Mutual Learning among Civilizations and the Building of the Modern Civilization of the Chinese Nation

Modernization is a profound transformation of civilization, the greatest change since the formation of civilization. In the process of modernization, Chinese civilization has grown stronger, and by absorbing the essence of foreign civilizations, it has made the ancient civilization richer and more dynamic. The process of modernization marks another great fusion of civilizations in Chinese history, one that is larger in scale and deeper in content than previous fusions. Through modernization, Chinese civilization has integrated with the world and also integrated itself into the world. Mutual learning among civilizations and the building of the modern civilization of the Chinese nation require addressing the issues of the carriers of civilization and the "inner core" of Chinese civilization, the issue of Chinese civilization's integrative nature, i.e., "external integration," and the issue of building the modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the process of modernization.

现代化是一次深刻的文明改造，是文明形成后最伟大的变革。中华文明在现代化过程中变得更加壮大，通过吸取外来文明精华，使古老文明更丰富、更有活力。现代化过程标志着中国历史上又一次文明大融合，它比前几次融合规模更庞大、内容更深刻。借助现代化，中华文明融合了世界、也融入了世界。文明互鉴与中华民族现代文明建设需要处理好文明载体和中华文明“内核”的问题、中华文明的融合本性即“外融”的问题、在现代化过程中建设中华民族现代文明的问题。

First, an important characteristic of Chinese civilization is that its two carriers complement each other and achieve a perfect alignment, ensuring that the subjectivity of the civilization remains always solid. Civilization has two carriers: one is the spiritual carrier, namely religious or non-religious doctrines, which constitute the ideology of the civilization; the other is the political carrier, namely state power, which provides the institutional guarantee for the civilization. Neither the spiritual carrier nor the political carrier can be dispensed with; otherwise, the civilization would have nothing to rely on and would be unstable. The relationship between the two carriers determines the strength and continuity of a civilization: if they support each other and are linked together, the civilization thrives and endures; if one is present without the other, or if they are mismatched, the civilization is underdeveloped and unsustainable. The particularity of Chinese civilization lies in the fact that, over two thousand years ago, it achieved a perfect alignment between the spiritual carrier (Confucian doctrine) and the political carrier (a unified state), which is unique in the world. Since then, the two carriers have always complemented each other, forming the inner core of Chinese civilization, which has remained unchanged for two millennia, thereby ensuring that the subjectivity of the civilization has always been solid.

第一，中华文明的一个重要特点，是文明的两个载体相辅相成，完美对接，保证了文明的主体性始终坚固。文明有两个载体，一是精神的载体，即宗教或非宗教的学说，这是文明的意识形态；二是政治的载体，即国家力量，这是文明的制度保障。精神载体和政治载体缺一不可，否则文明就无所依赖，站立不稳。两个载体的关系决定了文明的强弱和延续：如果相互支撑、彼此衔接，文明就生生不息、长盛不衰；倘若有一无一或搭配不当，文明就发育不全、难以为继。中华文明的特别之处，就是在两千多年前就形成了精神载体（孔子学说）和政治载体（统一国家）的完美对接，这在世界上是独一无二的。自那时以后，两个载体始终相辅相成，形成了中华文明的内核，跨越两千年而不变，由此保证了文明的主体性始终坚固。

In comparison, other major civilizations of the world are not in this situation. Western Europe never formed an organic pairing of the two major carriers: Ancient Greece had neither a complete state (only city-states) nor a unified ideology. Although ancient Greek philosophers left a rich cultural heritage for later generations, as Europe's earliest civilization, it was as fleeting as a puff of smoke, a flash in the pan. During the Roman period, Europe formed a vast empire with strong state power, but for a long time it lacked a unified ideology; when this ideology (Christianity) finally emerged, the Roman state was on its last legs. Medieval Western Europe maintained the powerful spiritual force of Christianity, making the spiritual characteristics of the civilization very prominent; but the "state" was abandoned, and feudal fiefdoms deconstructed the state and also deconstructed society, a situation that did not change until the emergence of modern nation-states. The characteristic of South Asia is the premature maturation of ideology. After the Aryans arrived in India, they established a unified ideology based on the caste system (Brahmanism/Hinduism), constructing a powerful spiritual carrier; but politically, for a long time, small states stood side by side, constantly at war, always lacking the support of strong state power. This situation caused long-term political fragmentation, providing convenient conditions for continuous foreign invasions, ultimately undermining the exclusive status of Hinduism. The characteristic of West Asia-North Africa is that civilization emerged early, but the form of civilization was fixed very late. Academia generally believes that the earliest human civilization appeared in the Mesopotamia region, but after thousands of years, this place failed to crystallize into a specific civilizational form. Numerous states and numerous religions rose and fell here until the rise of Islam in the 7th century, when a powerful state and a unified ideology appeared simultaneously and achieved a precise alignment. From that point on, a civilizational form with distinct characteristics took shape in West Asia and North Africa, influencing the world ever since.

相比之下，世界其他主要文明都不是这种情况。西欧一直没有形成两大载体的有机搭配：古希腊既没有完整的国家（只有城邦），也没有统一的意识形态，尽管古希腊哲人为后人留下了丰富的文化遗产，但作为欧洲最早的文明，它却如过眼烟云，昙花一现。罗马时期的欧洲形成了庞大帝国，其国家力量强大，却长期未出现统一的意识形态；待这种意识形态（基督教）终于出现时，罗马国家却行将就木。中世纪的西欧维持了基督教强大的精神力量，从而使文明的精神特征十分明显；但“国家”却被抛弃，封建领地解构了国家，也解构了社会，直到近代民族国家出现才改变这种状况。南亚的特点是意识形态早熟，雅利安人到印度之后，确立了以种姓制为基础的统一的意识形态（婆罗门教/印度教），建构了强大的精神载体；但在政治方面却长时间小国林立，征战不已，始终缺乏强大的国家力量的支持。这种情况造成长时期的政治分裂，为外族的不断入侵提供了便利条件，最终冲击了印度教的独尊地位。西亚—北非的特点是文明出现早，文明的形态却定型很晚。学术界一般认为最早的人类文明出现在两河流域，但历经几千年，这个地方都未能凝结出特定的文明形态，众多国家和众多宗教此生彼长，直到7世纪伊斯兰教兴起后，强大国家和统一的意识形态才同时出现，并精准对接。从那时开始，一个有着鲜明特色的文明形态才在西亚、北非形成，并一直影响世界。

In the history of human civilization, only Chinese civilization has endured through thousands of years of change and continues to this day, with its basic characteristics remaining unchanged. The reason for this is that the spiritual carrier and the political carrier of the civilization, despite the passage of time, have always been interdependent, maintaining a perfect alignment. Throughout China's several-thousand-year history, social stability and economic prosperity are directly linked: when society is stable, the economy prospers; once society falls into turmoil, the people inevitably suffer. Confucian doctrine advocates for the order of heaven and earth and promotes social tranquility; the power of a unified state ensures social stability to the greatest extent. The firm alignment of these two carriers of civilization forms the basic "inner core" of Chinese civilization, ensuring its continuous vitality.

在人类文明史上，只有中华文明经历几千年时代变迁而延续至今，其基本特征始终不变。究其原因，是文明的精神载体和政治载体任岁月变异却始终相互依存，一直保持着完美的对接。在中国几千年历史上，社会稳定和经济繁荣有直接的联系：社会稳定经济就繁荣，社会一旦动乱，生灵必遭涂炭。孔子学说提倡天人秩序，主张社会安宁；统一国家力量则在最大程度上保证了社会的稳定。文明这两个载体牢固对接，就形成了中华文明的基本“内核”，保证了中华文明的生生不息。

Second, another important characteristic of Chinese civilization is its high degree of integrativeness, possessing the capacity and the will to integrate all foreign cultures. From its very origins, integration has been a feature of Chinese civilization, and through integration it has continuously developed and grown stronger. In the embryonic period of Chinese history, before written records, there is the legend of the fusion of the Yellow Emperor tribe and the Flame Emperor tribe, which initiated the origins of the Chinese nation. In the subsequent process of development, the integration of the Huaxia [1]1 Huaxia: An ancient term for the Chinese nation or the Chinese cultural sphere, often used to distinguish the central plain's civilized peoples from surrounding groups. with the Baiyue, Jiuli, and other civilizations formed the mainstream of civilization in the East Asian landmass. Later, the references to the "Eastern Yi, Western Rong, Northern Di, and Southern Man" [2]2 Eastern Yi, Western Rong, Northern Di, Southern Man: Traditional Chinese terms for non-Han ethnic groups living on the peripheries of the ancient Chinese states, often used collectively to denote "barbarians" in the four cardinal directions. embodied the interaction between the Central Plains civilization and surrounding civilizations, and the result of this interaction was the changes of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties and the emergence of the unified Qin-Han state, completing the foundational era of Chinese civilization. Thereafter, the integration and interaction between "China" and the "foreign lands" beyond China became the theme of integration, and the Chinese nation continuously developed and grew stronger in this process. It can be said that without integration, there would be no Chinese nation. Many people, when discussing the attributes of the Chinese nation, point out that the Chinese nation is not a blood-based nation but a cultural nation, and this is absolutely true. From a blood lineage perspective, the Chinese nation is a collective formed by various populations throughout history, exhibiting physiological diversity; however, from a cultural perspective, the Chinese nation displays a high degree of homogeneity, manifesting identical cultural characteristics, and these common cultural characteristics were precisely formed in the process of millennia of civilizational integration. Integration created Chinese civilization.

第二，中华文明的另一个重要特点是它具有高度的融合性，有能力并且有意愿融合一切外来文化。中华文明从起源的时候起，融合就是它的特征，并且因融合而不断发展、不断壮大。在中国历史尚没有文字记载的萌生时期，就有黄帝族和炎帝族融合的传说，开启了中华民族的源头。在以后的发展过程中，华夏与百越、九黎等文明的融合，形成东亚大地的文明主流。再往后，关于“东夷、西戎、北狄、南蛮”的说法，体现着中原文明与周边文明的互动，而互动的结果，则是夏商周三代的变化和秦汉统一国家的出现，中华文明奠基时代的完成。这以后，“中国”和中国以外“异域”的交融互动就成为融合的主题，中华民族在这个过程中不断发展和壮大。可以说，没有融合，就不会有中华民族。许多人在讨论中华民族的属性时指出：中华民族不是一个血缘的民族，而是一个文化的民族，这是千真万确的。从血缘上看，中华民族是诸多种群在历史上形成的集合体，呈现出生理方面的多样性；然而从文化上看，中华民族显现出高度的同质性，体现出相同的文化特征，而共同的文化特征正是在几千年文明交融的过程中形成的，融合造就了中华文明。

In the history of Chinese civilization, there have been several major integrations. The first was during the several hundred years between the fall of the Han and the rise of the Tang, the period historically known as the "Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties," [3]3 Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties: A period of division and conflict in Chinese history from 220 to 589 CE, between the Han and Sui dynasties, marked by political fragmentation and significant cultural exchange. which saw the blending of Eastern and Western cultures and the exchange between North and South. Although on the social and political level the "Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties" was a period of great chaos, from the perspective of civilization it was a great integration. Civilizational elements from South Asia, Central Asia, and even North Asia poured into the Central Plains region in batches, injecting a large amount of fresh blood into Chinese civilization. The result was the emergence of the "High Tang," [4]4 High Tang: A period during the Tang dynasty (roughly the 8th century) considered the zenith of its cultural and political power, known for its cosmopolitanism and artistic flourishing. with the gradual convergence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in thought, and multifaceted penetration in areas such as daily life and craftsmanship, making the achievements of civilization even more splendid. The second major integration occurred during the Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties. The political division of separate regimes instead highlighted the depth of cultural integration, and inter-civilizational exchange broke through the geographical limitations of East Asia, extending to the Eurasian continent. European elements represented by Marco Polo entered China, and Chinese civilization thus began to face the "world," not merely an "all-under-heaven" (tianxia). As an inevitable continuation of this process, the Ming dynasty's exploration westward (Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas) [5]5 Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas: A series of maritime expeditions led by the Ming dynasty admiral Zheng He between 1405 and 1433, reaching Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa. and the West's exploration of China (the arrival of Jesuit missionaries) resulted, on the one hand, in China actively contacting foreign lands, and on the other hand, in Western science, technology, religion, etc., gradually entering China and being absorbed by Chinese civilization. The third major integration occurred after the establishment of the Qing dynasty. As the inheritor of northern nomadic culture, the establishment of the Qing dynasty not only meant the political continuation of the strong state system of the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, but also signified a deep integration of nomadic civilization and agricultural civilization, expanding the connotation of Chinese civilization while simultaneously continuing its inner core, namely the mutual coordination of the spiritual carrier characterized by Confucian doctrine and the political carrier characterized by a strong state. Contrary to the "Inner Asia" theory fabricated by some in the West, the Qing dynasty once again demonstrates that every strengthening of Chinese civilization is accomplished through integration, with the "inner core" and "external integration" functioning simultaneously.

中华文明历史上有过几次大融合，第一次是在汉亡、唐兴之间的几百年，即历史上被称为“魏晋南北朝”的那个时期，出现了东西文化交融、南北互通有无的局面。尽管在社会、政治层面上“魏晋南北朝”是一个大乱局，然而从文明的角度看却是一次大融合。南亚、中亚甚至北亚的文明因素成批涌入中原地区，为中华文明输入了大量新鲜血液，其结果就是“盛唐”的出现，思想方面儒释道渐趋合一，生活、技艺等方面则多方渗透，使文明的成果愈显辉煌。第二次大融合出现在宋、辽、金、元时代，政治上的政权分立反而凸显了文化方面的交融深度，而文明间的交流则突破了东亚的地理限制，扩展到亚欧大陆。以马可·波罗为代表的欧洲元素进入中国，中华文明于是开始面对“世界”，而不仅仅是一个“天下”。作为这个过程的必然延续，是明代中国向西方的探索（“郑和下西洋”）和西方向中国的探索（耶稣会士来华），其结果，一方面是中国主动接触域外，另一方面是西方的科学、技术、宗教等渐次进入中国，并逐渐为中华文明所吸收。第三次大融合是在清朝建立以后，作为北方游牧文化的继承者，清王朝的建立不仅意味着在政治上延续了汉唐宋元明的强大国家体制，而且意味着游牧文明和农耕文明的深度融合，扩大了中华文明的内涵，同时又延续了中华文明的内核，即以孔子学说为特征的精神载体和以强大国家为特征的政治载体的相互配合。与西方某些人杜撰的“内亚”之说恰恰相反，清王朝又一次说明：中华文明的每一次壮大都是在融合中完成的，“内核”和“外融”同时起作用。

To sum up, over several thousand years, Chinese civilization, relying on its powerful capacity for integration, has absorbed and incorporated diverse elements, being inclusive and great. It has not only turned crises into opportunities under the impact of major challenges but also, by absorbing external civilizations, made itself more dynamic and better able to adapt to the changes of the times. This is an important reason why Chinese civilization, among the many civilizations of the world, has endured for thousands of years without interruption. The willingness to learn and the ability to learn are among the inherent qualities of Chinese civilization; it is precisely through mutual learning and mutual emulation that Chinese civilization has continuously grown stronger and been passed down from generation to generation. Compared with other civilizations in the world, Chinese civilization is more inclusive and least exclusive. This is closely related to the fact that, in the early stage of its formation, it broke away from a monotheistic cosmology and advocated observing and understanding society and nature through a non-theological rationalist mode of thinking. Thus, it is evident that the dominant position of rationalism (which is very clearly manifested in the doctrines of the Hundred Schools of Thought [6]6 The Hundred Schools of Thought refers to the various philosophical and intellectual schools that flourished in China during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (roughly 770–221 BCE), including Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, and Mohism.) in ancient Chinese civilization is extremely important.

综上所述，在几千年时间里，中华文明依靠强大的融合力，兼收并取，有容乃大，不仅在重大危机的冲击下转危为机，并且通过吸取外来文明而使自己更有活力，更能适应时代变化。这是中华文明在世界诸多文明中历经数千年而延绵不绝的重要原因。愿意学习、善于学习是中华文明的本性之一，中华文明正是在互学互鉴的过程中不断壮大并代代相传的。与世界上其他文明相比，中华文明更具包容性，而最少排他性，这与它在文明生成的早期就摆脱单一神宇宙观，提倡用非神学理性主义的思维方式观察和认识社会与自然密切相关。可见，在古代中华文明中，理性主义的主导地位（这一点在诸子百家的学说中表现得非常明显）是极为重要的。

Third, building a modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the process of modernization. Starting from the mid-19th century, China faced a new crisis, arguably the most severe challenge in its history. The background of the crisis was that, after the 16th century, the West, driven by the newly formed “nation-states,” began to expand and seize colonies around the world. Initially, expansion was largely carried out in the peripheral areas of civilizations, establishing colonies along coastlines. From the second half of the 18th century, it entered a new phase: Britain initiated the Industrial Revolution; thereafter, expansion took on the character of industrial productive forces assaulting agricultural productive forces. A new civilization, “industrial civilization,” gradually unfolded across the world. In the mid-19th century, the British, leveraging the power of large-scale industry, used gunboats and cannons to force open China’s door; other Western powers swarmed in, attempting to carve up China. The disparity in strength between China and the West was stark: agricultural productive forces could not withstand industrial productive forces. The entire world underwent tremendous changes as a result, and many ancient civilizations faced existential crises, Chinese civilization being no exception.

第三，在现代化过程中建设中华民族现代文明。从19世纪中叶开始，中国面对新的危机，可以说是有史以来最严重的挑战。危机的背景是16世纪以后西方在新形成的“民族国家”的推动下开始扩张，在世界各地抢夺殖民地。一开始，扩张基本在文明边缘地区进行，沿着海岸线建立殖民地。18世纪下半叶开始进入新阶段，英国开启工业革命；之后，扩张就成为工业生产力对农业生产力冲击的性质了，一种新的文明“工业文明”渐次在世界展开。19世纪中叶，英国人借助大工业的力量，用坚船利炮打开了中国的大门；其他西方列强蜂拥而上，试图瓜分中国。中西力量的悬殊是显而易见的，农业生产力不敌工业生产力，整个世界由此发生巨大变化，众多古老文明纷纷面临生存危机，中华文明也不例外。

Judging by the nature of the crisis, it was not only a political crisis at the national level but also a crisis of civilization. It concerned the survival or extinction of the nation and also determined the continuity of the civilization. After several generations of arduous exploration by people of lofty ideals and benevolent aspirations [7]7 “People of lofty ideals and benevolent aspirations” (仁人志士) is a classical Chinese idiom referring to individuals with high moral principles and a strong sense of purpose, often used to describe patriots and reformers in modern Chinese history., the Chinese ultimately found a way out: to complete China’s modernization.

从危机的性质看，这场危机不仅是国家层面政治性的危机，也是一次文明危机，它关系着国家的生死存亡，也决定着文明的延续。经过几代仁人志士的艰苦探索，中国人最终找到了出路，那就是完成中国的现代化。

In this process, on the one hand, we have adhered to the fundamental core of Chinese civilization, upheld the core socialist values, insisted on the full cooperation of spiritual strength and state power, and ensured that the spiritual carrier and the political carrier each fulfill their respective responsibilities. On the other hand, we have adopted the most open attitude toward all civilizations of the world, including Western civilization. After all, the West is the birthplace of modernization; Western countries have accumulated experience and also left lessons in the process of modernization, providing much that China can learn from in its own modernization. We have also adopted the most humble attitude toward the modernization experiences of non-Western countries, learning from their strengths and avoiding their weaknesses, and jointly exploring with all countries the successful path to modernization. Chinese-path modernization is not only a comprehensive transformation of politics, economy, and society but also another great fusion of civilizations, unprecedented in its scale and depth of content. The modern civilization of the Chinese nation is being built in the process of China’s modernization; it is both inheritance and innovation, and its worldwide impact will surely endure as long as history itself.

在这个过程中，我们一方面坚守中华文明的基本内核，坚持核心价值观，坚持精神力量和国家力量的通力合作，保证精神载体和政治载体各守其责；另一方面，我们以最开放的态度对待世界各种文明，包括西方文明，毕竟西方是现代化的发源地，西方国家在现代化过程中积累了经验，也留下教训，为中国现代化提供了诸多可借鉴之处。我们也以最谦逊的态度对待非西方国家现代化经历，学其所长，避其所短，和各国共同探讨现代化成功之路。中国式现代化不仅是政治、经济、社会的全方位变革，也是又一次文明大融合，其规模之巨大，内容之深刻，前所未有。中华民族现代文明在中国现代化过程中建设起来，它既是传承，也是拓新，其产生的世界影响，一定与历史同在。

(Author’s bio: Qian Chengdan, Professor at the Institute of Area and International Studies, Peking University)

（作者简介：钱乘旦，北京大学区域与国别研究院教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心