Historical Conditions and Intellectual Trajectory of Young Deng Xiaoping’s Acceptance of Marxism as Seen from His Study Abroad in Europe

Deng Xiaoping went to France at the age of 16 under the work-study program and later studied in the Soviet Union. His more than six years in Europe were a critical period for the formation of his early thought, as well as the period in which he established his Marxist faith, laying a solid foundation for his lifelong revolutionary career. Existing academic research on Deng Xiaoping’s study abroad experience mostly follows a chronological order, dividing it into three periods: before going abroad, the work-study program in France, and study in the Soviet Union. Such research either traces his arduous personal experiences, tracks his revolutionary activities, or briefly analyzes the formation of his worldview. Objectively speaking, few studies place young Deng Xiaoping’s study abroad years within the grand history of modern China and the actual circumstances facing the Chinese revolution in the early 20th century to demonstrate the historical inevitability of the major shift in Deng Xiaoping’s thought. Few studies systematically analyze the intellectual evolution of Deng Xiaoping during his time in France and the Soviet Union as a whole. This article attempts to make some efforts in this regard, exploring the historical background and basic trajectory of Deng Xiaoping’s early intellectual evolution, with the aim of further understanding from its origins the historical inevitability of his choice of Marxism, and appreciating the lofty spirit of Deng Xiaoping and other early CPC students abroad who tirelessly pursued truth and explored the socialist path overseas.

邓小平16岁赴法国勤工俭学，后又赴苏联学习。六年多的留欧岁月是邓小平早期思想形成的关键时期，也是他建立马克思主义信仰的时期，为他一生的革命事业打下了坚实基础。学界既有的关于邓小平留学生涯的研究大多以时间为序，分为出国前、留法勤工俭学和留苏学习三个时期，或回溯其坎坷的个人经历，或寻踪其革命活动，或简析其世界观形成过程。客观来讲，鲜有研究将青年邓小平的留学生涯置于近代中国宏大的历史和20世纪初中国革命面临的现实境遇下，论证邓小平思想发生重大转折的历史必然，也鲜有研究将邓小平留法和留苏的思想演进过程作为一个整体进行系统分析。本文试图在此方面作一些尝试，探讨邓小平早期思想演进的历史背景和基本轨迹，以期从源头上进一步认识其选择马克思主义的历史必然，感悟以邓小平为代表的中国共产党早期留学生在海外不懈追求真理、探索社会主义道路的崇高精神。

I. Historical Conditions for Deng Xiaoping’s Acceptance of Marxism

一、邓小平接受马克思主义的历史条件

Young Deng Xiaoping’s acceptance of Marxism was set against the backdrop of major historical events of his era, and was influenced by the political and social environment and progressive figures. Only by reviewing and exploring the historical connections can we truly understand from its origins the intellectual journey by which young Deng Xiaoping found the truth.

青年邓小平对马克思主义的接受是以其所处时代发生的重要历史事件为背景的，受到当时的政治社会环境和进步人士的影响。只有回顾和探究其中的历史关联，才能真正从源头上认识青年邓小平找到真理的思想历程。

(A) The May Fourth Patriotic Movement: The Historical Background for the Emergence of Deng Xiaoping’s Patriotic Thought

（一）五四爱国运动：邓小平爱国思想产生的历史背景

The May Fourth Patriotic Movement that broke out in 1919 was a large-scale mass patriotic struggle. After erupting in Beijing, it rapidly affected the whole country, with students, workers, and other masses in various places actively responding and launching a powerful anti-imperialist patriotic movement. This movement stimulated a broad patriotic trend of thought and triggered a deep-seated ideological liberation movement. A group of advanced elements who pursued national independence and national prosperity emerged, transforming from vague, general democrats into radical democrats, and began to think about and choose China’s path. Like many progressive students at the time, Deng Xiaoping also began to ponder the fate of the nation and the people during the movement.

1919年爆发的五四爱国运动是一场大规模的群众爱国斗争，它在北京爆发后迅速影响全国，各地学生、工人和其他群众积极响应，举行了声势浩大的反帝爱国运动。这场运动激发了广泛的爱国思潮，引发了一场深层次的思想解放运动。一批追求民族独立和国家富强的先进分子涌现出来，纷纷从空泛的、一般的民主主义者转变为激进的民主主义者，开始对中国的出路进行思考和选择。与当时的许多进步学生一样，邓小平也开始在运动中思索国家和民族的命运问题。

During the May Fourth Movement period, the 15-year-old Deng Xiaoping participated in two organized patriotic struggles. The first occurred at the beginning of the May Fourth Movement. At that time, Deng Xiaoping was studying at Guang’an County Middle School in Sichuan. He participated in parades, rallies, propaganda, class boycotts, and boycotts of Japanese goods organized by the Student Patriotic Branch, jointly established by Guang’an County Middle School and the County Higher Primary School, gaining an initial understanding of patriotic struggle. The second occurred during his preparations for the work-study program in France. Deng Xiaoping’s father, Deng Shaochang, studied at the Chengdu Law and Politics School in the late Qing Dynasty, where he was exposed to Western learning. Later, he co-founded a primary school teaching new-style education with fellow townsmen who had studied in Japan, and his thinking was relatively open-minded. He had Deng Xiaoping apply for the Chongqing Preparatory School for the Work-Study Program in France, hoping his son would go abroad and acquire skills. In mid-September 1919, Deng Xiaoping was admitted to the Chongqing Preparatory School for France as a self-funded student, beginning to learn French and industrial technical knowledge. At this time, the fervor of the May Fourth Movement had not yet subsided, and Deng Xiaoping closely followed the movement’s developments. In November 1919, students from the Chongqing Preparatory School for France launched a patriotic movement to boycott Japanese goods. Deng Xiaoping, together with more than 2,000 students, demonstrated and petitioned, protesting against the Chongqing police chief Zheng Xianshu, who had misappropriated public funds to purchase and auction Japanese goods. This movement ultimately forced the Sichuan authorities to dismiss Zheng Xianshu.

五四运动时期，15岁的邓小平参加了两次有组织的爱国斗争。第一次发生在五四运动爆发之初。当时邓小平正在四川广安县立中学读书，他参加了由广安县立中学和县立高等小学堂联合成立的学生爱国分会组织的游行、集会、宣传、罢课和抵制日货等活动，对爱国斗争有了初步体悟。第二次发生在他为赴法勤工俭学作准备期间。邓小平的父亲邓绍昌清末就读于成都法政学校，接触过西学，后又与留学日本的同乡共同创办传授新式教育的小学堂，思想较为开化。他让邓小平报考重庆留法勤工俭学预备学校，希望儿子走出国门，学到本事。1919年9月中旬，邓小平作为自费生被重庆留法预备学校录取，开始学习法语和工业技术知识。此时五四运动的热潮尚未退去，邓小平密切关注运动形势。1919年11月，重庆留法预备学校学生举行了抵制日货的爱国运动，邓小平同2000多名学生一起示威请愿，抗议重庆警察厅长郑贤书挪用公款套购并拍卖日货。这次运动最终迫使四川当局将郑贤书撤职。

These two patriotic struggles prompted Deng Xiaoping to initially develop an awareness of patriotism and saving the people. However, due to various factors such as poor transportation and blocked information dissemination, Deng Xiaoping’s patriotic thought at this time remained at the perceptual level, a simple emotion. Yet it is undeniable that this initial patriotic awareness laid the necessary ideological foundation for his later in-depth thinking about the path of transforming the country and society.

这两次爱国斗争促使邓小平初步萌发爱国救民的意识。然而，受交通闭塞、信息传播不畅等多种因素影响，此时邓小平的爱国思想尚停留在感性层面，是一种朴素的情感。但不可否认的是，这种初步的爱国意识为其后来深入思考改造国家和社会的道路问题奠定了必要的思想基础。

(B) The Work-Study Movement in France: The Era’s Influence on the Formation of Deng Xiaoping’s “Industrial Salvation” Thought

（二）留法勤工俭学运动：邓小平“工业救国”思想形成的时代影响

The initial expression of Deng Xiaoping’s patriotic thought was the ideal of “industrial salvation,” which emerged against the backdrop of the large-scale work-study movement in France during the May Fourth period.

邓小平爱国思想的最初表现是“工业救国”理想，其产生是以五四时期发生的声势浩大的留法勤工俭学运动为背景的。

The work-study movement in France originated from the education of Chinese workers in France. In 1909, Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui, and others in France began activities among Chinese workers in France, promoting “diligence in work, frugality in study, to advance the knowledge of laborers.” [1]1 Li Shizeng (1881–1973) and Wu Zhihui (1865–1953) were Chinese anarchist intellectuals who promoted the work-study movement in France. In 1912, to promote Chinese students’ work-study in France, Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui, and others initiated the establishment of the “Society for Frugal Study in France” in Beijing, putting forward the slogan “bring world civilization to China,” encouraging young people with aspirations to save the nation to go to the center of Western civilization to learn advanced culture. Cai Yuanpei, then Minister of Education, and Wu Yuzhang, who was enthusiastic about education, also strongly advocated this. In 1915, Cai Yuanpei, Wu Yuzhang, and others organized the “Society for Work-Study in France,” with the aim of “diligence in work, frugality in study,” calling on young people to go to France for part-time work and part-time study.

留法勤工俭学运动最早起源于旅法的华工教育。1909年，旅法的李石曾、吴稚晖等人开始在旅法华工中进行“勤于工作、俭以求学，以进劳动者之智识”的活动。1912年，为推动中国学生赴法勤工俭学，李石曾、吴稚晖等人在北京发起成立“留法俭学会”，提出“输世界文明于国内”的口号，鼓励有志救国的青年学生赴西方文明的中心学习先进文化。当时的教育总长蔡元培和热心教育事业的吴玉章等人对此也大力提倡。1915年，蔡元培、吴玉章等组织“留法勤工俭学会”，以“勤于作工，俭以求学”为目的，号召青年去法国半工半读。

After the victory of the October Revolution in Russia in 1917, under the influence of progressive trends, countless progressive youths eagerly sought to go to Russia to find truth, but the channels for going to Russia were not smooth. After the end of World War I in 1918, many young men in France had died in the war, causing a severe shortage of production workers in the country. French factories began recruiting Chinese workers in China. Many young people in China believed that although they could not go to Russia, going to France, which was close to the region of revolutionary upsurge, would also allow them to come into contact with progressive ideas, while also learning advanced Western technology, which would be very beneficial for transforming China. At the same time, inspired by the May Fourth Movement, young people were liberated from the concept that “only studying is noble, all other trades are inferior.” A reformist trend of thought called “work-studyism” began to circulate among young people, advocating the combination of mental and physical labor, and the integration of work and study. As Zhou Enlai described in his article “The Great Waves of the Work-Study Movement in France”: “After the European war ended, domestic youth, stirred by new trends of thought, had a great desire for knowledge. Moreover, they were exposed to the term ‘work-study,’ stirred by the idea of ‘the sacredness of labor,’ and those who rose up to engage in overseas work-study greatly increased.” [2]2 Zhou Enlai (1898–1976) was a leading CPC figure and later Premier of the People’s Republic of China; his article was written during his own time in France. Based on the above factors, the work-study movement in France arose. Li Dazhao, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and others actively promoted and led this movement, bringing it to an unprecedented scale. From 1919 to 1920, a total of 20 groups of more than 1,900 Chinese youths went to France for work-study.

1917年俄国十月革命胜利后，在进步思潮影响下，无数进步青年渴望赴俄寻找真理，但当时的赴俄渠道并不畅通。1918年第一次世界大战结束后，法国众多青年男子在大战中丧生，造成国内生产工人奇缺，法国工厂开始在中国招募华工。国内不少青年认为，虽然无法去俄国，但到靠近革命高潮地区的法国也能接触进步思想，同时还能学习西方先进技术，对于改造中国十分有益。与此同时，在五四运动的感召下，青年人从“万般皆下品，惟有读书高”的观念中解放出来。青年中开始流行一种叫作“工读主义”的改良主义思潮，主张脑力劳动与体力劳动相结合，做工与学习结为一体。正如周恩来在《留法勤工俭学之大波澜》一文中所描述的：“迨欧战既停，国内青年受新思潮之鼓荡，求知识之心大盛，复耳濡目染于‘工读’之名词，耸动于‘劳工神圣’之思想，奋起作海外勤工俭学之行者因以大增。”基于以上因素，留法勤工俭学运动兴起。李大钊、毛泽东、周恩来等人积极促进和领导了这一运动，使其达到空前规模。1919—1920年，先后有20批总计1900多名中国青年赴法勤工俭学。

After studying for one year at the Chongqing Preparatory School for France, Deng Xiaoping obtained the opportunity for work-study. Influenced by new trends of thought, he gradually formed the idea of “industrial salvation.” Although this idea had not yet been tested in practice, he was very hopeful about the work-study program in France, seeing it as a way to save the nation. As he later recalled: “At that time, what was called the idea of saving the nation was nothing more than the idea of industrial salvation popular among classmates. In my naive mind at that time, I was just full of hope to go to France to work diligently and study frugally, to learn some skills and return to China.” [3]3 This quotation is from Deng Xiaoping’s later recollections, as cited in the source text.

邓小平在重庆留法预备学校学习一年后，获得了勤工俭学机会。在新思潮的感染下，他逐步形成了“工业救国”思想，虽然这种思想还未得到实践检验，但他对赴法勤工俭学十分憧憬，认为这是救国的一个出路。正如他后来回忆时说：“这时所谓救国思想，无非是当时同学中流行的所谓工业救国思想。在那时我的幼稚的脑筋中，只是满怀希望地想到法国去一面勤工，一面俭学，学点本事回国。”

(C) The Establishment of CPC Party and Youth League Organizations in Europe: The Historical Impetus for Deng Xiaoping’s Establishment of Marxist Faith

（三）中共旅欧党团组织的创建：邓小平建立马克思主义信仰的历史触动

Current academic research mostly divides Deng Xiaoping’s experience in France by two temporal nodes: first, March to April 1921, when Deng left school, bid farewell to “frugal study,” and began “work-study”; second, June 1923, when Deng joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe and formally embarked on the revolutionary path. These two temporal nodes undoubtedly provide an accurate periodization of the shifts in Deng’s focus of endeavor and identity. However, from the perspective of the evolution of Deng Xiaoping’s political thought, there is another temporal node that cannot be ignored: February 1922, when he arrived in the city of Châlette-sur-Loing in Montargis. Based on currently available materials, it was only after this that Deng Xiaoping began to truly come into contact with socialist ideas and study Marxism. To clarify this period of history and the influence of relevant figures on Deng Xiaoping, one must trace back to the important historical event of that time—the founding of the Chinese Communist Party’s European Party and Youth League organizations.

当前学界已有研究大多以两个时间节点划分邓小平在法经历：一是 1921年3月至4月，这是邓小平离开学校，告别“俭学”，开始“勤工”的时间；二是1923年6月，这是邓小平参加旅欧中国共产主义青年团，正式走上革命道路的时间。这两个时间节点无疑对邓小平谋事重心和身份转换等进行了准确分期，但从邓小平政治思想的演进轨迹来看，还有一个时间节点是不容忽视的，那就是1922年2月，即他到达蒙达尔纪的夏莱特市的时间。从目前掌握的资料来看，从那以后，邓小平才开始真正接触社会主义思想、学习马克思主义。要说清楚这一段历史以及相关人物对邓小平的影响，就应该回溯到当时发生的重要历史事件——中共旅欧党团组织的创建。

In the early 1920s, under the influence of the October Revolution in Russia, the proletarian revolutionary situation in many European countries continued to run high, and French intellectual circles were equally active. Among the work-study students, various ideological tendencies existed, giving rise to different groups. There were three main groups with Marxist tendencies: first, the French branch of the Xinmin Society [4]4 The Xinmin Society (新民学会) was a progressive student organization founded in 1918 by Mao Zedong and Cai Hesen in Changsha, Hunan, which later split over ideological differences, with its French branch becoming a key conduit for Marxist ideas among Chinese work-study students in Europe.. This group was mainly concentrated in Montargis, where Deng worked, represented by figures such as Cai Hesen. They often gathered to study Marxist works, gaining insight into the political development situation in China and the world, and became the earliest group among the work-study students to believe in Marxism. Second, the Work-Study Mutual Aid Society, established by Li Weihan, Li Fuchun, and others. This group initially believed in work-studyism and anarchism, but later, under the influence of Cai Hesen and others, turned to Marxism and changed its name to the Work-Study World Society. Third, the Work-Study Society, initiated by Zhao Shiyan, Li Lisan, and others. The initiators of this group did not fully believe in Marxism at first; after Zhao Shiyan and others contacted and exchanged views with Cai Hesen, Wang Ruofei, and others, they decided to act together and jointly explore Marxism. In order to establish a unified organization, the progressive groups began to move from acting independently to uniting, abandoning tendencies such as work-studyism and anarchism, and embarking on the correct path of “implementing socialism.” The tendency of progressive youth among the students in Europe to believe in socialism and Marxism had a direct and positive impact on Deng Xiaoping’s ideological changes. While working in the shoe-making workshop of the Hutchinson Rubber Factory in Châlette-sur-Loing, Deng Xiaoping became acquainted with progressive youth such as Li Fuchun, Wang Ruofei, Zheng Chaolin, Li Weinong, and Yin Kuan. They often exchanged views with Deng on the issue of the Chinese revolution, introduced him to socialist publications, and Zhao Shiyan, secretary of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, also frequently came to Deng’s factory to carry out revolutionary propaganda activities. Thus, Deng Xiaoping accepted propaganda about socialism.

20世纪20年代初，在俄国十月革命的影响下，欧洲许多国家的无产阶级革命形势持续高涨，法国思想界同样非常活跃。在勤工俭学学生中存在着各种思想倾向，并由此形成不同团体。具有马克思主义倾向的团体主要有三个：一是新民学会法国分支。该团体主要聚集在邓小平做工的蒙达尔纪市，以蔡和森等人为代表，他们常常聚在一起研读马克思主义著作，洞悉中国和世界的政治发展形势，成为勤工俭学学生中最早信仰马克思主义的团体。二是由李维汉、李富春等人组建的工学励进会。该团体最初信仰工读主义和无政府主义，后在蔡和森等人的影响下转向马克思主义，并将名称改为工学世界社。三是由赵世炎、李立三等人发起成立的勤工俭学会。该团体发起者最初并不完全信仰马克思主义，赵世炎等人与蔡和森、王若飞等人联系并交流意见后，决定共同行动，一起探讨马克思主义。为了建立统一的组织，进步团体开始由各自为政走向联合，放弃了工读主义、无政府主义等倾向，走上了“实行社会主义”的正确道路。留欧学生中的进步青年信仰社会主义、马克思主义的倾向对邓小平的思想变化产生了直接的、积极的影响。邓小平在夏莱特市哈金森橡胶厂制鞋车间做工期间结识了李富春、王若飞、郑超麟、李慰农、尹宽等进步青年，他们经常与邓小平交流关于中国革命的问题，向他介绍社会主义书刊，旅欧中国少年共产党书记赵世炎也常到邓小平做工的工厂开展革命宣传活动，邓小平由此接受了关于社会主义的宣传。

In 1921, advanced elements among the students in Europe, including Zhang Shenfu, Zhou Enlai, Zhao Shiyan, and Liu Qingyang, established the Paris Communist Group, which was one of the eight founding groups of the Chinese Communist Party. On June 3, 1922, the Paris Communist Group initiated the founding of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. To promote the study and propaganda of Marxism and communism, the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe carried out a series of tasks: it founded the organ journal *Youth* to propagate revolutionary propositions; established a library to collect Marxist and socialist books; and held lectures, inviting French Communist Party theorist Charles Rappoport and others to give talks on the theory and practice of the French proletarian revolution. Xiao San later recalled: “In the winter of 1922, we rented a café to hold such lectures…” It is difficult to verify whether Deng Xiaoping participated in the study activities organized by the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe or entered the library during this period, but he had already obtained some opportunities and conditions for theoretical study. Shortly after *Youth* was first published, Deng Xiaoping joined its editorial department, becoming its youngest member, thus beginning his revolutionary activities.

1921年，张申府、周恩来、赵世炎、刘清扬等留学生中的先进分子建立了巴黎共产主义小组，它是中国共产党八个发起组之一。1922年6月3日，巴黎共产主义小组发起成立旅欧中国少年共产党。为促进对马克思主义、共产主义的学习与宣传，旅欧中国少年共产党开展了一系列工作：创办机关刊物《少年》，宣传革命主张；建立图书馆，收藏马克思主义、社会主义书籍；举办演讲会，邀请法共理论家沙里·拉波波等人讲授法国无产阶级革命的理论与实践。萧三后来回忆道：“1922年冬，我们租了个咖啡馆来举行这样的演讲……”邓小平在此期间是否参加过旅欧中国少年共产党组织的学习活动、是否进入图书馆学习已很难考证，但他已获得了一些理论学习的机会和条件。《少年》创刊不久，邓小平就加入编辑部，成为最年轻的一名成员，由此开启革命活动。

From February 17 to 20, 1923, the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe held an interim congress on the outskirts of Paris, deciding to join the Chinese Socialist Youth League and changing its name to the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe (also known as the “Chinese Socialist Youth League European Branch”). The congress adopted the *Constitution of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe*, drafted by Zhou Enlai. Article 1 of Chapter 1, “Members,” stipulated: “Any Chinese youth in Europe wishing to join this League as a member must: already have faith in communism… absolutely not believe in any religion, and not belong to any organization of a religious nature.” Zhou Enlai emphasized that our organization was newly established, and the ideological level of Party and League members was not high; therefore, ideological construction should be emphasized, that is, strengthening the study of Marxism-Leninism and communism. According to the *First Report of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe (Chinese Socialist Youth League European Branch)* (hereinafter referred to as the *Report*), recorded by Zhou Enlai, the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe stipulated: “The responsibility of this League in Europe and its future activities—broadly defined as the educational work of communism, in other words, what Lenin called ‘learn, learn communism’,” while emphasizing that internal training issues should “take the study of communism as the most important matter.” In June 1923, Deng Xiaoping joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe and began to conduct communist research under the leadership of the organization.

1923年2月17日至20日，旅欧中国少年共产党在巴黎郊外召开临时代表大会，决定加入中国社会主义青年团，并将其名称改为旅欧中国共产主义青年团（又称“中国社会主义青年团旅欧支部”）。大会通过了周恩来起草的《旅欧中国共产主义青年团章程》。第一章《团员》的第一条规定：“凡旅欧中国青年愿加入本团为团员者，必须：对于共产主义已有信仰……绝对不信奉宗教，不属于任何宗教性质之团体。”周恩来强调，我们的组织是新建的，党团员的思想水平不高，因此应当着重进行思想建设，即加强对马列主义和共产主义的学习。据周恩来记录的《旅欧中国共产主义青年团（中国社会主义青年团旅欧支部）报告第一号》（以下简称《报告》）记载：旅欧中国共产主义青年团规定，“本团旅欧之责任及今后应有之活动——大体规定为共产主义的教育工作，换言之即是列宁所谓‘学，学共产主义’”，同时强调内部训练问题要“以进行共产主义研究为最重要之事”。1923年6月，邓小平加入旅欧中国共产主义青年团，开始在组织的领导下进行共产主义研究。

It can be said that the period of work-study in France was a crucial period in the development of Deng Xiaoping’s thought. He grew from a patriotic student into a revolutionary fighter and established his communist faith. The historical thread behind this is the founding of the Chinese Communist Party’s European Party and Youth League organizations.

可以说，留法勤工俭学期间是邓小平思想发展的关键时期，他从一名爱国学生成长为革命战士，确立了共产主义信仰。这背后的历史线索就是中共旅欧党团组织的创建。

(4) The Movement to Study in the Soviet Union: Historical Conditions for Deng Xiaoping’s Systematic Study of Marxism

（四）留苏运动：邓小平系统学习马克思主义的历史条件

If it can be said that Deng Xiaoping acquired preliminary Marxist theoretical knowledge during his work-study period in France and became a revolutionary with Marxist faith, then it was during his study in the Soviet Union that he truly systematically studied Marxist theory and became a Marxist in the strict sense. Existing academic research on Deng Xiaoping’s study in the Soviet Union has paid little attention to the historical factors of his study there; only a few studies have focused on the impact of changes in the Chinese revolutionary situation and the Soviet Union’s attitude toward China on Deng Xiaoping’s study in the Soviet Union, that is, the historical background of Deng Xiaoping’s departure to study in the Soviet Union. However, regarding the impact of the historical conditions at that time on Deng Xiaoping’s ideological changes, that is, how he was able to carry out systematic theoretical study and its historical background, there is currently little research.

如果说邓小平是在法国勤工俭学期间具备了初步的马克思主义理论知识，成为一名具有马克思主义信仰的革命者，那么他真正系统学习马克思主义理论、成为一名严格意义上的马克思主义者就是在苏联学习期间。学界已有的关于邓小平留苏学习的研究较少关注到邓小平留苏学习的历史因素，只有少数研究关注中国革命形势的变化、苏联对中国问题的态度等对邓小平留苏学习的影响，即邓小平赴苏学习的历史背景。但关于当时的历史条件对邓小平思想变化的影响，即邓小平得以开展系统的理论学习及其历史背景，目前还鲜有研究。

After the victory of the October Revolution in Russia, the Communist International and the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) attached great importance to and actively supported the revolutionary movements in colonial and semi-colonial countries. In mid-October 1920, the Soviet Red Army defeated the White bandit forces of Kolchak and Semyonov that had occupied the Far East region, and established Soviet power in the Far East. With the opening of the secret Manzhouli route, the closed Sino-Russian passage was reopened. In May 1921, the Communist International founded the Communist University of the Toilers of the East (full name: Communist University of the Toilers of the East) to train cadres from ethnic minorities within the Soviet Union and cadres from communist parties in Eastern countries. The Communist University of the Toilers of the East mainly recruited Chinese students through two channels: first, the domestic channel, mainly selected by the early organizations of the Chinese Communist Party, such as the more than 20 young League members sent by the Shanghai Socialist Youth League from the Shanghai Foreign Languages School in the spring of 1921, including Liu Shaoqi, Luo Yinong, Ren Bishi, Xiao Jinguang, and others; second, the foreign channel, that is, members from the Chinese Communist Party European Branch. From March 1923 to September 1924, members of the Chinese Communist Party European Branch went to study at the Moscow Communist University of the Toilers of the East in three batches, including Deng Xiaoping, Zhao Shiyan, Wang Ruofei, Chen Yannian, Chen Qiaonian, and others. After the beginning of the first Kuomintang-Communist cooperation, the Communist University of the Toilers of the East could no longer meet China’s need for training cadres, so the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) decided to found Sun Yat-sen University to train cadres for the Chinese National Revolution. To meet the needs of the development of the Great Revolution, the Chinese Communist Party began to select cadres from various channels to go to Moscow to systematically study Marxism-Leninism.

俄国十月革命胜利之后，共产国际和俄共（布）十分重视并积极支持殖民地半殖民地国家的革命运动。1920年10月中旬，苏俄红军击败了盘踞远东地区的高尔察克、谢苗诺夫白匪军，并在远东地区建立了苏维埃政权。随着满洲里秘密交通线的开辟，封闭的中俄通道被重新打开。1921年5月，共产国际创办东方大学（全称“东方劳动者共产主义大学”），培训苏联境内各少数民族干部和东方各国共产党干部。东方大学主要从两个渠道招收中国学生：一是国内渠道，主要是中国共产党的早期组织选拔的，比如1921年春上海社会主义青年团从上海外国语学社选派的20多名青年团员，其中有刘少奇、罗亦农、任弼时、萧劲光等人；二是国外渠道，即来自中共旅欧支部的成员。从1923年3月至1924年9月，中共旅欧支部成员分三批前往莫斯科东方大学学习，其中包括邓小平、赵世炎、王若飞、陈延年、陈乔年等人。第一次国共合作开始之后，东方大学已经不能满足中国对培养干部的需要，俄共（布）决定创办中山大学，为中国国民革命培养干部。为适应大革命发展的需要，中国共产党开始从各个渠道选派干部赴莫斯科系统学习马克思列宁主义。

In May 1925, Deng Xiaoping, then in France, was included by the Executive Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Branch in Europe in the first list of 16 persons proposed to go to Moscow for study. In accordance with the requirements of the Chinese Communist Party Branch in Moscow, Deng Xiaoping left Paris for Moscow in January 1926, first entering the Moscow Eastern University and soon transferring to the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University.

1925年5月，在法国的邓小平被中共旅欧支部执委会列入首批拟定的赴莫斯科学习的16名人员名单。按照中共旅莫支部的要求，邓小平于1926年1月动身离开巴黎赴莫斯科，先进入莫斯科东方大学，很快转入莫斯科中山大学。

Why was it that at the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, a school established to train cadres for the Chinese National Revolution, Deng Xiaoping was able to systematically study Marxist knowledge? One reason is that the school offered systematic Marxist theoretical courses, and there were also a large number of Russian-language Marxist works and related materials for students to study. There is also a more important reason: when Deng Xiaoping studied in the Soviet Union, the Chinese Communist Party had already been established, and Chinese students carried out theoretical study under the leadership of the Party, with a clear understanding of the tasks and goals of study. On April 28, 1923, Luo Yinong, secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Branch in Moscow, gave a report at a general meeting of the branch, clearly stating that the purpose of Chinese comrades coming to study at the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University was “to study Marxism, learn Marx’s revolutionary experience, and train themselves to become good communists,” and that after returning to China they would “represent the proletariat in activities.” [5]5 Luo Yinong (1902-1928) was an early leader of the Chinese Communist Party, executed by the Kuomintang in 1928. The Chinese Communist Party Branch in Moscow (中共旅莫支部) was the Party organization for Chinese students in the Soviet Union. On May 7 of the same year, the provisional general meeting of the Chinese Communist Party Branch in Moscow adopted the “Specific Plan for the Training of Party and League Members in Europe,” in which Luo Yinong put forward specific suggestions on how to carry out Marxist study. He pointed out that, given that the branch’s Party members already had a foundation in social science as a basis for study, future study of Marxist theory should “focus specifically on one discipline,” with research content including historical materialism, economics, the history of the peasant and worker movements, various schools of socialism, colonial issues, the current state of revolutions in various countries, and issues of proletarian art, youth, women, the military, and religion. It was precisely in accordance with the requirements of the Party organization that the early Chinese Communist Party students in the Soviet Union systematically carried out Marxist research, finding the direction and method of study under the Party’s leadership. Deng Xiaoping, too, in such an intellectual environment and under such study conditions, was able to systematically study Marxism and continuously consolidate his communist ideological foundation.

为什么在莫斯科中山大学这所以培养中国国民革命干部为目标的学校，邓小平能系统学习到马克思主义知识呢？一个原因是该校开设了系统的马克思主义理论课程，同时也有大量俄文版马克思主义著作和相关资料供学生学习。还有一个更重要的原因是，邓小平留苏学习时，中国共产党已经成立，中国留学生是在党的领导下开展理论学习的，对学习的任务、目标等有了明确的认识。1923年4月28日，中共旅莫支部书记罗亦农在中共旅莫支部大会上作报告，明确指出中国的同志来莫斯科中山大学学习的目的“是研究马克思主义，学习马克思的革命经验，训练自己成为很好的共产主义者”，回国后“代表无产阶级活动”同年5月7日，中共旅莫支部临时大会通过了《旅莫党团训练具体方案》，其中罗亦农对如何开展马克思主义学习提出了具体建议。他指出，鉴于支部党员已有了社会科学根底为研究之基础，今后对马克思主义理论学习须“专门注重一门”，研究内容包括唯物史观、经济学、农工运动史、各种社会主义派别、殖民地问题、各国革命现状、无产阶级之艺术及青年、妇女、军事、宗教问题等。中国共产党早期留苏学生正是按照党组织的要求系统开展马克思主义研究的，在党的领导下找到了学习方向和方法。邓小平也在这样的思想环境和学习条件下得以系统学习马克思主义，不断夯实共产主义思想基础。

II. The Trajectory of Deng Xiaoping’s Intellectual Evolution in Accepting Marxism

二、邓小平接受马克思主义的思想演进轨迹

In his youth, Deng Xiaoping’s thinking underwent a developmental process from saving the nation through industry to saving the nation through revolution, from accepting socialism to establishing a Marxist faith, from studying communism to spreading communism, and from a superficial understanding of communism to a full understanding of communism.

青年邓小平在思想上经历了从工业救国到革命救国、从接受社会主义到建立马克思主义信仰、从研究共产主义到传播共产主义、从粗浅认识共产主义到充分认识共产主义的发展过程。

(I) From “Saving the Nation through Industry” to “Having a Painful Feeling about the Nature of Capitalist Society”

（一）从“工业救国”到“对资本主义社会性的痛略有感觉”

In the year and more after the outbreak of the May Fourth Movement, [6]6 The May Fourth Movement (1919) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal political and cultural movement initiated by Chinese students and intellectuals. under the influence of ideas such as work-studyism and saving the nation through industry, Deng Xiaoping transformed his simple patriotic thoughts into the ideal of “saving the nation through industry” and went abroad, putting his thinking and understanding into practice.

五四运动爆发后的一年多时间里，在工读主义、实业救国等思想的影响下，邓小平将朴素的爱国思想转化为“工业救国”理想并走出国门，将思考与认识付诸实践。

On October 21, 1920, under the arrangement of the Sino-French Education Association, Deng Xiaoping, together with more than 20 other Chinese students, arrived at the small town of Bayeux in the Normandy region of northern France, 270 kilometers from Paris, and entered the Bayeux Middle School to begin boarding school life. The Bayeux Middle School set up separate classes for Chinese students, with the main courses being French and commerce. After Deng Xiaoping had studied at Bayeux Middle School for just over two months, the Sino-French Education Association issued a notice stating that the association had no organizational relationship with the work-study students and clearly indicated that it would sever financial relations with them and would no longer issue maintenance funds to them. Unable to pay tuition, on March 13, 1921, Deng Xiaoping left Bayeux Middle School and began to take up work-study. Deng Xiaoping did several kinds of hard labor, first working as a general laborer in the rolling mill of the Schneider steelworks in the heavy industrial city of Le Creusot in southern France, responsible for hauling steel bars in front of high-temperature furnaces. The work at the Schneider steelworks was extremely hard and the wages were meager; the money Deng Xiaoping earned was not even enough to eat, and he even lost more than 100 francs. After quitting his job at the Schneider factory, Deng Xiaoping went to Paris and began to receive a daily maintenance allowance of six francs from the Chinese Embassy in France. This small amount of money was only enough to maintain the most basic living; he ate only two meals a day, mainly bread and tap water. During this period, Deng Xiaoping also worked as a restaurant waiter, a railway station and dock porter, a cleaner, and other menial jobs.

1920年10月21日，邓小平在华法教育会的安排下，与20多名中国学生一起来到距离巴黎270公里的法国北部诺曼底大区的小城巴耶，进入巴耶中学开始寄宿制学习生活。巴耶中学为中国学生单独开班，学习的课程主要有法语和商贸。邓小平在巴耶中学学习两个多月后，华法教育会发出通告称该会与勤工俭学学生在组织上没有关系，并且明确表示要与勤工俭学学生断绝经济关系，不再向其发放维持费用。由于无法支付学费，1921年3月13日，邓小平离开了巴耶中学，开始走上勤工的道路。邓小平做了好几份苦工，先在法国南部重工业城市克鲁梭市的施耐德钢铁厂轧钢车间做杂工，负责在高温炉前拖送钢条。施耐德钢铁厂的工作十分艰苦，而且工资微薄，邓小平赚的钱连饭都吃不饱，还倒赔了100多法郎。辞去施耐德工厂的工作后，邓小平赴巴黎，开始领取中国驻法使馆发放的每天六法郎的生活维持费。这点钱只够维持最基本的生活，他每天只吃两顿饭，主要是面包加自来水。在此期间，邓小平还从事过饭馆招待、火车码头搬运工、清洁工等杂役工作。

In his five years and two months in France, Deng Xiaoping spent less than five months actually studying in school. Although conditions for studying theory were limited, he engaged in extensive practice in capitalist factories, directly contacting and understanding the capitalist mode of production, and also gaining an initial understanding of the drawbacks of the capitalist system and the irreconcilable contradiction between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He later recalled: “The hardship of life, the abuse of the capitalist’s lackeys—the foremen—directly or indirectly had a great influence on me. In the first two years, I had a painful feeling about the nature of capitalist society.” [7]7 This quotation is from Deng Xiaoping’s 1973 “Self-Criticism” (self-review), written during the Cultural Revolution. Work practice promoted his thinking on theoretical issues. On April 24, 1985, when Deng Xiaoping met with a visiting delegation of the United Auto Workers union and American trade union leaders, he spoke of his labor experience in French factories: “I stayed in France for five and a half years, of which I worked in factories for four years, doing heavy physical labor. I am short because I did heavy labor when I was young. Wages were very low at the time. But there was also a benefit: such a life made me accept Marxism.” [8]8 This meeting took place on April 24, 1985, in Beijing. Deng Xiaoping also established friendly relations with French workers and deeply understood their suffering under oppression and exploitation. On August 31, 1985, when Deng Xiaoping met with French Foreign Minister Roland Dumas, he said that in French factories he “had good relations with the workers, but your capitalists also taught me a lesson, making me and our group of people educated, embarking on the communist path, and believing in Marxism.” [9]9 This meeting took place on August 31, 1985, in Beijing.

邓小平在法国的五年零两个月的时间里，真正在学校学习的时间不到五个月。虽然学习理论的条件有限，但他在资本主义工厂中进行了大量的实践，直接接触和了解了资本主义的生产方式，同时也初步认识了资本主义制度的弊端、资产阶级与无产阶级之间不可调和的矛盾等。他后来回忆道：“生活的痛苦，资本家的走狗——工头的辱骂，使我直接或间接的受到很大的影响，最初两年对资本主义社会性的痛略有感觉。”做工实践促进了他对理论问题的思考。1985年4月24日，邓小平会见访华的美国联合汽车工人工会代表团和美国工会领导人时谈到自己在法国工厂的劳动经历时说：“我在法国呆了五年半，其中在工厂劳动了四年，干重体力劳动。我的个子低，就是因为年轻时干了重劳动。当时工资很低。但也有个好处，这样的生活使我接受了马克思主义。”邓小平还与法国工人建立了友好关系，对他们受压迫受剥削的苦难处境深有体会。1985年8月31日，邓小平会见法国对外关系部部长罗朗·迪马时说，我在法国工厂“同工人关系很好，但你们的资本家也教训了我，使我和我们这批人受到教育，走上了共产主义道路，信仰马克思主义”。

The idea of “saving the nation through industry” that emerged in Deng Xiaoping’s mind under the influence of those around him during the May Fourth Movement was essentially a reformist idea, advocating learning advanced ideas and technology from abroad to transform China’s economically and technologically backward and systemically dark society. After arriving in France, he felt the decay and darkness of the capitalist system, gradually realized that the method of “work-study” to “study frugally” was unrealistic, and then abandoned the illusion of “saving the nation through industry” and “learning some skills,” beginning to seek a new intellectual way out.

邓小平在五四运动中受周围人影响萌发的“工业救国”思想实质上是一种改良主义思想，主张通过向国外学习先进理念和技术来改造经济科技落后、制度黑暗的中国。到法国后，他感受到资本主义制度的腐朽黑暗，逐渐认识到用“勤工”方法来“俭学”是不现实的，继而抛弃“工业救国”“学点本事”的幻想，开始寻找新的思想出路。

(II) From “Always Being on the Side of Socialism” to “Having the Demand to Join a Revolutionary Organization”

（二）从“总是站在社会主义这边”到“有了参加革命组织的要求”

At the beginning of the 20th century, among the thousands of work-study students in France, some were inclined toward communism and Marxism, while others believed in work-studyism, anarchism, guild socialism, and nationalism. In reality, however, the work-studyism to which the vast majority of work-study students were inclined was tinged with utopian socialism; although they were influenced by anarchism, their understanding of anarchism was superficial; although they were influenced by the Russian October Revolution, they had only read reports of the October Revolution and articles praising it in domestic and French newspapers, lacking a complete and systematic understanding of theory and practice. At that time, progressive youth in Europe generally lacked Marxist-Leninist theoretical knowledge, as Xiao San later recalled: “When we were in Montargis, although we each read some books by Marx, Engels, and Lenin, we were still unclear about the true essence of Marxism, the situation in Russia after the October Revolution, and the Third Communist International.” [10]10 Xiao San (1896-1983) was a Chinese poet and translator, a close friend of Mao Zedong, and a participant in the work-study program in France. Montargis was a center for Chinese work-study students in France.

20世纪初，在法国留学的上千名勤工俭学学生有向往共产主义、倾向马克思主义的，也有信奉工读主义、无政府主义、基尔特社会主义、国家主义的。然而实际上，绝大多数勤工俭学学生倾向的工读主义是带有空想社会主义意味的；虽然他们受到了无政府主义的影响，但他们了解的无政府主义是粗浅的；虽然他们受到俄国十月革命的影响，但他们也只是从国内报刊和法国报刊上看过报道十月革命和赞颂十月革命的文章，缺乏对理论和实践的完整系统的理解。当时，旅欧的进步青年普遍缺乏马克思列宁主义理论知识，正如萧三后来回忆的：“在蒙达尼的时候，虽然我们分头读了些马、恩、列的书，然而对马克思主义的真谛，十月革命后的俄国和第三共产国际的状况，还是模糊不清的。”

Some advanced elements, through arduous exploration, were the first to recognize the truth of Marxism, such as Zhou Enlai, Cai Hesen, Zhao Shiyan, and others. They fully utilized the conditions prevailing in Europe after the founding of the Communist International—where the communist movement was surging and Marxist books and periodicals were widely available—to intensively study Marxist works, read the French Communist Party organ *L’Humanité*, the British Communist Party organ *The Communist*, as well as progressive periodicals published in China such as *New Youth*, *Current Events*, *Liberation*, *Reform*, *Construction*, and *The Renaissance*. At the same time, they investigated the European proletarian movement and various social trends of thought, thereby weighing and comparing socialism with anarchism, French syndicalism, British guild socialism, and others, while also examining the European proletarian movement, thus gaining an initial grasp of Marxism. Under the influence of these progressive youth who had already acquired the rudiments of communist thought, Deng Xiaoping began to read progressive periodicals such as *New Youth* and gradually came to accept scientific socialism. He later recalled: “I felt that I was making progress at that time. Because I had begun to read books and newspapers about socialism. What influenced me most were volumes eight and nine of *New Youth* and the *Collected Discussions on Socialism*. My work environment made me feel that what Chen Duxiu and others said was correct. Therefore, whenever I heard people arguing, I always stood on the side of socialism.”

一些先进分子经过艰辛求索，率先认识了马克思主义的真理性，比如周恩来、蔡和森、赵世炎等人。他们充分利用自共产国际成立后欧洲各国共产主义运动高涨、马克思主义书刊在欧洲十分流行的条件，大量研读马克思主义著作，阅读法国共产党机关报《人道报》、英国共产党机关报《共产党人》以及国内出版的《新青年》《时事新报》《解放》《改造》《建设》《新潮》等进步刊物，同时考察欧洲无产阶级运动和各种社会思潮，由此对社会主义与无政府主义、法国的工团主义、英国的基尔特社会主义等进行推敲比较，同时考察欧洲无产阶级运动，初步掌握了马克思主义。邓小平在这些初具共产主义思想的进步青年的影响下，开始阅读《新青年》等进步书刊，逐渐接受科学社会主义。他后来回忆道：“我自觉那时是有进步的。因为我起初在看关于社会主义的书报了。最使我受影响的是《新青年》第八、九卷及社会主义讨论集。我做工的环境使我益于陈独秀们所说的话是对的，因此，我每每听到人与人相争辩时，我总是站在社会主义这边的。”

Apart from *New Youth*, which Deng Xiaoping mentioned in his own account, it is difficult for us to ascertain which socialist and Marxist works he read at that time. The records of the French police at the time can provide some clues for understanding his study activities. While in France, Deng Xiaoping was under police surveillance for a long period. In a surveillance report, the police stated: “He is a communist activist, frequently speaks at various communist meetings, and strongly advocates closeness to the Soviet government. He also possesses many communist pamphlets and newspapers, and has received many letters from China and the Soviet Union.” After Deng Xiaoping and others left France, the French police searched the residence of Deng Xiaoping and his comrades in the Billancourt area and discovered pamphlets propagating communism in French and Chinese, *Chinese Worker*, *Sun Yat-sen’s Will*, *The ABC of Communism*, and Chinese-language newspapers such as *Progress* published in Moscow. It can be seen that, under extremely dangerous conditions, Deng Xiaoping still persisted in actively organizing revolutionary activities and diligently studying communist knowledge, demonstrating the dauntless revolutionary spirit of a communist.

除了邓小平自述中提到的《新青年》以外，我们很难考证他在当时读了哪些社会主义和马克思主义著作。当时法国警察的记录可以为我们了解他的学习活动提供一些线索。邓小平在法国时长期处于警察监视下。警察在监视报告中称：“他是共产主义的活动分子，经常在共产党的各种会议上发言，并极力主张亲近苏联政府。他还拥有许多共产主义的小册子和报纸，并收到过许多寄自中国和苏联的来信。”邓小平等人离开法国后，法国警察对邓小平等人在比扬古市的住址进行搜查，发现了法文、中文的宣传共产主义的小册子《中国工人》《孙逸仙遗嘱》《共产主义ABC》和莫斯科出版的《进步报》等中文报纸。可见，邓小平在极端危险的情况下仍然坚持积极组织革命活动，努力学习共产主义知识，展现了一个共产主义者的大无畏革命精神。

Deng Xiaoping later summarized the ideological transformation from a patriot to a revolutionary who voluntarily joined the Party, and its driving forces, saying: “On the one hand, I acquired some knowledge of socialism, especially communism; on the other hand, I was influenced by the propaganda of already awakened elements; and, added to this, the suffering I had personally experienced, I felt the need to join a revolutionary organization.” He himself stated that after joining the Party organization and establishing his communist faith, he “was never infiltrated by any other thought, and has always been quite communist.”

邓小平后来对他从爱国主义者到自发参加党组织的革命者的思想转变及其动因进行了总结，他说：“一方面接受了一点关于社会主义尤其是共产主义的知识，一方面又受到已觉悟的分子的宣传，同时加上切身已受的痛苦，有了参加革命组织的要求。”他自己表示，在加入党组织、确立共产主义信仰后，“从来就未受过其他思想的浸入，一直就是相当共产主义的”。

(III) From “Conducting Communist Research” to “Explaining Strategy and Disseminating Communist Doctrine”

（三）从“进行共产主义研究”到“解释战略并传播共产主义学理”

Participating in the work of the organ of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, *The Youth*, and the organ of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, *Red Light*, and publishing articles in these magazines to propagate revolutionary propositions and refute erroneous trends of thought, constituted Deng Xiaoping’s main theoretical activities during his stay in France, and also his earliest theoretical activities as a Marxist. Current academic circles rarely conduct specific analyses of Deng Xiaoping’s earliest theoretical activities. The articles Deng Xiaoping wrote at that time not only reflected his initial application of Marxist standpoints, viewpoints, and methods, but also embodied his qualities and style as a revolutionary with a preliminary level of Marxist theoretical competence. Therefore, these articles deserve our further attention today.

参加旅欧中国少年共产党的机关刊物《少年》和旅欧中国共产主义青年团机关刊物《赤光》的工作，并在杂志上发表宣传革命主张、批驳错误思潮的文章，是邓小平留法期间的主要理论活动，也是他作为一名马克思主义者的最初的理论活动。当前学界鲜有对邓小平最初的理论活动进行具体分析的研究。邓小平当时写作的文章既反映了他对马克思主义立场观点方法的最初运用，也体现了他作为一名初步具备马克思主义理论水平的革命者的素养与风貌。因此，这些文章值得我们今天进一步关注。

*The Youth*, first published on August 1, 1922, was the first periodical published overseas by the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. After the establishment of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, *The Youth* was renamed *Red Light*. Zhou Enlai, in the “First Report of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe (European Branch of the Chinese Socialist Youth League),” pointed out the need to continue publishing *The Youth* magazine: “Our youth organization here truly has the necessity to explain the strategy of the Third International and the domestic Communist Party to the work-study students and Chinese workers who cannot easily read foreign-language theoretical books, and to disseminate communist doctrine among them.” Zhou Enlai wrote the manifesto for the first issue of *Red Light*, stating: “We have changed the theoretical *The Youth* into the practical *Red Light*.” The sole goal identified by *Red Light* was “the national united front against the warlord government, and the international united front against imperialism.” *Red Light* was more combative, thereby distinguishing it from *The Youth*, whose main content was propagating propositions, elucidating doctrines, and interpreting ideas. Under the direct leadership of Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping participated in the work of *Red Light* and, in accordance with organizational requirements, strove to shift from “conducting communist research” to “explaining strategy and disseminating communist doctrine.” He began to publish articles in *Red Light*, criticizing the situation where the nationalist *The Pioneer* weekly fabricated facts and misled Chinese in France, and waging a fearless struggle against imperialism and feudal warlords. The following lists a few articles for a brief introduction.

1922年8月1日创刊的《少年》是中国少年共产党在海外出版的第一份刊物，旅欧中国共产主义青年团成立后，《少年》改名为《赤光》。周恩来在《旅欧中国共产主义青年团（中国社会主义青年团旅欧支部）报告第一号》中指出，要继续出版《少年》杂志，“我们少年团体在此实有为第三国际和国内共产党解释战略并传播共产主义学理于不甚能读外国文主义书报之勤工生和华工中之必要”。周恩来撰写了《赤光》第一期的宣言，指出，“我们改理论的《少年》为实际的《赤光》”，《赤光》所认定的唯一目标便是“反军阀政府的国民联合，反帝国主义的国际联合”。《赤光》更加具有战斗性，由此与以宣传主张、阐释主义、解读思想为主要内容的《少年》有所区分。邓小平在周恩来的直接领导下参加了《赤光》的工作，按照组织要求努力从“进行共产主义研究”转换到“解释战略并传播共产主义学理”。他开始在《赤光》发表文章，批判倡导国家主义的《先声》周报捏造事实、误导旅法华人的情况，与帝国主义和封建军阀进行英勇无畏的斗争。以下列举几篇文章简要介绍。

Between September and October 1924, Deng Xiaoping was hospitalized with typhoid fever. While ill, he wrote the article “Look at the Counter-Revolutionary Youth Party’s Great Fabrications,” which criticized the Chinese Youth Party, and it was published on November 1, 1924, in issue 18 of *Red Light* under the pen name “Xixian.” The Chinese Youth Party was founded in Paris in 1923. It was a nationalist faction composed of bourgeois right-wing elements headed by Li Huang and Zeng Qi. It advocated nationalism, preached the supremacy of the nation, upheld a trans-historical, trans-class concept of the state, denied class struggle, opposed the political propositions of the Communist Party of China, and opposed the Kuomintang-Communist cooperation. In his article, Deng Xiaoping exposed the Chinese Youth Party’s fabrication of false

1924年9月至10月间，邓小平因患伤寒住院，他在病中撰写了批判中国青年党的《请看反革命的青年党之大肆其捏造》一文，于同年11月1日在《赤光》第18期发表，署名为“希贤”。中国青年党于1923年在巴黎成立，是以李璜、曾琦为首的资产阶级右翼分子组成的国家主义派，鼓吹国家主义，宣扬国家主义、国家至上，主张超历史、超阶级的国家观念，否定阶级斗争，反对中国共产党的政治主张，反对国共合作。邓小平在文章中揭露中国青年党捏造1924年10月10日他们在法国的聚会主要由中国共产党人参加的虚假新闻。他指出，这次聚会并非“旅法华人”的“国庆纪念”，并非如《先声》周报报道的以“国庆筹备处”“旅法各团体联合会”“旅法各救国团体国庆纪念会筹备处”的名义开展的聚会。邓小平称，这次聚会实际上是中国青年党的“跳舞会”，青年党所谓的联络法国人民的感情，实际上就是“与二百多名法国娼妓和房东跳舞”，由此揭露了国家主义派抹黑中国共产党的事实。

In the combined issues 21 and 22 of *Red Light* (赤光), dated December 5, 1924, and January 1, 1925, Deng Xiaoping, under the name "Xixian" (希贤), published the article "Look at the Fourth Batch of Rumored News from the *Pioneer* Weekly" (请看〈先声〉周报之第四批造谣的新闻), exposing three false reports from that publication: first, the claim in issue 59 that "Soviet Russia intends to send troops to oppress China," i.e., the fabricated news that Soviet military commissar Trotsky had arrived at the Sino-Russian border to command the Soviet army and that 50,000 Soviet troops had been dispatched to China by Trotsky; second, the report in issue 64 concerning a meeting of the Work-Study Student Associations from seven provinces, including Sichuan and Hubei, convened at the Overseas Chinese Association (华侨协学社) to gather Chinese students in France; third, a report on the November 30 meeting of various Chinese organizations in France to organize a provisional delegation of those organizations. Of these three reports, one concerned Sino-Russian relations, and two concerned the activities of Chinese work-study students and Chinese organizations in France. At the end of the article, Deng Xiaoping pointed out: "Those who read the *Pioneer* for the news should know that the counter-revolutionaries are catering to your needs, fabricating news to propagandize you and deceive you!" With solid evidence and facts, Deng Xiaoping fully exposed the true face of the nationalists (国家主义派), prevented overseas Chinese in France from being deceived by the counter-revolutionaries, upheld the image of the Chinese Communist Party, correctly propagated the Party's positions, and demonstrated a heroic spirit of daring to draw the sword and daring to struggle.

1924年12月5日和1925年1月1日的《赤光》第21、22期合刊上，邓小平以“希贤”的名字发表《请看〈先声〉周报之第四批造谣的新闻》一文，揭露该刊的三个不实报道：一是第59期所称的“苏俄欲实行遣兵压迫中国”之事，即苏俄军事委员杜洛茨基已到达中俄边界指挥苏维埃军队以及苏维埃军队五万人已被杜洛茨基调至中国的虚假新闻；二是第64期关于四川、湖北等七省勤工俭学学生会在华侨协学社召集中国留法勤工俭学学生的报道；三是关于11月30日旅法各团体谈判会议组织旅法各团体临时代表团的报道。在以上三个报道中，一个涉及中俄关系，两个涉及中国勤工俭学学生和中国旅法团体活动。邓小平在文章结尾处指出：“为看新闻而读《先声》底人，应知反革命派就在迎合你们的需要，捏造新闻来宣传你们，欺骗你们呢！”邓小平用确凿的证据和事实充分揭露了国家主义派的嘴脸，避免旅法华人受到反革命派的欺骗，维护了中国共产党的形象，正确宣传了党的主张，展现了敢于亮剑、敢于斗争的英勇气概。

In the combined issues 21 and 22 of *Chiguang* [Red Light], dated December 5, 1924, and January 1, 1925, Deng Xiaoping, under the name “Xixian,” published the article “Look at the Conspiracy of International Imperialism,” exposing “the fact that international imperialism intends to rule China with the Dawes Plan that ruled Germany.” The Dawes Plan was a proposal put forward by the U.S. Dawes Committee to resolve the issue of German reparations after the First World War, attempting to guarantee Germany’s payment of reparations by restoring its economy. After the plan was implemented, a large influx of foreign capital, primarily from the United States, flowed into Germany; therefore, the plan was in fact intended to turn Germany into a colony for U.S. and British profit extraction. Deng Xiaoping believed that the way imperialism treated China at that time was similar to the Dawes Plan, a new form of colonialism. He said, “Liang Shiyi once declared that China was in a state of extreme financial distress and must borrow 22.5 million (U.S. dollars) from the United States,” which was the Chinese version of the Dawes Plan; “the imperialists, especially Britain and the United States, want, on the one hand, to change the great country with a population of 400 million into a colony.” Deng Xiaoping exposed the hegemonic nature of imperialism, which seeks to eliminate all “heterodox” forces and prevent the development of other countries. He analyzed the measures imperialist countries intended to take in their struggle against the Soviet Union, a socialist state: the first step was “to pull China out from under the influence of Soviet Russia”; the second step was “to use an economic blockade to more economically extinguish that fully developing place (Soviet Russia).” He also reviewed several means by which imperialism had interfered in China, including “the Four-Power Consortium’s and the New Banking Consortium’s monopoly on loans, foreign management of customs and salt taxes, and the loss of rights over railways and waterways.” Faced with imperialist conspiracies, Deng Xiaoping exclaimed with deep anguish: “This is simply to colonize even the remotest villages! It is simply to suck the very last drop of blood from the entire Chinese people!” He called out, “Let the entire Chinese people rise up in resistance! Down with international imperialism!” “Let the proletariat of the whole world cry out as never before: ‘Do not violate China!’” This article revealed the exploitative essence and hegemonic nature of imperialist countries; it was a militant manifesto full of critical spirit, fighting spirit, and revolutionary spirit, and it also reflected Deng Xiaoping’s understanding of Marxist theories of alienation, class struggle, and human emancipation.

1924年12月5日和1925年1月1日的《赤光》第21、22期合刊上，邓小平以“希贤”的名字发表《请看国际帝国主义之阴谋》一文，揭露“国际帝国主义以统治德国底道威斯计划来统治中国一事”。道威斯计划是美国道威斯委员会提出的解决第一次世界大战后德国赔款问题的计划，企图用恢复德国经济的办法来保证德国偿付赔款。计划实施后，以美国为主的大批外国资本源源不断流入德国，因此，该计划实际上是要把德国变为美、英获取利润的殖民地。邓小平认为，当时帝国主义对待中国的方式类似道威斯计划，是一种新形式的殖民主义。他说，“梁士诒曾声明中国处于财政极苦难的状态中，必向美国借二千二百五十万元（美元）”，这是中国版的道威斯计划，“帝国主义者，尤其是英美，想一方面改变包有四万万居民底大国为殖民地”。邓小平揭露了帝国主义要铲除一切“异己”力量，阻止其他国家发展的霸权主义本质。他分析了帝国主义国家为与苏联这一社会主义国家斗争而欲采取的措施：第一步是“从苏俄势力中把中国拔出来”；第二步是“用经济封锁从更经济上扑灭那正在充分发展低地方（苏俄）”。他还回顾了帝国主义干涉中国的若干手段，包括“四国银行团到新银行之包办借债，关税、盐税之外人管理，铁路航路之利权丧失”等。面对帝国主义的阴谋，邓小平痛心疾首地说道：“这简直是要把穷乡僻壤都殖民地化！简直是要想吸尽全中国人民最后的那一点血！”他号召，“全中国人民反抗起来啊！打倒国际帝国主义”，“全世界底无产阶级要空前地大叫：‘勿犯中国’”！这篇文章揭示了帝国主义国家的剥削本质和霸权实质，是一篇充满批判精神、斗争精神和革命精神的战斗檄文，同时也反映了邓小平对于马克思主义异化理论、阶级斗争理论、人类解放思想的理解。

During his work in the Chinese Communist Party and Youth League organizations in Europe, Deng Xiaoping also actively engaged in practical political struggles. In July 1924, at less than 20 years of age, Deng Xiaoping was elected a member of the Secretariat Bureau of the Fifth Executive Committee of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, responsible for the daily work of the Youth League in Europe, and was transferred to become a member of the Chinese Communist Party. The revolutionary situation after the Kuomintang-Communist cooperation urgently required a large number of cadres; Zhou Enlai and others therefore returned to China, while Deng Xiaoping, Xiao Pusheng, and others began to take over the work of the Party and Youth League organizations in Europe. In early 1925, Deng Xiaoping was sent to work in the Lyon region, serving as the head of the Party and Youth League organizations there, working as an organizational backbone. On May 30, 1925, the May 30th Massacre occurred in Shanghai, where British imperialists massacred Chinese demonstrators. After the head of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe was arrested, Deng Xiaoping returned to Paris to take over the leadership of the Party and Youth League organizations in supporting the May 30th Movement. On July 2 of the same year, Deng Xiaoping spoke at a meeting convened by the Chinese Action Committee in France to protest the atrocities of international imperialism in China, proposing that to oppose imperialism, it was necessary to unite with the Soviet government; on September 15, Deng Xiaoping participated in organizing and convening an anti-imperialist rally of over 1,000 overseas Chinese in France in support of the May 30th Movement; on October 24, Deng Xiaoping chaired a meeting of 25 people in the city of Issy-les-Moulineaux to discuss the reconstruction of Chinese Communist Party organizations in France and the founding of a publication.

在中共旅欧党团组织工作期间，邓小平还积极投身现实的政治斗争。1924年7月，不满20岁的邓小平当选旅欧中国共产主义青年团第五届执委会书记局成员，负责旅欧共青团的日常工作，并转为中共党员。国共合作后的革命形势发展急需大批干部，周恩来等人因此回国，邓小平、萧朴生等人开始接手旅欧党团组织工作。1925年初，邓小平被派到里昂地区工作，担任里昂党团组织负责人，作为组织骨干开展工作。1925年5月30日，上海发生英帝国主义者屠杀中国游行群众的五卅惨案，旅欧中国共产主义青年团负责人被捕后，邓小平回到巴黎接替党团组织领导声援五卅运动的工作。同年7月2日，邓小平在旅法中国行动委员会召开的抗议国际帝国主义在中国的暴行的会议上发言，提出为反对帝国主义，应同苏联政府联合；9月15日，邓小平参与组织召开有1000多名旅法华人参加的声援五卅运动的反帝大会；10月24日，邓小平在伊希—莫利诺市主持了一场25人参加的会议，讨论重建在法国的中共组织机构和创办刊物的问题。

Amid complex revolutionary work and difficult struggle environments, Deng Xiaoping continuously practiced Marxism and actively applied Marxist standpoints, viewpoints, and methods to carry out ideological struggle. His political struggle capabilities and organizational work abilities greatly improved, and his revolutionary thought became increasingly mature. By the end of 1925, Deng Xiaoping had fully demonstrated the image of a Marxist professional revolutionary.

在复杂的革命工作和艰难的斗争环境下，邓小平不断实践马克思主义，积极运用马克思主义立场观点方法开展意识形态斗争，他的政治斗争能力、组织工作能力大幅提升，革命思想愈发成熟。到1925年底，邓小平已经充分展现出一个马克思主义职业革命家的形象了。

(4) From “My study of communism is too superficial” to “Having a considerable understanding of communism”

（四）从“对共产主义的研究太粗浅”到“对于共产主义有一个相当的认识”

As the world’s first dictatorship of the proletariat, the Soviet Union held immense attraction for the newly born Chinese Communist Party. Chinese Communists, full of ideals and yearning for truth, all eagerly desired to go to the Soviet Union to study. Deng Xiaoping also yearned for this. He believed that his “study of communism is too superficial,” and that “when I worked in the Western European organizations in the past, I often felt a lack of ability, which often led to mistakes. Therefore, I had long been determined to come to Russia to study, but economic difficulties prevented me from realizing my wish. Now that I am here, I will begin the work of learning the ability to act.” Deng Xiaoping hoped that through study, he could ultimately “make his thoughts and actions consistently communized.” To this end, he resolved to make efforts in two aspects. First, to improve ideological understanding. As he once wrote in the “Volunteer for Coming to Russia” column of the “Survey Form for Members of the Chinese Nationalist Party Branch in Moscow”: “Learning the tools of revolution”: “As long as I can stay in Russia for one day, I will study hard for one day, striving to make myself have a considerable understanding of communism.” Second, to improve Party spirit cultivation, receiving “training in iron discipline, the baptism of communism.”

作为世界上第一个无产阶级专政的国家，苏联对新生的中国共产党来说有莫大的吸引力，富有理想、向往真理的中国共产党人都渴望前往苏联学习。邓小平也非常向往。他认为自己“对共产主义的研究太粗浅”，“过去在西欧团体工作时，每每感到能力的不足，以致往往发生错误。因此我便早有来俄学习的决心，不过因为经济的困难，使我不能如愿以偿。现在我来此了，我便要开始学习活动能力的工作”。邓小平希望自己通过学习最终使“思想行动都成一贯的共产主义化”。为此，他决心从两个方面努力。一是提高思想认识。正如他曾在《旅莫中国国民党支部党员调查表》中的“来俄志愿”一栏中填写的“学习革命工具”中所写：“我能留俄一天，我便要努力研究一天，务使自己对于共产主义有一个相当的认识。”二是提高党性修养，得到“铁的纪律的训练，共产主义的洗礼”。

Systematic study of Marxism at Sun Yat-sen University in Moscow was the main avenue for Deng Xiaoping to improve his ideological understanding. At the university, he took compulsory courses such as Russian, economics, history, modern worldview issues, theory and practice of the Russian Revolution, national and colonial questions, China’s social development issues, and linguistics, specifically studying the history of the Chinese revolutionary movement, world history (section on revolutionary movements), history of social development, philosophy (dialectical materialism and historical materialism), political economy (primarily based on *Capital*), economic geography, Leninism, and military science. In addition to systematically studying theoretical knowledge in the classroom, Deng Xiaoping also used his spare time to study Marxist works, follow the latest developments in socialist theory and practice, and keep abreast of new trends in domestic intellectual circles. In the column “What social science books have you read?” on the “Survey Form for Members of the Chinese Nationalist Party Branch in Moscow,” he filled in: “Marx, Engels: *The Communist Manifesto*; Sun Wen: *Fundamentals of National Reconstruction*, *Nationalism*, *Democracy*, *Collected Speeches of Mr. Sun Yat-sen*, *Collected Speeches of the Kuomintang* (two volumes), *Collected Speeches of Mr. Chen Duxiu*”; in the column “Newspapers and magazines you have regularly read in the past,” he filled in: “*Xin Jianshe* [New Construction], *Xin Qingnian* [New Youth], *Xiangdao* [The Guide], *Zhongguo Qingnian* [Chinese Youth], *Guangzhou Minguo Ribao* [Guangzhou Republic Daily].” Deng Xiaoping lived a very intense life at the university; his completed “Weekly Activity Study Results Form” records his time allocation: on average, six to eight hours of class per day; when not in class, group meetings were held; 30 minutes to one hour per day reading newspapers and Party and Youth League publications; time directly used for organizational talks and personal chores, etc. Through classroom study and the study of Marxist works and related publications, he gained a relatively systematic understanding of Marxism within a relatively short period.

在莫斯科中山大学系统学习马克思主义是邓小平提高思想认识的主要途径。他在学校上了俄语、经济学、历史、现代世界观问题、俄国革命的理论与实践、民族与殖民地问题、中国的社会发展问题、语言学等必修课，具体学习中国革命运动史、世界通史（革命运动部分）、社会发展史、哲学（辩证唯物主义与历史唯物主义）、政治经济学（以《资本论》为主）、经济地理、列宁主义、军事等课程。除了在课堂上系统学习理论知识，邓小平还利用课余时间研读马克思主义著作，关注社会主义理论与实践的最新进展，关注国内思想界的新动态。他在《旅莫中国国民党支部党员调查表》关于“读过何种社会科学的书籍”一栏填写：“马克思、恩格斯：《共产党宣言》，孙文：《建国方略》、《民族主义》、《民权主义》、《孙中山先生演讲录》、《国民党演讲集》二集、《陈独秀先生演讲录》”；在“过去常看的书报和杂志”一栏填写：“《新建设》、《新青年》、《向导》、《中国青年》、《广州民国日本》”。邓小平在学校过着十分紧张的生活，他填写的《每周活动研究成绩表》记录他的时间安排：平均每天上课六至八小时，不上课时则召开团体会议；每天阅读报纸和党团出版物等30分钟至一小时；直接用于组织谈话和个人内务等。通过课堂学习和对马克思主义著作及相关书刊的研读，他在较短的时间内对马克思主义有了较为系统的认识。

Deng Xiaoping believed that to become a true Communist Party member, one must undergo strict Party discipline training, continuously improve practical work ability, and unify thought and action. To this end, he actively participated in Party affairs, striving to raise his ideological awareness and the quality of seeking truth from facts. As the leader of the Chinese Communist Party group in the ninth class of Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, he repeatedly organized members to discuss the Chinese revolution and current affairs. On June 16, 1926, in the “Party Member Criticism Plan” he filled out, Deng Xiaoping self-assessed: “In group meetings, I can actively participate in discussing various issues and can also stimulate comrades to discuss various issues,” and “Studying diligently can influence others.” This demonstrated his relatively strong organizational ability and exemplary role as a Party member. Deng Xiaoping strictly demanded of himself in terms of discipline. In the “Party Member Issues” column of the “Party Member Criticism Plan,” he self-assessed: “Everything conforms to the identity of a Party member, with no tendencies against the Party,” “Observes discipline,” and “Pays great attention to Party discipline issues”; in the “What is Party Work Like” column, he self-assessed: “Never absent from Party congresses and group meetings,” and “Can earnestly carry out the work assigned by the Party.” He also frequently emphasized the importance of discipline to comrades around him and did a good job of supervision. For example, in the “Party Group Work Survey Form,” he recorded the discipline situation of comrades in his group: “Instructors, translators, group leaders, and others attending meetings are all enthusiastic about the work of the Party group and are rarely late. Comrades in this group can all observe discipline.”

邓小平认为，要成为一名真正的共产党员，还需要接受严格的党纪训练，不断提高实际工作能力，使思想和行动统一起来。为此，他积极参加党务工作，努力提高思想觉悟和求真务实的品质。作为莫斯科中山大学第九班中共党小组组长，他多次组织成员讨论中国革命和时事问题。1926年6月16日，邓小平在填写的《党员批评计划案》中自评道：“在组会中亦能积极参加讨论各种问题，且能激动同志讨论各种问题”，“努力学习可以影响他人”。这展现了其较强的组织能力和党员表率作用。邓小平在纪律上对自己严加要求，他在《党员批评计划案》的“党员问题”一栏自评道：“一切合于党员的身份，无非党的倾向”，“守纪律”，“对党中的纪律问题甚为注意”；在“党的工作是怎样的”一栏自评道：“党的大会和组会从无缺席”，“党指定的工作能切实执行”。他还经常向身边同志强调守纪律的重要性，并做好督促工作。比如，他在《党组工作调查表》中记录了本组同志守纪律的情况：“指导员、翻译员、组长及其他参加会的人对党组的工作都还热心，很少迟到。本组同志对纪律都还能够遵守。”

Deng Xiaoping’s performance was affirmed by the school and the Party organization. On October 19, 1926, in an application submitted to the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Party branch of Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, Deng Xiaoping wrote: “I am originally a formal member of the Chinese Communist Party and have done some work at ‘Sun Yat-sen University’ in the past. Now I am willing to increase my responsibility and ask the committee to allow me to become a formal member.” [16]16 The “formal member” here refers to a full member of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), as Deng Xiaoping was initially a probationary member (candidate member) of the Soviet party while already a full member of the Chinese Communist Party. The secretary of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Party branch of Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, Ager, signed an appraisal, evaluating Deng Xiaoping as “a very active, energetic Party member and Communist Youth League member (probationary member of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)). He is an excellent organizational worker of the University’s Communist Youth League Committee, with strong organizational discipline, self-restraint ability, strong learning ability, and has accumulated rich experience in organizational work in the League Committee, making rapid progress… Excellent in studies, strong in Party spirit.” [17]17 “Party spirit” (党性) is a core concept in CPC discourse, denoting unwavering loyalty to the Party’s principles, discipline, and political line. In November 1926, in response to a request from Feng Yuxiang, who had previously visited Russia, to select cadres to work in the National Army, the Central Committee of the CPC and the Communist International decided to select more than 20 people to do political work in Feng Yuxiang’s troops. Deng Xiaoping was included in the selection list. In the same month, Deng Xiaoping departed from Moscow to return to China.

邓小平的表现得到学校和党组织的肯定。1926年10月19日，邓小平在向莫斯科中山大学联共（布）党支部提交的申请书上写道：“我本是一个中国共产党的正式党员，过去也曾在‘中大’做了一些工作。现在自己愿意加重自己的责任，请委员会允许我成为一个正式党员。”莫斯科中山大学联共（布）党支部书记阿戈尔签写了鉴定书，评价邓小平是“一个十分积极、精力充沛的党员和共青团员（联共（布）预备党员）。他是该大学共青团委员会的一名优秀组织工作者，组织纪律性强，有克制能力，学习能力强，在团委会的组织工作中积累了丰富的经验，进步很快。……学习优秀、党性强”。1926年11月，应之前访俄的冯玉祥提出的选派干部到国民军工作的请求，中共中央和共产国际决定选派20多人到冯玉祥的部队做政治工作，邓小平被列入选派名单。同月，邓小平从莫斯科启程回国。

During his one year in Moscow, through systematic theoretical study and strict disciplinary training, Deng Xiaoping achieved the goals of “making thought and action consistently communized” and “having a considerable understanding of communism.” This laid a solid ideological foundation for his later formation of a systematic Marxist outlook and continuous advancement of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. [18]18 “Adapting Marxism to the Chinese context” (马克思主义中国化) is a foundational CPC theoretical principle, first articulated by Mao Zedong in 1938, meaning the application of Marxist theory to China’s specific historical and practical conditions. Thereafter, he always firmly walked “on the road to becoming a true Communist Party member.”

在莫斯科的一年时间里，经过系统的理论学习和严格的纪律训练，邓小平达到了“思想行动都成一贯的共产主义化”，“对于共产主义有一个相当的认识”的目标，这为他日后形成系统的马克思主义观、不断推进马克思主义中国化奠定了坚实的思想基础。此后，他始终坚定地朝着“一个真正的共产党员的路上走去”。

III. Conclusion

三、结语

The ages from 15 to 26 are the most important period for the formation of a person’s outlook on life and values. When many Chinese youth were feeling confused and lost in exploring the path to save the nation, Deng Xiaoping resolutely chose Marxism, chose the socialist path, and established his Marxist faith. This article examines the historical background, theoretical study, and revolutionary activities of Deng Xiaoping’s study abroad, tracing the historical thread of his transformation from a simple patriot to a staunch Marxist and proletarian revolutionary. In fact, the early evolution of Deng Xiaoping’s thought was influenced not only by the historical environment of the time, his own arduous experiences overseas, the capitalist society he encountered, and the Marxism spread in Europe, but also by a group of early communists who studied abroad. The movements of studying in France and the Soviet Union during the founding period of the Chinese Communist Party cultivated a large number of early Chinese proletarian revolutionaries, including Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Li Fuchun, Nie Rongzhen, Li Weihan, Cai Chang, Deng Yingchao, He Changgong, Cai Hesen, Wang Ruofei, Zhao Shiyan, Chen Yannian, Chen Qiaonian, Luo Xuezan, Zhang Kundi, Qu Qiubai, Liu Shaoqi, Luo Yinong, and Ren Bishi. To further understand the trajectory of Deng Xiaoping’s early thought, it is necessary to continue expanding the perspective—for example, conducting individual studies, comparative studies, and holistic studies of the intellectual evolution of the early communists who influenced the formation of Deng Xiaoping’s thought, and summarizing the significant contributions made by the early Chinese Communist Party students abroad, represented by them, to the Party’s founding, development, and growth. This is a direction worthy of further consideration.

15岁到26岁是一个人的人生观、价值观形成的最重要时期。当许多中国青年正在为探索救国之路感到困惑和迷茫时，邓小平毅然选择了马克思主义，选择了社会主义道路，树立了马克思主义信仰。本文对邓小平留学的历史背景、理论学习和革命活动进行了考察，从中梳理了他从一个质朴的爱国主义者到坚定的马克思主义者、无产阶级革命者转变的历史脉络。实际上，邓小平早期思想演变既受到当时的历史环境、其本人在海外的坎坷经历、其所接触的资本主义社会和在欧洲传播的马克思主义的影响，也受到一批留学海外的早期共产主义者的影响。中国共产党创建时期的留法、留苏运动培养了周恩来、陈毅、李富春、聂荣臻、李维汉、蔡畅、邓颖超、何长工、蔡和森、王若飞、赵世炎、陈延年、陈乔年、罗学瓒、张昆弟、瞿秋白、刘少奇、罗亦农、任弼时等一大批中国早期无产阶级革命家。要进一步认识邓小平早期思想演变轨迹，需要继续拓展视野，比如对影响邓小平思想形成的早期共产主义者的思想演进脉络进行个别研究、比较研究和整体研究，总结以他们为代表的中国共产党早期留学人员为党的创立和发展壮大作出的重大贡献。这是值得进一步思考的方向。

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心