The Development, Innovation, and Empirical Lessons of Socialist Countries’ Party Diplomacy

Abstract: Socialist countries’ party diplomacy is a collective term for the external affairs conducted by the ruling parties of socialist countries around their own development and the realization of their values. It is an inherent meaning and inevitable requirement of the development of party politics in socialist countries. Over the past century and more, the party diplomacy of socialist countries has generally passed through a historical process: the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) pioneered it, it developed tortuously during the Cold War period, and it has innovated and developed since the Cold War, especially since entering the 21st century. Summarizing the experience of more than a century, socialist countries’ party diplomacy insists on being guided by advancing theoretical innovation in party diplomacy, highlights the coordinated development of a new type of party-to-party relations and a new type of international relations, emphasizes the coordination, scientific nature, and effectiveness of party diplomacy methods, promotes the construction of a multi-dimensional and three-dimensional institutional platform for party diplomacy, and provides important insights for opening up a new phase of socialist countries’ party diplomacy at a new historical starting point, promoting the revitalization of the world socialist movement, and building a community with a shared future for mankind.

摘要：社会主义国家政党外交是社会主义国家执政党围绕自身发展与价值实现所开展的对外事务的统称，是社会主义国家政党政治发展的题中之义与必然要求。百余年来，社会主义国家政党外交大致经历了俄共（布）首开先河、冷战时期曲折发展以及冷战后特别是进入21世纪以来创新发展的历史进程。总结百余年经验，社会主义国家政党外交坚持以推进政党外交理论创新为指引，凸显新型政党关系与新型国际关系的协同发展，注重政党外交方法的协调性科学性实效性，推进多元立体的政党外交制度平台建设，为在新的历史起点开创社会主义国家政党外交新局面，推动世界社会主义运动的振兴，构建人类命运共同体提供了重要启示。

Socialist countries’ party diplomacy has gradually grown and developed in the course of the world socialist movement. Historically, the international alliance of proletarian party character of the First International in 1864 constituted the historical origin of socialist party external exchanges. Marked by the Russian Bolshevik Party’s victory in the October Revolution in 1917 and its seizure of state power, socialist countries’ party diplomacy formally emerged. As a series of countries embarked on the socialist path, the party diplomacy of socialist countries fully commenced and experienced a tortuous course of ups and downs, innovation, and development. A comprehensive analysis of the development process of socialist countries’ party diplomacy over the past century and more, and a scientific grasp of the regularities contained in its experiences and lessons, will not only help enrich and expand the foundational discourse domain and knowledge system of research on socialist countries’ party diplomacy, but also help provide necessary practical materials and theoretical elements for constructing the discourse system, theoretical framework, and explanatory logic of Marxist party diplomacy theory.

社会主义国家政党外交是在世界社会主义运动的发展过程中逐渐成长起来的。历史地看，以1864年第一国际无产阶级政党性国际联合构成社会主义政党对外交往的历史起源，以1917年俄国布尔什维克党取得十月革命的胜利并执掌国家政权为标志，社会主义国家政党外交得以正式出场。随着一系列国家走上社会主义道路，社会主义国家政党外交全面开启，并经历了跌宕起伏、创新发展的曲折历程。全面分析百余年来社会主义国家政党外交的发展历程，科学把握其经验教训中所蕴含的规律性认识，既有助于丰富和发展社会主义国家政党外交研究的基础论域与知识体系，也有助于为构建马克思主义政党外交理论的话语体系、理论框架和解释逻辑提供必要的实践素材与理论要素。

I. Conceptual Definition of Party Diplomacy and Socialist Countries’ Party Diplomacy

一、政党外交与社会主义国家政党外交的概念界定

Starting from the perspective of multi-level concept theory, constructing a conceptual system of party diplomacy from the “general” to the “particular” to the “specific,” and clarifying the connotation, extension, and scope of application of party diplomacy, is the prerequisite for scientifically understanding socialist countries’ party diplomacy.

从概念多层次理论视角出发，构建政党外交从“一般”到“特殊”再到“具体”的概念体系，廓清政党外交的内涵、外延以及适用范围，是科学认识社会主义国家政党外交的前提。

(A) The Basic Connotation of Party Diplomacy

（一）政党外交的基本内涵

The concept of party diplomacy appeared relatively late. In China, based on the need for theoretical generalization of the major transformation and historical achievements of the Party’s external work since the 1970s, the term “party diplomacy” emerged as the times required. It began to attract academic attention in the early 1990s and yielded relatively fruitful research results. However, there are clear differences among scholars regarding the connotation of party diplomacy. Some scholars believe that party diplomacy refers to “the political behavior of the ruling party of a socialist country, in the process of struggling for specific purposes, engaging in exchanges, cooperation, and struggle with various types of political parties in other countries of the world.” Other scholars directly regard party diplomacy as the external liaison work of the Communist Party of China, believing that “party diplomacy, also known as inter-party liaison work or the Party’s foreign affairs work, is an important component of China’s overall diplomacy.” Still other scholars argue that defining party diplomacy as a form of diplomacy for socialist countries or even just for China is “too narrow.” In practice, party diplomacy is “international exchanges, dialogue, and cooperation carried out between legitimate political parties of sovereign states,” generally referring to “the values, policy propositions, and practical activities upheld by legitimate political parties of sovereign states in their external exchanges, the purpose of which is to promote state-to-state relations, safeguard national interests, and enhance inter-party relations.”

政党外交这一概念出现的时间较晚。在中国，基于对20世纪70年代以来党的对外工作重大转型及其历史成就进行理论概括的需要，“政党外交”的说法才应运而生，在20世纪90年代初开始引起学界关注并形成了较为丰硕的研究成果。然而，关于政党外交的内涵在不同学者间存在明显分歧。有的学者认为，政党外交是指“社会主义国家的执政党在为特定的目的而斗争的过程中，与世界上其他国家的各种类型的政党进行交往、合作和斗争的政治行为”。还有学者直接将政党外交视为中国共产党的对外联络工作，认为政党外交“也称党际联络工作或党的外事工作，是我国总体外交的重要组成部分”。也有学者认为把政党外交界定为社会主义国家甚至中国的一种外交形式“过于狭窄”。在实际中，政党外交是“主权国家合法政党之间开展的国际交流、对话与合作”，泛指“主权国家合法政党在对外交往中所秉持的价值理念、政策主张及其实践活动，其目的在于促进国家关系、维护国家利益、增进党际关系”。

Based on this, at least two aspects need to be clarified. On the one hand, from the perspective of conceptual attributes, party diplomacy should be a neutral concept, possessing commonalities that transcend temporal and spatial backgrounds, and is a general summary of the external activities of ruling parties of sovereign states. On the other hand, from the perspective of historical origins, “party diplomacy was first created by the parties of socialist countries, influenced by the international communist movement… becoming an important channel for the connection of parties in socialist countries.” That is to say, party diplomacy “first serves the liberation cause of the proletariat” and inherently bears the “imprint of socialism” from birth. Therefore, understanding party diplomacy requires both identifying its general characteristics as a basic category and preserving its original essence at the level of historical origins. This is an important prerequisite for scientifically defining the connotation and extension of party diplomacy.

基于此，至少需从两个层面予以明确。一方面，从概念属性来看，政党外交应当是一个中性概念，具有跨越时空背景的共通性，是对主权国家执政党对外活动的一般性概括。另一方面，从历史起源看，“政党外交首先为社会主义国家政党所创立，受国际共产主义运动影响……成为社会主义国家政党联系的一条重要管道”，也就是说，政党外交“首先服务于无产阶级的解放事业”，与生俱来就带有“社会主义的烙印”。因而，对政党外交的理解需既标识其作为基础范畴的一般性特征，又保持其历史起源层面的原初要义，这是科学界定政党外交内涵与外延的重要前提。

(B) Systematic Cognition of the Concept of Party Diplomacy

（二）政党外交概念的体系化认知

Abstracting and classifying specific concepts from the perspective of multi-level concept theory is one of the basic methods in academia for handling controversial concepts. For example, Giovanni Sartori, from the three abstract levels of high-level category, middle-level category, and low-level category, revealed the conceptual classification of universality, generality, and outline, thus forming the “Sartorian tradition” of conceptual classification research. John Gerring and Barresi proposed the “minimum-maximum definition strategy,” which first clarifies the most basic elements required to establish a concept to define its minimum definition, and then defines its ideal type definition (maximum definition) by identifying the relevant attributes of the maximum set. Jin Yuelin, from the perspective of formal logic, proposed “clarifying a concept from both its connotation and extension.” Obviously, using concepts differently under different conditions is the core essence of multi-level concept theory, which has methodological significance for constructing the conceptual group portrait of party diplomacy in the sense of Marxist party theory. Accordingly, this paper analyzes the conceptual system of party diplomacy at three levels.

从概念多层次理论视角对特定概念进行抽象与分类是学术界处理有争议概念的基本方法之一。例如，乔万尼·萨托利从高级范畴、中级范畴、低级范畴三个抽象阶梯，揭示了普适性、一般性与轮廓性的概念化分类，从而形成了概念分类研究的“萨托利传统”。约翰·吉尔林和巴雷西提出了“最小-最大定义策略”，即首先厘清一个概念确立所需的最基本要素从而确立其最小定义，其次再通过识别最大集合的相关属性来界定其理想类型定义（最大定义）。金岳霖从形式逻辑的角度提出要“从内涵与外延两个方面去明确一个概念”。显然，在不同条件下有区别地使用概念，是概念多层次理论的核心要义，这对构建马克思主义政党理论意义上政党外交概念群像具有方法论意义。据此，本文对政党外交概念体系分三个层次进行分析。

The conceptual system of party diplomacy contains three analytical dimensions. At the level of general concepts, party external exchanges/party diplomacy possess commonalities that transcend temporal and spatial backgrounds, providing an analytical framework for understanding the universal logic of external exchanges of political parties worldwide from the perspectives of goals, tasks, principles, and strategies. At the level of particular concepts, socialist party external exchanges are the practical form of external activities carried out by Marxist parties around their own development and the realization of their values when they have not yet seized state power, and are the concrete representation of Marxist party consciousness in external practice. At the level of specific concepts, socialist countries’ party diplomacy is an analysis of specific countries and specific parties, possessing the attributes of the economic base and socio-historical conditions of different socialist countries, reflecting the spatial attributes and era characteristics of party diplomacy. This level is both the foothold of the conceptual system of party diplomacy and the key content of this paper’s research.

政党外交的概念体系包含三个分析维度。在一般性概念层次上，政党对外交往/政党外交具备跨越时空背景的共通性，从目标、任务、原则和策略等角度，为理解世界政党对外交往的普遍逻辑提供了一种分析框架。在特殊性概念层次上，社会主义政党对外交往是马克思主义政党在尚未执掌国家政权之时，围绕自身发展与价值实现所展开的对外活动的实践形态，是马克思主义政党意识在对外实践中的具象化表征。在具体性概念层次上，社会主义国家政党外交是对具体国别党别的分析，具有不同社会主义国家的经济基础属性与社会历史条件，反映了政党外交的空间属性和时代特点。这一层面既是政党外交概念体系的落脚点，也是本文研究的重点内容。

According to the multi-level conceptual system of party diplomacy, defining the connotation and extension of socialist countries’ party diplomacy requires both using the most basic elements of party diplomacy to analyze its goals, tasks, objects, and strategies, and manifesting its value orientation of striving for the liberation of the proletariat and the progress of human development. More importantly, it requires grasping the special logic presented under different historical backgrounds based on an understanding of the specific circumstances of the diplomacy of the ruling parties of Soviet and Eastern European socialist countries and existing socialist countries (China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cuba), thereby grasping its connotation, extension, and development process.

根据政党外交的多层次概念体系，对于社会主义国家政党外交内涵与外延的界定，既要利用政党外交的最基本要素对其目标、任务、对象与策略进行分析，又要彰显其争取无产阶级解放与人类发展进步的价值取向，更要基于对苏联东欧社会主义国家和现实社会主义国家（中国、朝鲜、越南、老挝、古巴）执政党外交的具体情况的把握，分析其在不同历史背景下呈现出的特殊逻辑，从而把握其内涵、外延与发展历程。

(C) The Connotation and Extension of Socialist Countries’ Party Diplomacy

（三）社会主义国家政党外交的内涵与外延

As a holistic concept, socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy refers to the value concepts, policy propositions, and practical activities that Marxist ruling parties uphold in the process of safeguarding the security of the party in power, national interests, and the common interests of humanity, in accordance with the principle of proletarian internationalism, and with other countries’ ruling parties, opposition parties, and international organizations as their interaction partners. From the perspective of diplomatic objectives, “creating new and higher forms of human social life” [1]1 A reference to a concept from Marx and Engels, emphasizing the creation of a higher form of human social organization beyond capitalism. to meet the reasonable demands and progressive aspirations of different countries and peoples is its value goal; from the perspective of diplomatic tasks, socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy takes safeguarding the security of the party in power, building state power, promoting the development of inter-state relations, and seeking human progress as its core content, playing a strategic role in national diplomacy; from the perspective of diplomatic targets, it includes not only ruling parties of socialist countries but also ruling parties of non-socialist countries, opposition parties, and international organizations; from the perspective of diplomatic strategy, because “the Communists do not form a separate party opposed to other working-class parties,” [2]2 A quotation from *The Communist Manifesto* (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy bears the task of “striving to win the unity and coordination of democratic parties across the world,” [3]3 A quotation from *The Communist Manifesto*. which fundamentally determines that it must, in adherence to the principle of proletarian internationalism and in the spirit of seeking common ground while reserving differences, develop friendly relations with political parties of various countries in response to changes in the internal and external environment. That is to say, socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy is characterized by taking the pursuit of common human development as its core, flexibly employing diplomatic means to achieve national interests, and utilizing various diplomatic tools and channels to strengthen cooperation and exchange among political parties worldwide.

作为整体性概念，社会主义国家政党外交是指马克思主义执政党按照无产阶级国际主义原则，以其他国家执政党、在野党和国际组织等作为交往对象，在维护政党执政安全、本国利益和人类共同利益的过程中所秉持的价值理念、政策主张及实践活动。从外交目标看，“创造人类社会生活新的更高级的形式”，以满足不同国家和人民的合理要求与进步愿望是其价值目标；从外交任务看，社会主义国家政党外交以维护政党执政安全、建设国家政权、促进国家关系发展和谋求人类进步为核心内容，在国家外交中发挥着战略性作用；从外交对象看，既包含社会主义国家执政党，也涵盖其他非社会主义国家执政党、在野党和国际组织等；从外交策略看，由于“共产党人不是同其他工人政党相对立的特殊政党”，社会主义国家政党外交肩负着“努力争取全世界民主政党之间的团结和协调”的任务，这就从根本上决定了它必须根据内外环境的变化，在坚持无产阶级国际主义原则的前提下，本着求同存异的精神，与各国政党发展友好关系。也就是说，社会主义国家政党外交具有以谋求人类共同发展为核心、灵活运用外交手段实现国家利益、利用各种外交工具和渠道加强世界政党间合作与交流等突出特征。

II. The Development Process of Socialist Countries’ Party-to-Party Diplomacy

二、社会主义国家政党外交的发展历程

Over the past century or more, the party-to-party diplomacy of socialist countries has generally undergone a historical process: the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) pioneered it, it developed tortuously during the Cold War, and it has advanced vigorously since the end of the Cold War, especially entering the 21st century.

百余年来，社会主义国家政党外交大体经历了俄共（布）首开先河、冷战时期曲折发展、冷战后特别是进入21世纪以来奋力推进的历史进程。

(I) The Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Pioneers Socialist Countries’ Party-to-Party Diplomacy

（一）俄共（布）首开社会主义国家政党外交之先河

The victory of the October Revolution in 1917 and the establishment of Soviet power marked the formal establishment of the ruling authority of the Russian Bolshevik Party, opening the door for socialist party external relations to evolve into socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy.

1917年十月革命的胜利和苏维埃政权的建立，标志着俄国布尔什维克党执政权的正式确立，开启了社会主义政党对外交往迈向社会主义国家政党外交的先河。

After the October Revolution, Soviet Russia faced an armed encirclement by imperialist powers. The greatest historical task confronting the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was “to resolve the international task, to awaken the international revolution.” [4]4 A reference to Lenin’s emphasis on the internationalist duty of the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution. To this end, the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) made the realization of “world revolution” the strategic goal of its party-to-party diplomacy, “using all its strength and all means at its disposal to support the revolutionary movement of proletarian brothers in all countries.” [5]5 A paraphrase of a resolution or statement from the early Soviet period on international proletarian solidarity. However, with the failure of the Finnish Revolution and the German Revolution, the revolutionary situation vanished in a flash, and Marxist parties in most countries failed to take power or even remained illegal. In this context, to defend Soviet power, “this socialist source of influence with a strong impact on the whole world” [6]6 A phrase used by Lenin or early Bolshevik leaders to describe Soviet Russia’s role. and “the torch of international socialism,” [7]7 A phrase used by Lenin or early Bolshevik leaders to describe Soviet Russia’s role. the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) organized the founding of the Communist International in March 1919, establishing an important platform for interaction between the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and socialist parties of various countries. At that time, 52 delegates from 35 political parties and groups from 21 countries participated in the founding congress of the Communist International, with proletarian representatives from China, Korea, and other Eastern countries attending as observers.

十月革命后苏维埃俄国遭遇帝国主义的武装包围，俄共（布）面临的最大历史课题是“必须解决国际任务，必须唤起国际革命”。为此，俄共（布）将实现“世界革命”作为政党外交的战略目标，“竭尽全力并用自己拥有的一切手段来支持一切国家无产阶级兄弟的革命运动”。然而，随着芬兰革命、德国革命的失败，革命形势一闪即逝，多数国家的马克思主义政党未能执掌政权甚至处于非法地位。在此背景下，为捍卫苏维埃政权“这个对全世界有着强烈影响的社会主义策源地”和“国际社会主义的火炬”，俄共（布）于1919年3月组织成立共产国际，建立起俄共（布）与各国社会主义政党交往的重要平台。当时，来自21个国家的35个政党和团体的52名代表参加了共产国际成立大会，中国、朝鲜以及其他东方国家的无产阶级代表作为观察员列席大会。

The founding of the Communist International accelerated the process of establishing communist parties in various countries and strengthened mutual contacts among revolutionary forces in different countries. In the period from 1919 to 1922 alone, with the help of the Communist International, “a total of more than 40 countries around the world established communist parties.” [8]8 A historical statistic on the spread of communist parties in the early 20th century. By the time the Communist International was dissolved in 1943, “68 parties in the world had successively joined this organization,” [9]9 A historical statistic on the membership of the Communist International. spreading socialist party external relations across all five continents. After Lenin’s death, the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) assumed the status of a “leading party” and “parent party,” becoming the “center” of the Communist International, demanding that all its sections accept the absolute leadership of this “center,” which brought some negative effects on the development of various parties. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that the Communist International’s guidance and assistance in the establishment and early activities of many communist parties, as well as its contribution to promoting the formation of the world anti-fascist united front, were meritorious. To a large extent, communist parties in various countries initially used the platform of the Communist International to conduct external relations. The All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) also used the Communist International to help successively establish or rebuild communist parties, workers’ parties, and socialist parties in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, and the German Democratic Republic, supporting or helping these parties lead their peoples to victory in the anti-fascist war. Subsequently, during or after World War II, they established people’s democratic regimes and embarked on the socialist path, opening a new realm of multi-country development for socialist countries’ party-to-party diplomacy in the true sense.

共产国际的成立加速了各国建立共产党的进程，加强了各国革命力量的相互联络。仅在1919年至1922年期间，在共产国际的帮助下，“世界上一共有40多个国家建立了共产党”，到1943年共产国际解散前，“世界上有68个党先后加入了这个组织”，使社会主义政党对外交往遍及了世界五大洲。列宁逝世后，联共（布）以“领导党”“老子党”身份自居，成为共产国际的“中心”，要求共产国际各支部必须接受“中心”的绝对领导，这给各国党的发展带来了一些不良影响。然而，不可否认，共产国际对许多国家共产党的建立及其成立初期活动的指导和帮助，以及在推动建立世界反法西斯统一战线方面的贡献是功不可没的。在很大程度上，各国共产党在成立之初是借助共产国际这个平台开展对外交往的。联共（布）还通过共产国际帮助波兰、匈牙利、捷克斯洛伐克、罗马尼亚、保加利亚、南斯拉夫、阿尔巴尼亚、德意志民主共和国先后组建和重建共产党、工人党和社会党等，支持或帮助这些政党领导本国人民取得了反法西斯战争的胜利，并相继于第二次世界大战期间或战后建立了人民民主政权，走上社会主义道路，开启了真正意义上社会主义国家政党外交的多国发展新境界。

(II) The Tortuous Development of Socialist Countries’ Party-to-Party Diplomacy During the Cold War

（二）冷战时期社会主义国家政党外交的曲折发展

After the end of World War II, due to the influence of the confrontation between the two blocs, the party-to-party diplomacy of socialist countries at that time showed an obvious state of immaturity. Its diplomatic targets and scope were mostly limited to ruling parties of socialist countries, especially those with close relations with the Soviet Communist Party, exhibiting clear limited singularity. Coupled with the Soviet Communist Party’s use of its leadership position in the socialist camp to continuously strengthen control over socialist countries and their ruling parties, the party-to-party diplomacy of socialist countries experienced twists and turns.

第二次世界大战结束后，由于受两大阵营对峙的影响，彼时的社会主义国家政党外交表现出明显的稚嫩状态，其外交对象和范围多是限于社会主义国家执政党之间，尤其是与苏共关系比较密切，呈现出明显的有限单一性。加之苏共利用其在社会主义阵营的领导者地位，不断加强对社会主义国家及其执政党的控制，致使社会主义国家政党外交一波三折。

The Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers’ Parties, established in September 1947, had the stated purpose of strengthening experience exchange and coordinated action among parties, and playing a positive role in carrying out the anti-imperialist and anti-aggression war, maintaining peace, and raising the awareness of communist parties in various countries about war. However, at the same time, the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) used the Information Bureau to make decisions that interfered in the internal affairs of other parties. For example, dissatisfied with the Yugoslav Communist Party’s independent exploration of its own socialist path, it expelled Yugoslavia from the Information Bureau, causing most ruling parties of socialist countries to break off relations with the Yugoslav Communist Party. In the early days of the founding of New China, the Chinese Communist Party established fraternal party relations with the Soviet Union and other ruling parties of socialist countries. At the same time, the Chinese Communist Party also established relatively broad contacts with Western left-wing parties and progressive organizations such as the British Labour Party, the Communist Party of the United States, and the Italian Socialist Party. When the Eighth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party was held in September 1956, “delegations from 56 communist and workers’ parties from around the world attended the congress,” [10]10 A historical fact about the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. greatly expanding the diplomatic influence of the Chinese Communist Party’s party-to-party diplomacy. However, the unrealistic assessment of the international situation at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party held in February 1956, and Khrushchev’s “secret report” that completely negated Stalin, had a negative impact on the world socialist movement. Due to the different international positions and historical development stages of the Chinese and Soviet parties, there were disagreements between them on many issues in the international communist movement, as well as on the world situation and the development paths of nation-states. This evolved from mutual exchange of views to “ideological polemics,” leading to the “rupture” of relations between the Chinese and Soviet parties and states. [11]11 Refers to the Sino-Soviet split, a period of ideological and political conflict between the Chinese Communist Party and the Soviet Communist Party from the late 1950s through the 1960s. Furthermore, from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, influenced by “Left” deviationist thinking, the Chinese Communist Party’s party-to-party diplomacy suffered major setbacks, with “78 out of 89 communist and workers’ parties worldwide successively breaking off contact with our Party.” [12]12 A historical statistic on the isolation of the Chinese Communist Party during the Cultural Revolution period.

1947年9月成立的共产党和工人党情报局，其宗旨是为加强各党之间的经验交流与协调行动，并在开展反帝反侵略战争、维护和平、提高各国共产党对战争的认识方面发挥积极作用。但与此同时，联共（布）通过情报局作出一些干涉别国党内事务的决定，如对南斯拉夫共产党独立自主探索本国社会主义道路的做法不满，将其开除出情报局，致使多数社会主义国家执政党与南共中断关系。新中国成立之初，中国共产党与苏联以及其他社会主义国家执政党建立了兄弟党友好关系。同时，中国共产党同英国工党、美国共产党、意大利社会党等西方左翼政党和进步组织也建立了比较广泛的联系。1956年9月中共八大召开时，“来自世界上56个国家的共产党和工人党代表团出席了大会”，极大拓展了中国共产党政党外交影响力。然而，1956年2月召开的苏共二十大对国际形势不切实际的判断以及赫鲁晓夫“秘密报告”对斯大林的全盘否定，对世界社会主义运动产生了消极影响。由于中苏两党各自所处国际地位和历史发展阶段不同，双方在国际共产主义运动中的诸多问题以及对世界局势、民族国家发展道路等问题上存在分歧，由相互交换意见发展到“意识形态论战”，中苏两党两国关系“破裂”。此外，20世纪60年代中至70年代中期，受“左”倾思潮影响，中国共产党政党外交遭受重大挫折，“全世界89个共产党和工人党中，有78个先后与我们党中断了联系”。

Events such as the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict and the Sino-Soviet polemic, while causing twists and turns in the party diplomacy of socialist countries, also stimulated theoretical reflection on how to correctly conduct party diplomacy, and many beneficial policy proposals and theoretical viewpoints were put forward. For example, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia proposed that "all nations and all countries are completely autonomous and independent, oppose all blocs, advocate non-alignment, peace and peaceful coexistence, and oppose interference in the internal affairs of other countries." The Romanian Workers' Party emphatically stressed that "each party and each socialist country is independent and equal," and that "proletarian internationalism can only be understood in the sense of 'international solidarity' when it is organically combined with the struggle of the working class of each country to defend its own interests." The Albanian Party of Labor advocated "maintaining and strengthening friendly cooperation with the peoples of other countries on the basis of mutual benefit." The Bulgarian Communist Party stressed "developing relations with the communist and workers' parties of various countries, striving to strengthen the unity of the international communist movement." After coming to power, the Communist Party of Cuba declared that it "would maintain a position of absolute independence and autonomy." The Polish United Workers' Party, the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, and others also put forward their own proposals for party diplomacy based on the changing domestic and international environment, on the basis of independence and mutual equality. After the late 1970s, the Communist Party of China (CPC), "on the basis of summing up the positive and negative historical experiences of inter-party relations, put forward the important principle of establishing a new type of inter-party relations,"[13]13 The "new type of inter-party relations" refers to the CPC's principle of developing relations with foreign political parties based on independence, complete equality, mutual respect, and non-interference in internal affairs, formally proposed in the 1980s. promptly corrected "Left" errors, restored relations with the ruling parties of socialist countries, developed relations with communist and workers' parties of various countries, and "began extensive contacts and exchanges with Western social democratic parties." This indicates that the principle of independence has become the basic norm for party diplomacy in socialist countries, marking that the theoretical understanding of party diplomacy in socialist countries has reached a new historical height.

苏南矛盾、中苏论战等事件在导致社会主义国家政党外交曲折不断的同时，也激发了关于如何正确开展政党外交的理论反思，许多有益的政策主张与理论观点被提出。例如，南共提出“一切民族和一切国家都完全自主和独立，反对各种集团，主张不结盟、和平和和平共处，反对干涉别国内政”。罗马尼亚工人党突出强调“各党、各社会主义国家是独立的、平等的”，“无产阶级国际主义只有同每一个国家的工人阶级为捍卫本身利益的斗争有机地结合起来，才能理解‘国际团结’的含义”。阿尔巴尼亚劳动党主张“在互利的基础上维护和加强同别国人民的友好合作”。保加利亚共产党强调“发展同各国共产党和工人党的关系，为加强国际共产主义运动的团结”而努力。古巴共产党执政后宣称“将保持绝对独立自主的立场”。波兰统一工人党、匈牙利社会主义工人党等也曾根据变化的国内外环境，在独立自主和相互平等的基础上提出了自己的政党外交主张。20世纪70年代末以后，中国共产党“在总结党际关系正反两方面历史经验基础上，提出建立新型党际关系的重要原则”，及时纠正了“左”倾错误，恢复与社会主义国家执政党的关系，发展同各国共产党和工人党的关系，并“开始同西方社会民主党进行广泛接触与交往”。这表明，独立自主原则已成为社会主义国家政党外交的基本准则，标志着社会主义国家政党外交的理论认识达到了新的历史高度。

(III) The Innovative Development of Party Diplomacy in Socialist Countries Since the Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Drastic Changes in Eastern Europe

（三）苏联解体、东欧剧变以来社会主义国家政党外交的创新发展

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, the world socialist movement fell into a low ebb, and the party diplomacy of socialist countries suffered severe setbacks. But at the same time, the ruling parties of socialist countries deeply summarized historical experiences and lessons, actively carried out party diplomacy serving the central work of the Party and the state, comprehensively developed relations with political parties of various countries in the spirit of seeking common ground while reserving differences, built international party exchange and cooperation networks of various forms and levels, and continuously opened up new prospects for party diplomacy in socialist countries.

苏联解体、东欧剧变后，世界社会主义运动陷入低潮，社会主义国家政党外交遭遇严重挫折。但与此同时，社会主义国家执政党深刻总结历史经验与教训，积极开展服务于党和国家中心工作的政党外交，本着求同存异精神全面发展同各国政党的关系，搭建多种形式、多种层次的国际政党交流合作网络，不断开创社会主义国家政党外交新局面。

1. Actively Carrying Out Party Diplomacy Serving the Central Work of the Party and the State

1.积极开展服务于党和国家中心工作的政党外交

Party diplomacy in socialist countries is both a part of the cause of the ruling parties of socialist countries and an important component of the overall diplomacy of socialist countries. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, the CPC adhered to "developing a new type of inter-party exchange and cooperation relations with all political parties willing to engage with our Party, on the basis of the principles of independence, complete equality, mutual respect, and non-interference in each other's internal affairs, so as to promote the development of state-to-state relations." Entering the 21st century, the CPC's party diplomacy "firmly grasped economic construction as the central task without wavering... concentrated on construction and devoted all efforts to development." Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC,[14]14 The 18th National Congress of the CPC, held in November 2012, marked the beginning of the Xi Jinping era and the formal introduction of the "New Era" of socialism with Chinese characteristics. the CPC's party diplomacy has "revolved around important nodes in the work of the Party and the state, promoting external work to continuously open up new prospects," creating a favorable international environment for realizing national rejuvenation and fulfilling the mission of building a strong country.

社会主义国家政党外交既是社会主义国家执政党事业的一部分，也是社会主义国家总体外交的重要组成部分。苏联解体、东欧剧变后，中国共产党坚持“在独立自主、完全平等、互相尊重、互不干涉内部事务原则的基础上，同一切愿与我党交往的各国政党发展新型的党际交流和合作关系，促进国家关系的发展”。进入21世纪，中国共产党政党外交“紧紧扭住经济建设这个中心不动摇……聚精会神搞建设，一心一意谋发展”。党的十八大以来，中国共产党政党外交“围绕党和国家工作重要节点，推动对外工作不断开创新局面”，为实现民族复兴与完成强国建设的使命任务营造良好的国际环境。

At the same time, the Communist Party of Vietnam clearly defined the overall task of party diplomacy as "maintaining peace, expanding friendly and cooperative foreign relations, creating a favorable international environment for socialist construction and the cause of defending the fatherland, and making positive contributions to the world people's struggle for peace, national independence, social democracy, and progress." The Lao People's Revolutionary Party "adheres to a foreign policy of peace, independence, friendship, cooperation, and openness," and "insists on combining party diplomacy with government diplomacy." The Workers' Party of Korea adopted a "foreign policy centered on seeking external assistance." The Communist Party of Cuba adheres to "all-round pluralistic diplomacy, strengthening the economic function of diplomacy," creating a favorable external environment for domestic reform.

与此同时，越南共产党明确政党外交的总体性任务为“维护和平，扩大对外友好合作关系，为社会主义建设和保卫祖国事业营造有利的国际环境，并为世界人民争取和平、民族独立、社会民主与进步事业做出积极贡献”。老挝人民革命党“坚持和平、独立、友好、合作、开放的外交政策”，“坚持把政党外交、政府外交结合起来”。朝鲜劳动党采取了“以争取外部援助为中心的外交政策”。古巴共产党坚持“全方位多元外交、加强外交的经济功能”，为国内改革营造良好的外部环境。

2. Comprehensively Developing Relations with Political Parties of Various Countries in the Spirit of Seeking Common Ground While Reserving Differences

2.本着求同存异精神全面发展同各国政党的关系

Facing the severe and complex international situation after the Cold War, the CPC adhered to the four principles of inter-party relations—"independence, complete equality, mutual respect, and non-interference in each other's internal affairs"—and "in the spirit of seeking common ground while reserving differences" established and developed friendly relations with political parties of various countries. Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, General Secretary Xi Jinping "has made comprehensive and systematic expositions on the era background, basic positioning, purpose and mission of the Party's external work, raising our Party's understanding of the laws of external work to a new height and opening up a new realm of Marxist theory on inter-party relations,"[15]15 "Marxist theory on inter-party relations" refers to the body of Marxist-Leninist thought concerning relations between communist and workers' parties of different countries, including principles of proletarian internationalism and the independence of each party. providing fundamental guidance and a guide to action for the CPC's party diplomacy in the New Era.[16]16 The "New Era" (新时代) is the official designation for the period of Chinese history beginning with the 19th National Congress of the CPC in 2017, characterized by the guidance of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era. Guided by General Secretary Xi Jinping's important expositions on the Party's external work, the CPC's party diplomacy "transcends differences and divergences in ideology, ethnicity, culture, belief, and geography," taking exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations of different countries and political parties as an important driving force for the progress of human civilization and world peace and development. Currently, the CPC maintains regular contacts with more than 560 political parties and political organizations in over 160 countries and regions, continuously deepening party exchange and cooperation.

面对冷战后严峻复杂的国际形势，中国共产党坚持“独立自主、完全平等、互相尊重、互不干涉内部事务”的党际关系四原则，“本着求同存异的精神”同各国政党建立和发展友好关系。党的十八大以来，习近平总书记“对党的对外工作的时代背景、基本定位、宗旨使命等作出全面系统论述，把我们党关于对外工作的规律性认识提升到了新高度，开辟了马克思主义党际关系理论新境界”，为新时代中国共产党政党外交提供了根本遵循和行动指南。在习近平总书记关于党的对外工作重要论述指引下，中国共产党政党外交“超越理念、民族、文化、信仰和地域等方面的差异和分歧”，以不同国家和政党间的文明交流互鉴作为推动人类文明进步和世界和平发展的重要动力。目前，中国共产党同世界上160多个国家和地区的560多个政党和政治组织保持着经常性联系，不断深化政党交流合作。

Since its reform and opening up (Doi Moi), the Communist Party of Vietnam "has made many useful explorations in developing Marxist theory, forming Ho Chi Minh Thought and a series of Vietnamese views on socialism," among which the ideas on national liberation and human liberation have provided ideological guidance for opening up a new realm of the Communist Party of Vietnam's party diplomacy theory. The Workers' Party of Korea and the Communist Party of Cuba "have formed rich localized theoretical achievements in comprehensively understanding the era characteristics of today's world," laying a theoretical foundation for forming innovative achievements in party diplomacy. The Lao People's Revolutionary Party takes "combining patriotism with internationalism" as one of the six basic principles that must be adhered to in reform and opening up.

越南共产党自革新开放以来，“在发展马克思主义理论方面作了很多有益的探索，形成了胡志明思想和越南关于社会主义的一系列观点”，其中关于民族解放和人类解放的思想，为开辟越共政党外交理论新境界提供了思想指引。朝鲜劳动党、古巴共产党在“全面认识当今世界的时代特征等方面形成了丰富的本土化理论成果”，为形成政党外交的创新性成果奠定了理论基础。老挝人民革命党将“爱国主义和国际主义相结合”作为革新开放必须坚持的六项基本原则之一。

3. Building International Party Exchange and Cooperation Networks of Various Forms and Levels

3.搭建多种形式、多种层次的国际政党交流合作网络

To shake off the post-Cold War syndrome and reposition the historical role of left-wing parties and left-wing movements, in July 1990, at the initiative of the Communist Party of Cuba and the Workers' Party of Brazil, the first São Paulo Forum was held under the name "Conference of Left-Wing Parties and Organizations of Latin America and the Caribbean," with the second forum renamed the "São Paulo Forum." To date, 26 sessions have been held, and the CPC, the Communist Party of Vietnam, and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party have participated multiple times. The São Paulo Forum is not only an important vehicle for building a united front of "21st-century socialism" in Latin America but also provides an important platform for exchange and unity among progressive forces in Latin America and globally. In 1998, the first International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties was held in Athens, with "representatives of 57 communist and workers' parties from 50 countries" attending, and to date, 23 sessions have been successfully convened. This mechanism is an important achievement of the exploration of international unity by communist and workers' parties worldwide after the end of the Cold War.

为摆脱冷战后遗症、重新定位左翼政党和左翼运动的历史作用，1990年7月，在古巴共产党和巴西劳动党的倡议下圣保罗论坛首届论坛以“拉丁美洲和加勒比地区左翼政党和组织会议”为名，第二届论坛改为“圣保罗论坛”。举办，迄今已召开26届，中国共产党、越南共产党、老挝人民革命党多次参会。圣保罗论坛不仅是拉美构建“21世纪社会主义”团结阵线的重要载体，也为拉美及全球进步力量的交流与联合提供了重要平台。1998年，首届共产党和工人党国际会议在雅典举行，世界“50个国家的57个共产党和工人党的代表与会”，截至目前已成功召开23届会议。该机制是冷战结束后世界共产党和工人党探索国际联合的重要成果。

Since entering the 21st century, the Communist Party of China has created a “new pattern of party diplomacy that is all-dimensional, multi-channeled, wide-ranging, and deep-level,” built up “a network for international party exchanges and cooperation in multiple forms and at multiple levels, gathering a powerful force for building a community with a shared future for mankind,” established bilateral policy exchange and theoretical discussion mechanisms with ruling parties of many countries, “enriched the connotation of the ‘Party +’ model,” and set up numerous specialized exchange mechanisms. At the level of multilateral party mechanisms, the CPC and World Political Parties High-Level Dialogue has been convened multiple times, contributing wisdom to the construction of an international party exchange and cooperation network. “Such global-scale multilateral party meetings are unprecedented in scale, specification, and diversity,” and they hold landmark significance in the CPC’s development over more than a century, in the history of Marxist party interactions, and in the history of world political party development. In addition, the CPC has actively explored new forms of exchange and cooperation among world Marxist political parties. For example, in May 2021, the CPC hosted a “World Marxist Political Parties Theoretical Seminar” via video conference; in July 2022, the “CPC and World Marxist Political Parties Forum” was held via video, with “representatives from over 100 Marxist political parties, left-wing parties, and political organizations from more than 70 countries, totaling over 300 people, participating online.”

进入21世纪以来，中国共产党创建了“全方位、多渠道、宽领域、深层次的政党外交新格局”，搭建起“多种形式、多种层次的国际政党交流合作网络，汇聚构建人类命运共同体的强大力量”，同多国执政党建立了双边政策交流和理论研讨机制，“丰富‘政党+’模式内涵”，设置了诸多专门性交流机制。在政党多边机制层面上，中国共产党与世界政党高层对话会多次召开，为构建国际政党交流合作网络贡献了智慧。“这种全球范围内的多边政党会议在规模、规格、多元性等方面都是前所未有的”，在中国共产党百余年发展历程中，在马克思主义政党交往史、世界政党发展史上都具有标志性意义。此外，中国共产党还积极探索世界马克思主义政党交流合作的新形式，如2021年5月，中国共产党通过视频会议方式举办“世界马克思主义政党理论研讨会”；2022年7月，“中国共产党与世界马克思主义政党论坛”以视频方式举行，“来自70多个国家100多个马克思主义政党、左翼政党和政治组织的代表共300多人线上参会”。

In 2021, the 13th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam proposed “to further construct the ‘three new pillars’ of party-to-party diplomacy, state diplomacy, and people’s diplomacy.” The Lao People’s Revolutionary Party emphasized “taking preventive diplomacy as an important guideline, mutually respecting independence and sovereignty, achieving mutual benefit and win-win outcomes, strengthening party-to-party exchanges, and carrying out multi-faceted, multi-form, and multi-level exchange and cooperation.” The 8th Congress of the Workers’ Party of Korea proposed taking friendly nations and friendly parties as the fulcrum of foreign relations, “further developing relations with socialist countries, and strengthening unity and cooperation with independent revolutionary parties and progressive parties.” The CPC has also actively engaged in building comprehensive party exchange and cooperation mechanisms with the Communist Party of Vietnam, the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party, and others. It is worth noting that in 2021, after successfully convening their party congresses, the ruling parties of North Korea, Laos, Vietnam, and Cuba communicated the spirit of their party congresses to the ruling parties of other socialist countries through various means, indicating that “exchange and mutual learning among the ruling parties of socialist countries are showing a trend toward normalization and institutionalization.”

2021年，越共十三大提出“要进一步建构党际外交、国家外交和人民外交‘新三大支柱’”。老挝人民革命党强调“以预防性外交为重要方针，互相尊重独立与主权、互利共赢，加强党际交往，开展多方面、多形式、多层次的交流合作”。朝鲜劳动党八大提出要以友邦、友党为对外关系支点，“进一步发展同社会主义国家的关系，加强同自主革命政党、进步政党的团结与合作”。中国共产党还与越南共产党、老挝人民革命党等积极开展全方位的政党交流合作机制建设。值得一提的是，2021年，朝鲜、老挝、越南、古巴执政党在成功召开党代会后，通过各种方式向其他社会主义国家执政党通报党代会精神，表明“社会主义国家执政党间的交流互鉴呈现出常态化和机制化趋向”。

Overall, although the century-long exploration of party diplomacy in socialist countries has experienced twists and turns, the general trend has been continuous development and innovation. It has achieved a historic leap from socialist parties’ external interactions to socialist countries’ party diplomacy, broken through the limitations of narrow and singular interaction targets, established various forms of party exchange and cooperation platforms, expanded the points of conceptual convergence and interest convergence for the full cooperation of political parties worldwide, and is striding forward on the great path of promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind.

总的来看，社会主义国家政党外交的百年探索虽历经曲折，但总的趋向是不断发展创新，并实现了从社会主义政党对外交往到社会主义国家政党外交的历史性跨越，突破了交往对象有限单一的局限性，搭建起多种形式的政党交流合作平台，扩大了世界各国政党通力合作的理念契合点和利益汇合点，在推动构建人类命运共同体的大道上阔步前进。

III. Empirical Lessons of Socialist Countries’ Party Diplomacy

三、社会主义国家政党外交的经验启示

Over more than a century, the party diplomacy of socialist countries has experienced rises and falls. The experiences and lessons, the laws and wisdom contained therein, provide important insights for continuously opening up new prospects for socialist countries’ party diplomacy at a new historical starting point, promoting the revitalization of the world socialist movement, and gathering the party strength to build a community with a shared future for mankind.

百余年来，社会主义国家政党外交历经兴衰起伏，其中的经验和教训、蕴含的规律和智慧，为在新的历史起点上不断开创社会主义国家政党外交新局面，推动世界社会主义运动振兴，汇聚构建人类命运共同体的政党力量提供了重要启示。

(1) Continuously Advance Theoretical Innovation in Socialist Countries’ Party Diplomacy

（一）不断推进社会主义国家政党外交理论创新

The theory of socialist countries’ party diplomacy is a value-cognition system and practice-promotion mechanism gradually formed by Marxist ruling parties in the practice of party diplomacy, concerning the theoretical origins, theoretical premises, theoretical foundations, and theoretical development of socialist countries’ party diplomacy. Over more than a century, some experienced major parties in the world socialist movement, constrained by factors such as their own construction, the conditions of the era, and the international environment, failed to propose a complete and clear theory of party diplomacy. However, to promote the progress of human society and build a community with a shared future for mankind, it is entirely necessary for socialist countries’ party diplomacy to take its own historical evolution and practical creation as its basis and form a self-consistent theoretical system of party diplomacy. It should be said that the theory of socialist countries’ party diplomacy is a theoretical system in which Marxist ruling parties, in the process of interacting with the external world, consciously stand on the proletarian standpoint and use dialectical materialism and historical materialism to analyze and reveal their own existence, development, and role. This theoretical system has the dual function of “explaining oneself” and “interpreting the other.” Of course, it first reflects the “autonomous understanding” formed by Marxist ruling parties of their own relationship with the world based on their own political stance and value concepts. This autonomous understanding, through “being understood, respected, and recognized by political parties, politicians, and political organizations of various countries,” is elevated into a universally guiding norm for world party interactions.

社会主义国家政党外交理论是马克思主义执政党在政党外交实践中逐步形成的关于社会主义国家政党外交的理论缘起、理论前提、理论基础以及理论发展的价值认知体系与实践推进机制。百余年来，一些在世界社会主义运动中富有经验的老党大党囿于自身建设、时代条件与国际环境等因素，未能提出完整明确的政党外交理论。然而，为推动人类社会进步与构建人类命运共同体，社会主义国家政党外交完全有必要以自身历史演进和实践创造为本位，形成一套自洽的政党外交理论体系。应当说，社会主义国家政党外交理论是马克思主义执政党在与外部世界打交道的过程中，自觉站在无产阶级立场，运用辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义分析和揭示自身存在、发展与发挥作用的理论体系。该理论体系具有“解释自身”与“诠释他者”的双向功能，当然，首先反映的是马克思主义执政党根据自身政治立场与价值理念所形成的对自身与世界关系的“自主理解”。这种自主理解经由“各国政党、政要和政治组织等理解、尊重、认同”，跃升为具有普遍指导意义的世界政党交往准则。

The theory of socialist countries’ party diplomacy should, from the perspective of “theoretical origins,” address the question of theoretical and historical origins, guiding party diplomacy of various countries to inherit and develop the theoretical viewpoints and historical legacy of the First International’s socialist party external interactions, and endowing socialist countries’ party diplomacy from its source with the responsibility of guiding direction, building consensus, promoting development, strengthening cooperation, and improving governance. From the perspective of “theoretical premises,” it should clarify the question of the era’s background and practical basis, leading socialist countries’ party diplomacy to take meeting the era’s need to promote building a community with a shared future for mankind as its premise, to take achieving national rejuvenation, national development, and human progress as its mission, and in the process of “using the establishment of a new type of party-to-party relations to help build a new type of international relations, and using the consolidation and improvement of global party partnerships to help deepen and expand global partnerships,” fully demonstrate the responsibility and commitment of the ruling parties of socialist countries. From the perspective of “theoretical foundations,” it should clarify the question of ideological resources, that is, socialist countries’ party diplomacy must take the Marxist classical writers’ general views and basic viewpoints on the interactions of proletarian parties as its theoretical foundation, shoulder the responsibility of continuing to advance the localization and modernization of Marxism, and “in the process of jointly promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind, allow Marxism to demonstrate even greater truth power.” From the perspective of “theoretical development,” it should clarify the question of value contribution and value guidance, leading socialist countries’ party diplomacy to “firmly grasp the main line of serving national rejuvenation and promoting human progress,” uphold Party leadership, adhere to the people-centered principle, uphold the principle of independence, establish the consciousness of upholding fundamental principles and breaking new ground, promote the spirit of helping others to achieve one’s own success, and maintain a posture of vigorous endeavor, promoting coordination and cooperation between countries through consultation and cooperation between parties, thereby giving play to the political guiding role of party diplomacy.

社会主义国家政党外交理论应从“理论缘起”的角度回答好理论和历史起源问题，指引各国政党外交继承和发展第一国际社会主义政党对外交往的理论观点与历史遗产，从源头上赋予社会主义国家政党外交引领方向、凝聚共识、促进发展、加强合作、完善治理的责任；从“理论前提”角度阐明时代背景与实践依据问题，引领社会主义国家政党外交以满足推动构建人类命运共同体的时代需求为前提，以实现民族复兴、国家发展、人类进步为己任，在“以建立新型政党关系助力构建新型国际关系，以夯实完善全球政党伙伴关系助力深化拓展全球伙伴关系”的过程中，充分彰显社会主义国家执政党的责任与担当；从“理论基础”角度阐明思想资源问题，即社会主义国家政党外交必须以马克思主义经典作家关于无产阶级政党交往的总的看法与基本观点为理论基础，肩负起继续推进马克思主义本土化时代化这一责任，“在携手推动构建人类命运共同体的进程中让马克思主义展现出更强大的真理力量”；从“理论发展”角度阐明价值贡献与价值引领问题，引领社会主义国家政党外交“牢牢把握服务民族复兴、促进人类进步这条主线”，坚持党的领导、坚守人民至上理念、秉持独立自主原则、树立守正创新意识、弘扬立己达人精神、保持奋发有为姿态，通过政党间协商合作促进国家间协调合作，从而发挥政党外交的政治引领作用。

(2) Strengthen the Synergy Between the New Type of Party-to-Party Relations and the New Type of International Relations

（二）强化新型政党关系与新型国际关系的协同性

Party diplomacy and state diplomacy are both connected and distinct. Party diplomacy takes the ruling party as its core subject and emphasizes flexibility and diversity in diplomatic methods; state diplomacy is a form handled by specialized state functional departments through official channels to manage international affairs. Because socialist countries’ party diplomacy is conducted by the ruling party, it is difficult to completely separate party diplomacy from state diplomacy. “This was particularly prominent in the party-to-party interactions of socialist countries during the Cold War, where meetings of party leaders sometimes directly replaced intergovernmental meetings.” It can be said that how to handle the distinction and connection between inter-party relations and international relations is a unique challenge faced by socialist countries’ party diplomacy. On December 1, 2017, in his keynote speech at the CPC and World Political Parties High-Level Dialogue, General Secretary Xi Jinping explicitly proposed to “explore the establishment of a new type of party-to-party relations based on the new type of international relations, characterized by seeking common ground while reserving differences, mutual respect, and mutual learning.” This is both a theoretical understanding deeply summarizing the experiences and lessons of socialist countries’ party diplomacy and an important foundation for achieving innovative development of socialist countries’ party diplomacy under new historical conditions.

政党外交与国家外交既有联系也有区别。政党外交是以执政党为核心主体，注重外交方式的灵活多样；国家外交是由专门性国家职能部门负责、通过官方渠道处理国际事务的形态。由于社会主义国家政党外交是由执政党开展的，政党外交与国家外交很难截然分开，“这在冷战时期社会主义国家的党际交往中表现得尤为突出，各党领导人会晤有时直接取代了政府间会议”。可以说，如何处理党际关系和国际关系之间的区别和联系，是社会主义国家政党外交面临的独有难题。2017年12月1日，习近平总书记在中国共产党与世界政党高层对话会上的主旨讲话中明确提出，要“探索在新型国际关系的基础上建立求同存异、相互尊重、互学互鉴的新型政党关系”。这既是深刻总结社会主义国家政党外交的经验教训得出的理论认识，也是在新的历史条件下实现社会主义国家政党外交创新发展的重要基石。

The “new” in the new type of party-to-party relations is mainly embodied in four dimensions. First, the theoretical foundation is new; it takes a new outlook on the times, a new outlook on civilization, and a new outlook on political parties as its theoretical basis, and takes the central task of the Communist Party of China in the New Era and the new journey as its premise. Second, the functional positioning of political parties is new; it emphasizes the international exercise of party functions and highlights the positive guiding role of political parties in the development of human society. Third, the mode of interaction is new; it focuses on the “mutual learning and mutual reference in the spirit of openness, inclusiveness, and win-win cooperation” in the New Era. Fourth, the value goal is new; it takes building a community with a shared future for mankind as the new mission of party diplomacy in socialist countries. To establish a new type of party-to-party relations, on the basis of the four principles of inter-party relations, one must, first, uphold seeking common ground while reserving differences, that is, “gather together what is common in interests, responsibilities, and challenges, and dissolve what is different in ideology, political system, and stage of development,” so as to jointly address the common challenges and threats faced by all countries in the process of modernization. Second, one must practice mutual respect, that is, respect the “social system and development path independently chosen by the ruling parties of each country, and respect each other’s core interests and major concerns.” Third, one must engage in mutual learning and mutual reference; by strengthening exchanges and mutual learning among political parties from around the world, one can both draw on and absorb all outstanding achievements of human political civilization and actively respond to the value demands of the objective laws of world party politics evolution, thereby providing theoretical support and practical reference for continuously improving the capacity for party self-building, party governance and administration, and party diplomacy.

新型政党关系的“新”主要体现在四个层面。一是理论基础新，它以新的时代观、文明观与政党观为理论基础，以新时代新征程中国共产党的中心任务为前提；二是政党功能定位新，注重政党功能的国际发挥，强调政党对人类社会发展的积极引导作用；三是交往方式新，着眼于新时代“开放包容、合作共赢精神的互学互鉴”；四是价值目标新，将构建人类命运共同体作为社会主义国家政党外交新的使命。建立新型政党关系，在党际关系四原则基础上，一要坚持求同存异，即“聚利益、责任、挑战之同，化意识形态、政治制度、发展阶段之异”，共同解决各国现代化进程中面临的共同挑战与威胁；二要相互尊重，即尊重各国执政党“自主选择的社会制度和发展道路，尊重彼此核心利益和重大关切”；三要互学互鉴，通过加强世界各国政党之间的交流互鉴，既借鉴吸收人类政治文明一切优秀成果，又积极回应世界政党政治演进客观规律的价值诉求，为不断提升政党自身建设、政党治国理政与政党外交能力提供理论支撑与实践借鉴。

To strengthen the synergy between the new type of party-to-party relations and the new type of international relations, one must, first, strengthen the leading role of party diplomacy, take the establishment, consolidation, and development of state-to-state relations as the focal point, broadly consolidate political consensus among countries around the world, and enhance communication and coordination with political parties of various countries, especially ruling parties, on matters such as governance, development thinking, and policy concepts, so as to continuously inject positive energy into guiding the healthy development of state-to-state relations. Second, one must fully leverage the bridging role of party diplomacy, strengthen contacts and exchanges with political parties and opposition parties in various countries, “move people with sincerity, warm people with heart, and touch people with emotion,” and play an active role in enhancing mutual understanding and friendship and maintaining the stability and development of relations between socialist countries and other countries. Third, one must fully leverage the role of party diplomacy as a staff assistant; by closely monitoring the general trends of world development, deeply studying the policy adjustments of various countries, especially major powers and major parties, and objectively understanding the external environment in which one’s own country and party are situated, one can offer advice and suggestions for safeguarding national interests and national security.

强化新型政党关系与新型国际关系的协同性，一要强化政党外交的引领作用，以建立、巩固和发展国家关系为着力点，广泛凝聚世界各国的政治共识，加强同各国政党特别是执政党在治国理政、发展思路和政策理念等方面的沟通协调，为引领国家关系健康发展持续注入正能量；二要充分发挥政党外交的桥梁作用，加强与各国政党及在野党的接触与交往，“以诚感人、以心暖人、以情动人”，为增进彼此了解和友谊，保持社会主义国家同其他国家关系的稳定与发展发挥积极作用；三要充分发挥政党外交的参谋助手作用，通过密切关注世界发展大势，深入研究各国特别是大国大党的政策调整，客观认识本国本党所处外部环境，为维护国家利益和国家安全建言献策。

(III) Emphasizing the Coordination, Scientificity, and Effectiveness of Party Diplomacy Methods

（三）注重政党外交方法的协调性、科学性与实效性

Emphasizing the coordination of party diplomacy methods means adhering to a systematic approach to promote the coordinated development of all elements and fields of party diplomacy in socialist countries, and using scientific thinking methods to achieve forward-looking thinking, overall planning, and holistic advancement of party diplomacy. Party diplomacy in socialist countries is a systematic project; “political parties, governments, people’s congresses, political consultative conferences, the military, local authorities, and civil society must strengthen overall planning and coordination, each with its own focus, complementing each other, and forming a major external work coordination pattern in which the Party exercises overall leadership and coordinates all parties.” [18]18 This quotation describes the “major external work coordination pattern” (对外工作大协同局面) in which the Party exercises overall leadership over all sectors involved in foreign affairs. It is necessary to continuously enhance the ruling party’s overall planning capacity to set direction, plan the big picture, and formulate policies, to centrally deploy and rationally allocate diplomatic resources from an overall perspective, while also tapping development potential and strengthening development momentum by addressing shortcomings, ensuring that the ruling party’s foreign policies and strategic deployments are implemented.

注重政党外交方法的协调性，是指坚持以系统观念推动社会主义国家政党外交各要素、各领域的协调发展，运用科学思维方法实现对政党外交的前瞻性思考、全局性谋划、整体性推进。社会主义国家政党外交是一个系统工程，“政党、政府、人大、政协、军队、地方、民间等要强化统筹协调，各有侧重，相互配合，形成党总揽全局、协调各方的对外工作大协同局面”。不断增强执政党把方向、谋大局、定政策的统筹能力，从全局高度集中调度、合理配置外交资源，同时通过补齐短板挖掘发展潜力、增强发展后劲，确保执政党对外方针政策和战略部署落到实处。

Emphasizing the scientificity of party diplomacy methods requires, on the one hand, adhering to the worldview and methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism, always focusing on the central tasks of the ruling party and national development, and studying specific practical issues, such as “studying the profound changes and trends in the international landscape; studying the development trends and mutual relations of the ‘two isms’ [19]19 “Two isms” (两个主义) refers to capitalism and socialism.; studying the laws of world party politics development and the governance experiences of various countries.” On the other hand, it also requires studying macro-strategic issues, including “deeply studying the laws and general trends of historical development, and always grasping the historical initiative in the cause of the Party and the state in the New Era and the new journey,” and, from the perspective of party politics, continuously deepening the scientific understanding of the laws of Communist Party governance, the laws of socialist construction, and the laws of human social development.

注重政党外交方法的科学性，一方面，要坚持运用辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义世界观方法论，始终聚焦执政党和国家发展的中心任务，研究具体的现实问题，“研究国际格局深刻变动及走向；研究‘两个主义’发展趋势和相互关系；研究世界政党政治发展规律和各国治国理政经验”。另一方面，还要研究宏观的战略问题，包括“深入研究历史发展规律和大势，始终掌握新时代新征程党和国家事业发展的历史主动”，并以政党政治视角不断深化对共产党执政规律、社会主义建设规律、人类社会发展规律的科学认识。

Emphasizing the effectiveness of party diplomacy methods means continuously expanding the “convergence of ideas and convergence of interests” among political parties of various countries. On the one hand, party diplomacy in socialist countries should adhere to the guidance of the common values of all mankind—peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy, and freedom—and “understand with a broad mind the different understandings of the connotation of values among different civilizations, and respect the explorations of different peoples for the paths to realize values.” On the other hand, while resolutely defending its own sovereignty, security, and development interests, party diplomacy in socialist countries should also take into account the legitimate concerns of other countries and their political parties, and shoulder the responsibility of seeking progress for humanity and pursuing common good for the world.

注重政党外交方法的实效性，不断扩大各国政党间的“理念契合点、利益汇合点”。一方面，社会主义国家政党外交应坚持以和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的全人类共同价值为引领，“以宽广胸怀理解不同文明对价值内涵的认识，尊重不同国家人民对价值实现路径的探索”。另一方面，社会主义国家政党外交在坚决捍卫本国主权、安全和发展利益的同时，兼顾别国及其政党的合理关切，肩负起为人类谋进步、为世界谋大同的责任担当。

(IV) Enriching the Diversity of Institutional Platform Construction for Party Diplomacy

（四）丰富政党外交制度平台建设的多样性

The institutionalization of party diplomacy refers to the dynamic process of standardizing, mechanizing, and legalizing party diplomacy, involving a series of rules, mechanisms, and institutions that constrain the operation of party diplomacy. It mainly includes internal institutionalization and external institutionalization. The former refers to the internal logic and evolutionary process of the institutional construction of party diplomacy itself, while the latter refers to the process by which a political party builds bilateral or multilateral party interaction mechanisms with its interaction partners. In fact, not all political parties have the willingness and ability to carry out the institutionalization of party diplomacy, because “the higher the frequency of party diplomacy, the more interaction partners, and the higher the level of institutionalization of interactions, the more resources the political party needs to expend.” Since party diplomacy in socialist countries is the behavior of the ruling party, it not only possesses the political will to exert subjective initiative but also has a powerful system of ruling resources to support the institutionalization of party diplomacy.

政党外交制度化建设，是指政党外交的规范化、机制化和法制化的动态过程，涉及对政党外交运行过程构成约束的一系列规则、机制以及机构。它主要包括内部机制化建设和对外机制化建设。前者是指政党外交自身制度建设的内在逻辑与演进过程，后者是指政党针对与其交往对象所搭建的双边或多边政党交往机制的过程。事实上，不是所有的政党都有意愿和能力开展政党外交的制度化建设，这是因为政党外交的“频率越高、交往对象越多以及交往制度化水平越高，政党所需要付出的资源也越多”。由于社会主义国家政党外交是执政党的行为，其不仅具备发挥主观能动性的政治意愿，而且拥有强大的执政资源体系，支撑其开展政党外交制度化建设。

Therefore, fully utilizing the ruling resources of political parties is an indispensable part of the construction of institutional platforms for party diplomacy in socialist countries, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. First, the optimization of functional departments for party diplomacy. Promote the construction of specialized institutions responsible for party diplomacy, track changes in the situation through thematic investigations, theoretical seminars, and other means, strengthen strategic and countermeasure research, and conscientiously fulfill the function of being a staff assistant to the Party Central Committee. Second, the selection and training of professional personnel for party diplomacy. Cultivate a group of high-quality professional cadres to provide solid professional talent support for improving the institutional construction of party diplomacy. Third, continuously innovate mechanisms for exchange and cooperation with other political parties in the world, deeply conduct new types of inter-party exchanges and cooperation through channels such as high-level exchanges, forum dialogues, and working visits, and continuously enhance the institutionalization level of party diplomacy in socialist countries.

因此，充分利用政党执政资源是社会主义国家政党外交制度平台建设不可或缺的一部分，这主要体现在以下几个方面。一是对政党外交职能部门的优化。推进负责政党外交专门性机构建设，通过专题考察、理论研讨等方式，跟踪形势变化，加强战略性和对策性研究，认真履行好党中央参谋助手职能。二是对政党外交专业人员的选拔与培养。培养一批高素质业务干部，为健全政党外交制度建设提供坚实的专业人才支撑。三是不断创新同世界上其他政党的交流合作机制，通过高层往来、论坛对话、工作访问等渠道，深入开展新型党际交流与合作，不断提升社会主义国家政党外交的制度化水平。

(V) Promoting the Building of a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind as the Value Orientation of Party Diplomacy in Socialist Countries

（五）推动构建人类命运共同体是社会主义国家政党外交的价值指向

The exploration of party diplomacy in socialist countries over more than a century is not only a process of value expression that demonstrates one’s own development and progress to the world, but also a process of value realization that promotes the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. It can be said that, based on a holistic consideration of the development of human society, it organically integrates the party mission of “promoting human progress” with the development demands of different stages of human society, always adheres to the interaction norms of peaceful development, extensive consultation and joint contribution, and fairness and justice, promptly examines and resolves the dilemmas facing human development, consolidates the consensus of people of different ethnicities, beliefs, and cultures, and in establishing a new type of party-to-party relations characterized by seeking common ground while reserving differences, mutual respect, and mutual learning, continuously consolidates and strengthens the political foundation for building a community with a shared future for mankind.

社会主义国家政党外交的百余年探索，既是一个向世界展示自身发展进步的价值表达过程，更是一个推动构建人类命运共同体的价值实现过程。可以说，它基于对人类社会发展的整体性考量，将所肩负的“推动人类进步”的政党使命与人类社会不同阶段的发展诉求有机融合起来，始终坚持和平发展、共商共建、公平正义的交往规范，及时审视和破解人类发展面临的困境，凝聚不同民族、不同信仰、不同文化的人民的共识，在建立求同存异、相互尊重、互学互鉴的新型政党关系中，不断夯实和巩固构建人类命运共同体的政治基础。

At present, the overall level and state of progress achieved by socialist countries’ party diplomacy have reached a new historical height in terms of understanding the laws of “what kind of world to build” and “how to build this world” from the dimensions of a global perspective, a party perspective, and a civilization perspective. From a global perspective, socialist countries’ party diplomacy adheres to promoting world peace and development, and is committed to advancing the building of a world of lasting peace, universal security, shared prosperity, openness, inclusiveness, cleanliness, and beauty. From a party perspective, political parties are an important force in leading the progress of human civilization and advancing the process of modernization. This positioning transcends the traditional setting that previously regarded parties only as a driving force in domestic politics, and increasingly emphasizes their role orientation toward the world. From a civilization perspective, socialist countries’ party diplomacy is committed to promoting exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations and advancing the progress of human civilization. It advocates “establishing a view of civilization based on equality, mutual learning, dialogue, and inclusiveness, transcending estrangement through civilizational exchange, transcending conflict through civilizational mutual learning, and transcending superiority through civilizational coexistence,”[20]20 Xi Jinping, “Working Together to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind,” speech at the United Nations Office at Geneva, January 18, 2017. thereby gathering the mighty strength of Marxist political parties to promote the building of a community with a shared future for mankind.

当前，社会主义国家政党外交达到的整体水平与进步状态，从全球观、政党观、文明观等维度对“建设什么样的世界”以及“怎样建设这个世界”的规律性认识达到了新的历史高度。从全球观来看，社会主义国家政党外交坚持促进世界和平与发展，致力于推动构建持久和平、普遍安全、共同繁荣、开放包容、清洁美丽的世界。从政党观来看，政党是引领人类文明进步和推动现代化进程的重要力量，这一定位超越了以往仅将政党视为国内政治推动力量的传统设定，愈加重视其面向世界的角色定位。从文明观来看，社会主义国家政党外交致力于推动文明交流互鉴，促进人类文明进步，主张“树立平等、互鉴、对话、包容的文明观，以文明交流超越文明隔阂，以文明互鉴超越文明冲突，以文明共存超越文明优越”，为推动构建人类命运共同体汇聚了马克思主义政党的磅礴力量。

IV. Conclusion

四、结语

A profound summary of the experiences and lessons accumulated over more than a century of exploration in socialist countries’ party diplomacy yields the overarching understanding that socialist countries’ party diplomacy not only aims to realize the interests of the people in socialist countries but also bears the mission and responsibility of safeguarding world peace and development and promoting the progress of human civilization. Its emergence, development, and the process of realizing its value are rooted in the historical mission of Marxist ruling parties to lead “the united action of the civilized countries”[21]21 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party* (1848). to achieve the liberation of the proletariat and humanity. It originated in the international unity of proletarian parties in the First International and the historical pioneering act of the Russian Bolshevik Party in establishing the world’s first socialist state. It developed through the vivid practice of Marxist ruling parties in the world socialist movement, guided by the spirit of proletarian internationalism, in supporting national liberation movements and opposing hegemonism and power politics. It has been innovated in the historical creation of uniting countries around the world in solidarity and cooperation through common ideals and beliefs, gathering the exchange and cooperation of Marxist political parties worldwide, and promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. In the future, it will inevitably expand the international space for the political growth of socialist countries’ political parties and will have a significant and far-reaching positive impact on creating “a new and higher form of human social life.”[22]22 Karl Marx, “The Civil War in France” (1871), referring to the Commune as the political form for the emancipation of labor.

深刻总结社会主义国家政党外交百余年探索所积累的经验与教训，可以得出的总体性认识是，社会主义国家政党外交不仅着眼于实现社会主义国家人民的利益，更肩负着维护世界和平与发展、促进人类文明进步的使命与担当。它的出场、发展及其价值实现过程，植根于马克思主义执政党引领“各文明国家的联合的行动”以实现无产阶级和人类解放的历史使命，发端于第一国际无产阶级政党性国际联合以及俄国布尔什维克党建立世界第一个社会主义国家的历史创举，发展于世界社会主义运动中马克思主义执政党以无产阶级国际主义精神指引民族解放运动和反对霸权主义强权政治的生动实践，创新于以共同理想信念引领世界各国团结合作、凝聚世界马克思主义政党交流合作、推动构建人类命运共同体的历史创造。未来，它必将拓展社会主义国家政党政治成长的国际空间，对创造“人类社会生活新的更高级形式”产生重大而深远的积极影响。

(Authors: Yang Xiuwen, doctoral candidate, Class of 2021, School of Marxism, Shandong University; Chen Haiyan, professor, School of Marxism, Qilu Normal University, and researcher, World Political Parties Research Center, Shandong University)

（作者：杨修文，山东大学马克思主义学院2021级博士研究生；陈海燕，齐鲁师范学院马克思主义学院教授，山东大学世界政党研究中心研究员）

Online editor: Jin Qiu

网络编辑：金秋