, “taking the Soviet Union as a mirror,” firmly proposed a “Second Integration”: “We must carry out a Second Integration, to find the path for building socialism in China.” [22]22 Mao Zedong, “Conversation with Music Workers” (August 24, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 7, p. 76. The “Second Integration” refers to the integration of the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution and construction, following the “first integration” that had established the Chinese Communist Party and the revolutionary base areas. The integration of the fundamental tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities has been a consistent ideological principle of our Party since its founding. In the actual process of “integration,” Marxism provides a guide to action but not a concrete plan, while China’s specific realities constitute only the subjective forces and objective conditions. Therefore, without the constraining inspiration of revolutionary ideals and the conceptual support of traditional culture, the “integration” in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context easily tends toward dogmatism, or falls into the errors of empiricism and pragmatism. To overcome these profound lessons from the history of the Chinese revolution, it is necessary not only to treat “integration” as a creative object-oriented activity, but also to make Marxism take deep root in Chinese soil.

毛泽东不断探索中国式现代化，谋划建设社会主义文明形态，不仅克服苏联社会主义文明的弊端，而且超越资本主义现代化的文明根基。毛泽东艰辛探索中国社会主义现代化，回顾历史指出：“前八年照抄外国的经验。但从一九五六年提出十大关系起，开始找到自己的一条适合中国的路线。”倘若没有毛泽东的探索，中国式现代化还要在漫长岁月中茫然摸索，更不可能深化拓展为新时代的成功道路。问题的关键在于毛泽东是如何探索的，答案显然在于马克思主义中国化。1956年毛泽东“以苏为鉴”坚定提出“第二次结合”:“我们要进行第二次结合，找出在中国怎样建设社会主义的道路。”马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合，是我们党自成立以来一贯的思想原则。在“相结合”的实际过程中，马克思主义提供行动指南但并非具体方案，而中国具体实际只是主体力量和客观条件。因而离开革命理想的约束性激励和传统文化的观念性支援，马克思主义中国化的“相结合”容易偏向教条主义，或者犯经验主义、实用主义的错误。克服中国革命历史上的这些深刻教训，不仅必须将“相结合”当作一种创造性的对象性活动，而且必须使马克思主义深深扎根在中国土壤之中。

As soon as the scientific proposition of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context was formally put forward by Mao Zedong, it included the integration of Marxism with Chinese traditional culture. The “Two Integrations” constitute the two aspects of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context, both solving major problems of China’s specific realities and upholding and developing Marxism, continuously advancing the development of modern Chinese civilization. Mao Zedong’s preliminary discovery of the path of Chinese socialist modernization through the “Second Integration” also has its deep secret hidden in the integration with Chinese traditional culture. First, Chinese traditional civilization provides the civilizational cornerstone for Chinese-path modernization. Socialist civilization is the continuation and development of Chinese traditional civilization. In 1938, Mao Zedong pointed out: “Today’s China is a development of historical China.” [23]23 Mao Zedong, “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War” (October 1938), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 2, p. 534. Chinese traditional civilization possesses the simple form of socialist civilization, constituting an important condition for Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization. Second, the essence of Chinese traditional thought provides cultural nourishment for Chinese-path modernization. Without Chinese-path modernization, traditional culture cannot be activated; without traditional culture, Chinese-path modernization lacks cultural sustenance. Chinese tradition has left us many precious legacies; “we must learn all the good things of China,” [24]24 Mao Zedong, “Conversation with Music Workers” (August 24, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 7, p. 78. thereby contributing to modern civilization. Third, Chinese traditional modes of thinking provide practical wisdom for the construction of Chinese-path modernization. In 1956, Mao Zedong pointed out: “Chinese things have their own laws.” [25]25 Mao Zedong, “Conversation with Music Workers” (August 24, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 7, p. 76. These laws are embodied in the subjective characteristics of the Chinese people since ancient times, originating from the unique Daoist thinking of the unity of heaven and man and the non-separation of subject and object in Chinese tradition, which was transformed through the Sinicization of Marxism into a holistic dialectics. Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization is precisely a fusion and innovation of “the ancient and the modern, China and the West,” and manifests itself in multiple civilizational characteristics.

马克思主义中国化的科学命题一经毛泽东正式提出，就包含马克思主义同中国传统文化相结合。“两个结合”构成马克思主义中国化的两个方面，既解决中国具体实际重大问题，又坚持和发展马克思主义，不断推进中国现代文明发展。毛泽东通过“第二次结合”初步找到中国社会主义现代化的道路，深层奥秘同样隐含在同中国传统文化相结合之中。其一，中国传统文明为中国式现代化提供文明基石。社会主义文明是中国传统文明的赓续弘扬，1938年毛泽东即指出：“今天的中国是历史的中国的一个发展。”中国传统文明具有社会主义文明的朴素样态，构成毛泽东探索中国式现代化的重要条件。其二，中国传统思想精华为中国式现代化提供文化养料。传统文化离开中国式现代化不能得到激活，中国式现代化离开传统文化缺少文化滋养。中国传统给我们留下了不少宝贵遗产，“要把中国的好东西都学到”，从而对现代文明有所贡献。其三，中国传统思维方式为中国式现代化建设提供实践智慧。1956年毛泽东指出“中国的东西有它自己的规律”。这些规律体现为中国人自古的主体性特征，源于中国传统天人合一、主客不分的独特道性思维，经马克思主义中国化改造为整体性辩证法。毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，正是“古今中西”的融合创新，并表现为多方面的文明特质。

First, advocating a civilizational form in which unity and particularity form a single whole.

第一，倡导统一与特殊成一体的文明样态。

Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization required that unity and particularity form a single whole, creating a community for the construction of socialist civilization. Chinese-path modernization is both a modernization of the whole country as a single chessboard and a modernization in which each region has its own characteristics, thereby creating a modern civilizational pattern of socialism. In 1956, Mao Zedong pointed out: “We need unity, and we also need particularity.” [26]26 Mao Zedong, “On the Ten Major Relationships” (April 25, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 5, p. 276. “Unity” means that socialist modernization is planned and deployed centrally; “particularity” means that the socialist modernization construction of each region “has particularities suited to local conditions.” [27]27 Mao Zedong, “On the Ten Major Relationships” (April 25, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 5, p. 276. “When things are not uniform, that is the nature of things.” [28]28 Mencius, *Mencius*, “Teng Wen Gong, Part I.” A classical Chinese saying meaning that diversity is the natural state of things. “Particularity” requires that each region proceed from the nationwide unity and, on the basis of consolidating socialism, create local “characteristics” of modernization. In 1956, Mao Zedong pointed out: “The United States is a very developed country; it has developed in just over a hundred years.” [29]29 Mao Zedong, “On the Ten Major Relationships” (April 25, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 5, p. 277. But this kind of “particularity” divorced from unity accelerates the internal division of the country. “Unity” is a fine tradition of Chinese civilization; China has achieved national unity since the Qin Dynasty, creating an excellent agricultural civilization. New China is a unified multi-ethnic country; “unity” constitutes the prerequisite for socialist modernization construction. However, if localities cannot act according to local conditions, it is also detrimental to socialist modernization construction. In 1958, Mao Zedong pointed out: “Since the Qin Dynasty, China has unified the whole country; once unified, localities did not develop.” [30]30 Mao Zedong, “Speech at the Chengdu Conference” (March 1958), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 7, p. 369. New China has a vast territory, abundant resources, many ethnic groups, and uneven development. Building socialist modernization depends on mobilizing the initiative of both the central and local governments; it is necessary to “unify planning, manage at different levels, focus on key construction, and support the branches and leaves.” [31]31 Mao Zedong, “On the Ten Major Relationships” (April 25, 1956), in *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, vol. 5, p. 276. Chinese-path modernization, in which unity and particularity form a single whole, gathers the strengths of all forms of human civilization, ancient and modern, and has discovered the essential terrain for the long-term effective development of socialist civilization. It not only ensures the coordinated advancement of socialist modernization construction, but also encourages each locality to strive to become a model for socialist modernization construction, jointly creating a unified and diverse community for the construction of modern civilization.

毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，要求统一与特殊成一体，打造社会主义文明建设共同体。中国式现代化既是全国一盘棋的现代化，又是全国各地各具特色的现代化，从而造就社会主义的现代文明格局。1956年，毛泽东指出：“我们要统一，也要特殊。”“统一”意味着社会主义现代化由中央统一谋划和部署，“特殊”意味着各地社会主义现代化建设都“有适合当地情况的特殊”。“物之不齐，物之情也。”“特殊”要求各地从全国统一出发，在巩固社会主义基础上创造地方现代化“特色”。1956年，毛泽东指出：“美国这个国家很发展，它只有一百多年就发展起来了。”但这种脱离统一的“特殊”，却又加速国家内部分裂。“统一”是中华文明优良传统，中国自秦即实现全国统一，创造了优秀的农业文明。新中国是一个统一的多民族国家，“统一”构成社会主义现代化建设的前提条件。但地方不能因地制宜办事，也不利于社会主义现代化建设，1958年，毛泽东指出：“中国自秦至今，一统天下，统了，地方就不发展。”新中国地大物博、民族众多而又发展不平衡，建设社会主义现代化依赖于发挥中央和地方积极性，必须“统一计划，分级管理，重点建设，枝叶扶持”。中国式现代化统一与特殊成一体，集古今人类文明样态所长，探察到了社会主义文明长效发展的要地，不仅确保社会主义现代化建设统筹推进，而且促使各地方争当社会主义现代化建设的示范，共同造就统一而多样的现代文明建设共同体。

Second, implementing the civilizational practice of combining democracy with centralism.

第二，推行民主与集中相结合的文明实践。

Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization required the combination of democracy and centralism, shaping a community of socialist civilizational practice. Democratic centralism is the fundamental organizational principle of the Party and the state, and the fundamental guarantee of China’s socialist modernization. In 1959, Mao Zedong pointed out: “At no time is it permissible to undermine democratic centralism.” Democratic centralism not only has epistemological significance but also realizes the integration of leadership with the masses, gathering the mighty force to create Chinese modern civilization. “Centralism” originates from China’s political tradition; the Party committee bears the responsibility for “centralism,” reducing differences in understanding, conflicts of interest, and power struggles, while opposing commandism, bureaucracy, and paternalism. In the same year, Mao Zedong further pointed out: “On the basis of centralizing correct opinions, achieving unified understanding, unified policy, unified plan, unified command, and unified action—this is called centralized unity.” “Democracy” belongs to the modern trend of humanity; the people exercise their “democratic” rights, achieving participation in all aspects, all links, and all levels, while opposing individualism, departmentalism, and liberalism. “Without democracy, if opinions do not come from the masses, it is impossible to formulate good lines, guidelines, policies, and methods.” Democratic centralism stands in opposition to extreme democracy and extreme autocracy, ensuring the people’s participation in Chinese-path modernization, integrating ancient and modern, Chinese and Western political wisdom on the basis of Leninism. Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization emphasized the combination of democracy and centralism, enabling the central and local authorities, higher and lower levels, individuals and collectives, and minorities and majorities to form “a reasonable and lively relationship,” and thus to coalesce into a whole like a family. In 1962, Mao Zedong pointed out: “Without the democracy of the proletariat, there can be no centralism of the proletariat; without the centralism of the proletariat, socialism cannot be built.” The civilizational practice of combining democracy and centralism probed the heartland of socialist civilization and is an important guarantee for creating socialist civilization through Chinese-path modernization.

毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，要求民主与集中相结合，塑造社会主义文明实践共同体。民主集中制是党和国家的根本组织原则，是我国社会主义现代化建设的根本保障，1959年，毛泽东指出：“什么时候都不允许破坏民主集中制。”民主集中制不仅具有认识论意义，而且实现领导与群众相结合，凝聚起创造中国现代文明的磅礴力量。“集中”源自中国政治传统，由党委担当“集中”责任，消减认识差异、利益冲突、权力斗争，又反对命令主义、官僚主义、包办主义。同年，毛泽东进一步指出：“在集中正确意见的基础上，做到统一认识，统一政策，统一计划，统一指挥，统一行动，叫做集中统一。”“民主”属于人类现代潮流，人民行使“民主”权利，实现各方面、各环节、各层次参与，又反对个人主义、本位主义、自由主义。“没有民主，意见不是从群众中来，就不可能制定出好的路线、方针、政策和办法。”民主集中制与极端民主、极端专制相对，确保人民参与中国式现代化，在列宁主义基础上融合了古今中西政治智慧。毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，强调民主与集中相结合，使中央与地方、上级与下级、个人与集体、少数与多数形成“一种合理的、活泼的关系”，进而像家庭一样凝聚成一个整体。1962年，毛泽东指出：“没有无产阶级的民主就不会有无产阶级的集中，没有无产阶级的集中就不会建成社会主义。”民主与集中相结合的文明实践，探索到了社会主义文明的要地，是以中国式现代化创造社会主义文明的重要保证。

Third, fostering a civilizational order of simultaneous development of the individual and the collective.

第三，营造个人与集体同发展的文明秩序。

Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization required the simultaneous development of the individual and the collective, shaping a community of shared socialist civilization. Chinese-path modernization is a holistic modernization in which all the people participate together, and the rational distribution of modernization achievements promotes the common development of the collective and the individual. In 1957, Mao Zedong pointed out: “The collective and the individual—these two things cannot have only one.” Collective development is the guarantee of individual interests; when collective interests increase, individual interests will also improve accordingly. Collective interests depend on individual development; when individuals achieve development, they have greater strength to strengthen the collective. Traditional Confucian ethics leaned toward the “collective,” but also restricted and suppressed human individuality: “If fettered individuality is not liberated… there will be no socialism either.” Mainstream Western ethics emphasized the “individual,” but also indulged and allowed people to do evil for private gain, leading people “onto the path of serving the individual, not society.” How to handle the relationship between the individual and the collective is a fundamental problem for all civilizational orders, and also an important contradiction that Chinese-path modernization must coordinate well. In the course of exploring China’s socialist modernization, Mao Zedong consistently adhered to the principle of combining collective interests with individual interests, coordinating and promoting the common development of the undertakings of the state, the collective, and the individual; he emphasized subordinating to collective interests, overall interests, and long-term interests, and opposed “individualism and departmentalism that disregard state and collective interests.” The Communist Party of China has long adhered to giving consideration to both public and private interests, ensuring that each gets its due, mobilizing all positive factors to serve socialist modernization. The simultaneous development of the individual and the collective adapts to the reality of Chinese-path modernization; it is a form of ethical civilization integrating ancient and modern, China and the West, enabling Chinese-path modernization to probe the heartland of socialist civilization, not only “avoiding once again opposing ‘society’ as an abstraction to the individual,” but also continuously constructing a community of socialist civilization along the path of common prosperity.

毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索，要求个人与集体同发展，营造社会主义文明共享共同体。中国式现代化是全体人民共同参与的整体现代化，现代化成果合理分配促进集体和个人共同发展。1957年，毛泽东指出：“集体与个人两样东西，不能只有一个。”集体发展是个人利益的保障，集体利益增加了，个人利益也会随着改善；集体利益依赖于个人发展，个人获得了发展，就有更大力量壮大集体。传统儒家伦理偏重“集体”，但又限制和压制人的个性，“被束缚的个性如不得解放……也没有社会主义”。西方主流伦理强调“个人”，但又放任和放纵人为私利而作恶，把人引向“为个人不为社会的道路上去”。如何处理个人与集体的关系，是一切文明秩序的基本问题，也是中国式现代化必须协调好的一对重要矛盾。毛泽东在探索我国社会主义现代化过程中，始终坚持集体利益和个人利益相结合的原则，统筹推动国家、集体、个人事业共同发展；强调服从集体利益、整体利益、长远利益，反对“不顾国家利益和集体利益的个人主义和本位主义”。中国共产党长期坚持公私兼顾、各得其所，调动一切积极性为社会主义现代化建设服务。个人与集体同发展适应中国式现代化实际，是融合古今中西的伦理文明形态，使中国式现代化探测到了社会主义文明的要地，不仅“避免重新把‘社会’当做抽象的东西同个体对立起来”，而且沿着共同富裕道路不断构建社会主义文明共同体。

Although Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization was arduous, it did not sever tradition from modernity or China from foreign countries; rather, it gathered the outstanding achievements of humanity to create Chinese modern civilization. While manifesting the subjectivity of the Communist Party of China in leading modernization, it increasingly displayed advantages over traditional Chinese civilization, Western civilization, and traditional socialist civilization. Mao Zedong’s “self-centered” thinking on Chinese-path modernization enabled “ancient and modern, Chinese and Western” to be interlinked through the Two Integrations [n32], becoming the wisdom code for Chinese-path modernization to create socialist civilization.

毛泽东对中国式现代化的探索虽然艰辛，但不是将传统与现代、中国与外国割裂，而是汇聚人类优秀成果创造中国现代文明，在彰显中国共产党领导现代化的主体性的同时，日益展现出相对中国传统文明、西方文明、传统社会主义文明的优势。毛泽东对中国式现代化“以我为主”的思考，使“古今中西”通过“两个结合”相会通，成为中国式现代化创造社会主义文明的智慧密码。

Conclusion

结语

Mao Zedong was the initiator and founder of Chinese-path modernization, and also the initiator and founder of China’s socialist civilization. He used socialist civilization to guide the construction of Chinese-path modernization, and used Chinese-path modernization to build socialist civilization, from the very beginning directing Chinese-path modernization toward the ideal of socialist civilization, continuously penetrating into the high ground, hinterland, and heartland of socialist civilization. In 2023, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “Chinese-path modernization endows Chinese civilization with modern power, and Chinese civilization endows Chinese-path modernization with profound heritage.” Revealing the civilizational horizon of Mao Zedong’s exploration of Chinese-path modernization is both a tribute to Mao Zedong’s practical contribution to socialist civilization from the perspective of the whole of Chinese-path modernization, and an understanding from the height of socialist civilization of the theoretical contribution Mao Zedong laid for Chinese-path modernization. On the new journey to comprehensively advance the building of a strong country and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization, it is necessary to deeply draw on Mao Zedong’s practical wisdom in exploring Chinese-path modernization from the perspective of civilizational theory, so that the Chinese nation may continuously move toward comprehensive rejuvenation in prosperity and civilization.

毛泽东是中国式现代化的开创者和奠基人，也是中国社会主义文明的开启者和奠基人。他用社会主义文明引领中国式现代化建设，又用中国式现代化建设社会主义文明，自始便使中国式现代化向着社会主义文明理想，不断深入到社会主义文明的高地、腹地、要地。2023年，习近平总书记指出：“中国式现代化赋予中华文明以现代力量，中华文明赋予中国式现代化以深厚底蕴。”揭示毛泽东探索中国式现代化的文明境域，既是从中国式现代化的整体礼敬毛泽东对社会主义文明的实践贡献，又是从社会主义文明的高度体悟毛泽东对中国式现代化奠定的理论贡献。新征程上以中国式现代化全面推进强国建设、民族复兴伟业，必须从文明论视域深层次汲取毛泽东探索中国式现代化的实践智慧，使中华民族不断走向富强和文明的全面复兴。

(Author bios: Huang Xianzhong, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the Mao Zedong Thought Research Center, Xiangtan University; Yuan Hongjuan, Doctoral Candidate at the Mao Zedong Thought Research Center, Xiangtan University)

（作者简介：黄显中，湘潭大学毛泽东思想研究中心教授，博士生导师；袁红娟，湘潭大学毛泽东思想研究中心博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心