The Realization Path of the Self-Improvement of the Socialist System

Introduction

导言

Regarding reform and the socialist system, Deng Xiaoping put forward two important viewpoints: first, that “reform is the self-improvement of the socialist system”; second, that Chinese socialism might become “the best system in the world.” [1]1 Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997) was the paramount leader of the People’s Republic of China from the late 1970s until the early 1990s, and the chief architect of China’s reform and opening up. Linking these two viewpoints, one can discover an important logical thread in Deng Xiaoping’s thought: “reform and opening up — self-improvement of the socialist system — becoming the best system in the world,” that is, achieving the self-improvement of the socialist system through reform, and the socialist system gradually becoming the best system in the world through continuous self-improvement. This is the underlying logic of Deng Xiaoping’s theoretical system. The author has already sorted out the connotations and practice of these two important viewpoints in the article “Making Socialism with Chinese Characteristics ‘the Best System in the World’ — Deng Xiaoping’s Thought on System Building and the Practice of System Building since Reform and Opening Up.”

关于改革和社会主义制度，邓小平提出两个重要观点：一是“改革是社会主义制度的自我完善”；二是中国社会主义可能成为“世界上最好的制度”。将这两个观点关联起来，可以发现邓小平思想中一条重要的逻辑线索：“改革开放——社会主义制度自我完善——成为世界上最好的制度”，即通过改革实现社会主义制度的自我完善，社会主义制度通过不断自我完善逐步成为世界上最好的制度。这是邓小平理论体系的底层逻辑。笔者在《让中国特色社会主义“成为世界上最好的制度”——邓小平制度建设思想与改革开放以来的制度建设实践》一文对这两个重要观点的内涵与实践进行了梳理。

However, that article did not link the two viewpoints that reform is the self-improvement of the socialist system and that Chinese socialism might become “the best system in the world,” nor did it analyze the logical thread of “reform — self-improvement of the socialist system — becoming the best system in the world.” Consequently, it left some issues requiring further study. First, from the perspective of the first logical link, the socialist system is a system capable of self-improvement. So, what is the self-improvement of the socialist system? Why can the socialist system self-improve? Why can reform achieve the self-improvement of the socialist system? How does reform achieve the self-improvement of the socialist system? Second, from the perspective of the second logical link, what is the connotation of “the best system in the world”? How does the self-improvement of the socialist system drive the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics to become “the best system in the world”? To answer these questions, the key is to clarify one core issue: what is the realization path of the self-improvement of China’s socialist system?

但是，这篇文章没有将改革是社会主义制度的自我完善、中国社会主义可能成为“世界上最好的制度”这两个观点关联起来，没有分析“改革——社会主义制度自我完善——成为世界上最好的制度”这条逻辑线索，因此留下一些有待深入研究的问题。首先，从第一个逻辑环节来看，社会主义制度是可以自我完善的制度，那么，什么是社会主义制度的自我完善？社会主义制度为什么能自我完善？改革为什么能实现社会主义制度自我完善？改革如何实现社会主义制度自我完善？其次，从第二个逻辑环节来看，“世界上最好的制度”的内涵是什么？社会主义制度自我完善如何推动中国特色社会主义制度成为“世界上最好的制度”？回答这些问题，关键要阐明一个核心问题，中国社会主义制度自我完善的实现路径是什么？

Refining and summarizing signature concepts and original theories, and promoting the construction of an independent knowledge system for philosophy and social sciences, is the epochal task facing the philosophy and social sciences community. This article tentatively proposes and employs the concept and analytical framework of “institutional process” to explore the realization path of the self-improvement of the socialist system and to seek regularities in the self-improvement of China’s socialist system.

提炼总结标识性概念、原创性理论，推动构建哲学社会科学自主知识体系，是哲学社会科学界面临的时代任务。本文尝试性提出和运用“制度过程”这一概念和分析框架，探讨社会主义制度自我完善的实现路径，探求中国社会主义制度自我完善的规律性认识。

I. Theoretical Construction: “Institutional Process” as an Analytical Framework

一、理论构建：作为一个分析框架的“制度过程”

To analyze and reveal the realization path of the self-improvement of the socialist system, this article draws on concepts and analytical frameworks from academia such as “political process,” “government process,” “government behavior process,” and “policy process,” employs the “process” research method, and proposes the concept and analytical framework of “institutional process.” Concepts, like laws, exist objectively in practice and history and need to be refined and employed through research. Existing institutional research has mostly focused on the functions, types, and changes of institutions, often neglecting the internal logic and advancement process of institutional practice. Institutional process has been obscured behind this type of research. We might first assume its existence and then verify it through practice. Institutional process, that is, the process of institutional practice, includes a closed-loop cycle of institutional practice composed of five links: institutional design, institutional building, institutional operation, transformation of institutional advantages, and institutional evaluation.

为了分析和揭示社会主义制度自我完善的实现路径，本文借鉴学术界的“政治过程”“政府过程”“政府行为过程”“政策过程”等概念和分析框架，运用“过程”研究方法，提出“制度过程”这一概念和分析框架。概念如同规律，客观存在于实践和历史，需要通过研究加以提炼和运用。现有为止的制度研究，更多关注制度的功能、制度的类型、制度的变迁，往往忽视制度实践的内在逻辑及其推进过程。制度过程被遮蔽在这类研究的背后。我们不妨先假设其存在，再进行实践验证。制度过程，即制度实践过程，包括制度设计、制度建设、制度运转、制度优势转化、制度评价等五个环节组成的制度实践闭环周期。

(1) The Theoretical Connotation of the Institutional Process Analytical Framework

（一）制度过程分析框架的理论内涵

Institutional design refers to the top-level design of institutional building goals, institutional building plans, and institutional building methods based on the requirements of institutional practice. Institutional design is the logical starting point of the institutional process, determining the overall direction and path of the institutional process. Institutional building refers to the process of abolishing old institutions, constructing new institutions, and improving existing institutions through reform, legislation, policy, and other means, based on institutional design. Institutional building is the key link in the institutional process, determining the degree of achievement of institutional design goals, the effectiveness of institutional operation and the transformation of institutional advantages, and institutional efficacy. Institutional operation refers to the implementation, execution, and running of institutions. Institutional operation is the direct purpose of institutional building, the direct manifestation of institutional vitality and institutional efficacy, and the practical carrier of institutional advantages and their transformation. Transformation of institutional advantages refers to the process by which institutions form, manifest, and transform advantages. Both institutional building and institutional operation aim to form new institutional advantages and, on this basis, transform institutional advantages into development efficacy, governance efficacy, and security efficacy. The transformation of institutional advantages is the starting point and ultimate goal of the institutional process. Institutional evaluation refers to evaluating the quality of institutional building and the degree of achievement of the goals of institutional advantage transformation against the institutional design and objectives. Institutional evaluation is the summary and logical endpoint of the institutional process, a comprehensive assessment of the processes of institutional design, institutional building, institutional operation, and transformation of institutional advantages. Therefore, institutional efficacy evaluation is both the conclusion of one round of the institutional process and the foundation for initiating a new round of the institutional process.

制度设计，即根据制度实践要求对制度建设目标、制度建设规划与制度建设方式的顶层设计。制度设计是制度过程的逻辑起点，决定制度过程的总体方向和路径。制度建设，即根据制度设计，通过改革、立法、政策等方式废除旧的制度、建构新的制度和改善现有制度的过程。制度建设是制度过程的关键环节，决定制度设计目标的达成度，决定制度运转、制度优势及其转化的有效度，决定制度效能。制度运转，即制度的落实、执行与运行。制度运转是制度建设的直接目的，是制度生命力和制度效能的直接体现，也是制度优势及其转化的实践载体。制度优势转化，即制度形成、彰显、转化优势的过程。制度建设、制度运转，都是为了形成新的制度优势，并在此基础上将制度优势转化为发展效能、治理效能和安全效能。制度优势转化是制度过程的出发点和落脚点。制度评估，即对照制度设计与目标，对制度建设质量、制度优势转化的目标达成度进行评估。制度评价是制度过程的总结和逻辑终点，是对制度设计、制度建设、制度运转、制度优势转化过程的综合评价。因此，制度效能评价既是一轮制度过程的结束，又是开启新一轮制度过程的基础。

Each of the above links includes multiple sub-links. Institutional design includes sub-links such as the establishment of institutional design topics, the determination of institutional design plans, and the legalization of institutional design plans. Institutional building includes sub-links such as constructing an institutional framework, perfecting the institutional system, and systematically integrating institutions. Institutional operation includes sub-links such as implementing institutions, executing institutions, and running institutions. Transformation of institutional advantages includes sub-links such as forming institutional advantages and transforming institutional advantages. Institutional evaluation includes sub-links such as evaluating the state of institutions and evaluating institutional efficacy.

上述每个环节都包括多个子环节。制度设计包括制度设计议题的确立、制度设计方案的确定以及制度设计方案的合法化等子环节。制度建设包括构建制度框架、完善制度体系、系统集成制度等子环节。制度运转包括落实制度、执行制度、运行制度等子环节。制度优势转化包括形成制度优势、转化制度优势等子环节。制度评估包括评价制度状况、评价制度效能等子环节。

Each of the above links plays an irreplaceable and important role in the institutional process, collectively determining the effect of institutional practice and the success or failure of the institutional process. For example, the fundamental and strategic role of institutional design is irreplaceable; the quality of institutional practice and the institutional process depends on the top-level design. The foundational and decisive role of institutional building is irreplaceable; the quality of institutional building determines the quality of institutional practice and the institutional process. The practical and supportive role of institutional operation is irreplaceable; institutional vacancy and institutional idling lead to the failure of institutional practice. The critical and leading role of the transformation of institutional advantages is irreplaceable; it is key to promoting the adaptation of productive forces to relations of production, the adaptation of the superstructure to the economic base, and the adaptation of national governance to social development, thereby achieving the effects of institutional practice and the institutional process. The promotional and guiding role of institutional evaluation is irreplaceable; institutional evaluation not only summarizes the comprehensive performance of the institutional process but, more importantly, promotes and facilitates the formation of topics for a new round of institutional design, guiding and advancing the occurrence of a new round of the institutional process.

上述每个环节在制度过程中都有不可替代的重要作用，整体决定制度实践的效果，决定制度过程的成败。例如，制度设计的根本性、战略性作用不可替代，有什么样的顶层设计就有什么样的制度实践和制度过程。制度建设的基础性、决定性作用不可替代，制度建设的质量决定制度实践和制度过程的质量。制度运转的实践性、支撑性作用不可替代，制度空置、制度空转导致制度实践失败。制度优势转化的关键性、引领性作用不可替代，是促进生产力与生产关系相适应、上层建筑与经济基础相适应、国家治理和社会发展相适应从而达到制度实践和制度过程效果的关键。制度评估的促进性、先导性作用不可替代，制度评估不仅总结制度过程的综合绩效，更重要的是推动和促进新一轮制度设计议题的形成，引导和推进新一轮制度过程的发生。

The institutional process is a closed loop formed by the interlocking of the above links of institutional practice. On the one hand, this closed loop embodies the internal logic of the institutional practice process. Links such as institutional design, institutional building, institutional operation, transformation of institutional advantages, and institutional evaluation have an inherent, necessary relationship of sequential progression and successive advancement; none can be missing or skipped. On the other hand, this closed loop embodies the continuity and progressiveness of institutional practice. Each complete institutional process contains the impetus to promote and initiate a new round of the institutional process. Successive rounds of the institutional process, advancing one after another and iterating, constitute the historical process of the spiral-like ascent of the development of the social system.

制度过程就是上述制度实践环节环环相扣形成的闭环。一方面，这一闭环体现制度实践过程的内在逻辑。制度设计、制度建设、制度运转、制度优势转化、制度评价等环节具有前后相继、接续递进的内在必然联系，不能缺失，不能超越。另一方面，这一闭环体现制度实践的连续性和递进性。每一个完整的制度过程内含着推动和开启新一轮制度过程的动因，一个又一个制度过程前后相继与递进迭代，构成社会制度发展螺旋式上升的历史过程。

(2) The Ideological Basis of the Institutional Process Analytical Framework

（二）制度过程分析框架的思想依据

Treating the system as a practical process, applying process analysis methods to the study of institutional practice, and using this to analyze the practice of the Chinese socialist system, is rooted in Marxist institutional theory. Specifically: First, the classical Marxist writers believed that the institutions and institutional practices of human society are a process of continuous development and change in response to the demands of productive forces and the economic base. In the process of revealing the laws of human social development, the classical Marxist writers formed a logically rigorous and scientifically systematic institutional theory. Its key points include: the essence of institutions is relations of interest; the formation of institutions originates from and is rooted in the development and impetus of social productive forces; the development of institutions is reduced to the process of establishing certain relations of production and the social institutions and rules that correspond to and maintain these relations of production; the structure of social institutions includes the economic base and the superstructure, which, in the complex relationship of primary and derivative, action and reaction, form a clearly layered, holistic structure of social institutions. According to the institutional theory of the classical Marxist writers, the emergence and development of institutions have a processual character. Institutions are organic systems with vitality; institutions have a life cycle. There are no eternal institutions; any institution undergoes a process of emergence, development, decline, or replacement. Precisely because of the processual and cyclical nature of institutions, the various institutions of human society, through progressive succession and replacement, continuously achieve a spiral ascent, ultimately driving human society gradually toward an ideal social state.

把制度当作一个实践过程，运用过程分析方法研究制度实践，并用以分析中国社会主义制度实践，植根于马克思主义制度理论。具体来说：首先，马克思主义经典作家认为，人类社会的制度和制度实践是顺应生产力和经济基础要求不断发展和变迁的过程。马克思主义经典作家在揭示人类社会发展规律过程中，形成了逻辑严密、科学系统的制度理论。其要点包括，制度的本质是利益关系；制度的形成源于和植根于社会生产力的发展和推动；制度的发展归结为一定生产关系以及与这种生产关系相适应并维护这种生产关系的社会机构和规则的确立过程；社会制度结构包括经济基础和上层建筑，两者在原生与派生、作用与反作用的复杂关系中，形成层次分明的、整体的社会制度结构。根据马克思主义经典作家的制度理论，制度的产生和发展具有过程性。制度是具有生命力的有机体系，制度具有生命周期。不存在永恒的制度，任何制度都经历产生、发展、衰亡或被替代的过程。正是因为制度的过程性、周期性，人类社会的各项制度通过递进更迭，不断实现螺旋式的上升，最终推动人类社会逐渐进入理想社会状态。

Second, Deng Xiaoping’s two important propositions—that “reform is the self-perfection of the socialist system” and that Chinese socialism could become “the best system in the world”—reveal the necessity and processual nature of the self-perfection of the socialist system. Deng Xiaoping Theory contains rich institutional thought. This includes: emphasizing that institutions have a fundamental, overarching, stable, and long-term character; proposing that reform is the self-perfection of the socialist system, and that in reform we must “solve problems from the institutional aspect”; proposing the phased goal of institutional construction that “it will probably take another thirty years for us to form a more mature and more定型 [2]2 定型 (dìngxíng): A term meaning to become finalized, stabilized, or set in a definitive form. In the context of institutional construction, it refers to the goal of making institutions mature and stable. set of institutions in all respects”; and proposing the “three can” [3]3 “三个能否” (sān ge néng fǒu): The “three can” criteria, referring to Deng Xiaoping’s three evaluative questions about whether the political situation is stable, whether the people’s unity is enhanced, and whether productive forces develop sustainably. criteria for evaluating institutions: whether the country’s political situation is stable, whether it can enhance the unity of the people, and whether productive forces can achieve sustained development. These important propositions on institutions contain rich elements of institutional process thought. This includes: raising the importance and long-term nature of institutional construction, proposing the focus and goals of reform, emphasizing the “three can” criteria for evaluating institutional quality, and touching on all links of institutional practice and institutional process; proposing that the Chinese socialist system is a social system capable of self-perfection, that the Chinese socialist system is not yet perfect and needs continuous improvement through reform, that reform must be grounded in institutional construction, and emphasizing that the Chinese socialist system is still in its infancy and primary stage, that institutional construction cannot be accomplished overnight but must undergo a long process—these views contain the idea of promoting the self-perfection of the socialist system through a continuous institutional process.

其次，邓小平提出的“改革是社会主义制度的自我完善”、中国社会主义可能成为“世界上最好的制度”两个重要论断，揭示社会主义制度自我完善的必要性和过程性。邓小平理论中包含丰富的制度思想。包括：强调制度具有根本性、全局性、稳定性和长期性；提出改革是社会主义制度的自我完善，要在改革中“从制度方面解决问题”；提出“恐怕再有三十年的时间，我们才会在各方面形成一整套更加成熟、更加定型的制度”的制度建设阶段性目标；提出国家的政局是否稳定、能否增进人民的团结、生产力能否得到持续发展“三个能否”制度评价标准。这些关于制度的重要论断，蕴含着丰富的制度过程思想元素。包括：提出制度建设的重要性和长期性、提出改革重点和目标、强调“三个能否”制度质量评价标准等，论及到了制度实践和制度过程的各个环节；提出中国社会主义制度是一种可以自我完善的社会制度、中国社会主义制度还不完善、需要通过改革不断完善，提出改革必须落脚到制度建设上，强调中国社会主义制度还处在幼年期、初级阶段，制度建设不可能一蹴而就，必须经历一个长期的过程等观点，蕴含着通过接续不断的制度过程推动社会主义制度自我完善的思想。

Third, General Secretary Xi Jinping has put forward the institutional discourse of the CPC in the New Era, providing a practical theoretical basis for establishing an analytical framework for the institutional process. In leading the comprehensive deepening of reform and opening up in the New Era, General Secretary Xi Jinping has proposed a series of new viewpoints on institutions, institutional construction, and the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, specifically including eight aspects. First, regarding the importance of institutions, he proposed that “when the institutions are stable, the country is stable” and “institutional advantage is the greatest advantage of a country; institutional competition is the most fundamental competition between countries.” Second, regarding the goal of institutional construction, he proposed that comprehensive deepening reform in the New Era takes institutional construction as the main line and takes advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity as the main axis. The overall goal of comprehensive deepening reform and institutional construction is to perfect and develop the socialist system with Chinese characteristics and advance the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. Third, regarding the types of institutions, he proposed institutional types such as fundamental institutions, basic institutions, and important institutions, emphasizing that in reform we must build urgently needed institutions and essential institutions. Fourth, regarding the path of institutional construction, he proposed important propositions such as institutional arrangements, institutional design, and institutional frameworks, and proposed various links of institutional construction including perfecting institutions, advancing institutional system reform, institutional reform, solving institutional problems, promoting the maturation and定型 of institutions in all respects, forming an institutional system, and summarizing institutional achievements. Fifth, regarding the methods of institutional construction, he proposed a series of specific working methods for institutional construction, such as considering the institutional status of specific reforms, filling institutional短板 [4]4 短板 (duǎn bǎn): Literally “short board,” a metaphor from the “barrel theory” (the capacity of a barrel is limited by its shortest stave), meaning weaknesses or deficiencies that need to be addressed., leaving institutional interfaces for each other, strengthening institutional integration, improving the effect of institutional integration, promoting reform to converge toward mature and定型 institutions, upholding and consolidating institutions, perfecting and developing institutions, and abiding by and implementing institutions. He emphasized that institutional construction must pay more attention to the systemic, holistic, and coordinated nature of reform, and that institutional construction should focus on systemic integration to form a complete, scientific, standardized, and effectively operating institutional system. Sixth, regarding the operation of institutions, he proposed that the vitality of institutions lies in implementation, and emphasized links in the institutional operation process such as coordinating institutional reform and institutional operation, ensuring the effective operation of institutions, strengthening institutional guarantees, using institutions to revitalize resources, and using institutions to ensure policy implementation. Seventh, regarding institutional advantages, he proposed comprehensively summarizing the institutional advantages of socialism with Chinese characteristics, emphasizing stimulating institutional vitality and amplifying institutional advantages. Eighth, regarding the transformation of institutional advantages, he proposed transforming institutional advantages into institutional effectiveness, emphasizing promoting the better transformation and integration of institutional construction and governance effectiveness, using institutional advantages to respond to risks and challenges, and integratively advancing the upholding and consolidation of institutions, the perfection and development of institutions, and the abidance by and implementation of institutions, “fully demonstrating the strong self-perfection capacity of our country’s national system and governance system.” The series of new concepts and propositions on institutional construction put forward by General Secretary Xi Jinping have formed the CPC’s New Era institutional discourse system, covering all aspects of the institutional process. This is an important theoretical basis for the generation of the concept of the institutional process.

再次，习近平总书记提出新时代中国共产党制度话语，为确立制度过程分析框架提供现实理论基础。在领导新时代全面深化改革开放过程中，习近平总书记提出了一系列关于制度、制度建设、中国特色社会主义制度的新观点，具体包括八个方面。其一，关于制度重要性，提出“制度稳则国家稳”“制度优势是一个国家的最大优势，制度竞争是国家间最根本的竞争”。其二，关于制度建设的目标，提出新时代全面深化改革以制度建设为主线，以推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化为主轴。全面深化改革和制度建设总目标是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化。其三，关于制度的类型，提出根本制度、基本制度、重要制度等制度类型，强调改革中要建设急需制度、必备制度。其四，关于制度建设的路径，提出制度安排、制度设计、制度框架等重要命题，提出包括健全制度、推进制度体系变革、制度性改革、解决制度性问题、推动各方面制度更加成熟更加定型、形成制度体系、总结制度成果等环节在内的制度建设各个环节。其五，关于制度建设的方法，提出考虑具体改革的制度性地位、补齐制度短板、互留制度接口、强化制度集成、提高制度集成效果、推动改革向制度成熟定型靠拢、坚持和巩固制度、完善和发展制度、遵守和执行制度等一系列制度建设具体工作方法。强调制度建设必须更加注重改革的系统性、整体性、协同性，制度建设要注重系统集成，形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系。其六，关于制度运转。提出制度的生命力在于执行，强调统筹制度改革和制度运行、制度有效运转、强化制度保障、用制度盘活资源、用制度保障政策落实等制度运转环节。其七，关于制度优势，提出要全面总结中国特色社会主义制度优势，强调激发制度活力、放大制度优势。其八，关于制度优势转化，提出把制度优势转化为制度效能，强调促进制度建设和治理效能更好转化融合，运用制度优势应对风险挑战冲击，一体推进坚持和巩固制度、完善和发展制度、遵守和执行制度，“充分显示出我国国家制度和治理体系的强大自我完善能力”。习近平总书记围绕制度建设提出的一系列新概念、新命题，形成了中国共产党新时代制度话语体系，涵盖制度过程的方方面面，这是制度过程概念得以生成的重要理论基础。

(III) The Scholarly Foundation of the Analytical Framework for the Institutional Process

（三）制度过程分析框架的学理基础

The development of human society is a process, and any social order and social institution in the course of human social operation also exhibits processual characteristics. As mentioned above, the field of political science often uses the “process” analytical framework to study these social orders and social institutions. To some extent, “process” research has begun to become a focus of academic research in related fields. For example, Zhu Guanglei points out that “any actually functioning government is not only a system, a structure, but also a process. Therefore, research on government issues must inevitably break through the traditional scope of system research and element analysis in methodology and move toward an important field—process research.” [5]5 Zhu Guanglei, a Chinese political scientist, known for his work on government processes and the theory of “governance transition.” Similarly, institutions are social systems and social institutions, a living system and process. From this academic perspective, institutional practice is an organized process, inevitably accompanying the life cycle of institutions and possessing processual character. Revealing the processual character of institutional practice is the academic basis and purpose for proposing the concept and analytical framework of the “institutional process.”

人类社会发展是一个过程，人类社会运行过程中任何社会秩序和社会建制也都呈现过程特征。如前所述，政治学界往往运用“过程”分析框架研究这些社会秩序和社会建制。在某种程度上，“过程”研究已经开始成为相关领域学术研究的重点。例如，朱光磊指出，“任何实际运行中的政府，都不仅是一种体制、一个体系，而且还是一个过程。因此，关于政府问题的研究，必然要在方法论上突破传统的体制研究和要素分析范围，而走向一个重要领域——过程研究”。同理，制度是社会系统和社会建制，是一个有生命的体系和过程。从这种学术视角出发，制度实践是一个有组织的过程，必然伴随制度的生命周期而具有过程性。揭示制度实践的过程性，是提出“制度过程”这一概念和分析框架的学术依据与旨趣所在。

Although the academic community has not yet proposed the concept of “institutional process,” some scholars have begun to pay attention to the processual characteristics of China’s socialist system. For example, Li Zhenghua and others have systematically studied the history of China’s socialist system since the founding of New China and the historical logic of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics. As another example, some scholars have constructed institutional analysis frameworks, using the perspective of institutional change to explore comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, and to explore how comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era promotes the development and perfection of the socialist system and how it promotes the realization of the advantages of the socialist system. Some scholars have proposed the concept of “institutionalization” to analyze China’s institutional practice, which inevitably involves research on the processual characteristics of institutions. In political science, institutionalism mainly emphasizes the importance of institutions, analyzes the types of institutions, the formation process of institutions and their functions, and also proposes analytical approaches to human institutional practice such as the generation, maintenance, and change of institutions, but it has not proposed the concept of institutional process or an analytical framework. Nevertheless, the above research provides theoretical reference and inspiration for constructing an analytical framework for institutional process.

学术界尽管尚未提出“制度过程”概念，但一些学者开始关注中国社会主义制度的过程特征。例如，李正华等系统研究了新中国成立以来中国社会主义制度历史和中国特色社会主义制度的历史逻辑。再例如，一些学者构建制度分析框架，用制度变迁视角探索新时代全面深化改革，探索新时代全面深化改革如何推进社会主义制度的发展与完善、如何促进发挥社会主义制度优势的问题。一些学者提出“制度化”概念分析中国的制度实践，不可避免地涉及到制度的过程特征研究。在政治学界，制度主义主要是强调制度的重要性，分析制度的类型，制度的形成过程及其作用，也提出了制度的生成、维系、变迁等人类制度实践分析思路，但没有提出制度过程概念和分析性框架。尽管如此，上述研究为构建制度过程分析框架提供了学理上的借鉴和启发。

In short, treating institutions as a process is actually studying institutions from a processual perspective. Compared to treating institutions as specific systems, structures, or establishments, the institutional process treats institutions as a closed-loop process, injecting dynamism and development, and expanding the space for institutional analysis.

总之，将制度当做一个过程，实际上是用过程视角研究制度。相对于将制度当做具体的体系、体制、建制而言，制度过程将制度当做一个闭环过程，注入动态性和发展性，拓展制度分析的空间。

II. Practical Foundation: “Institutional Process” in Institutional Practice

二、实践基础：制度实践中的“制度过程”

Concepts originate from practice and are tested by practice. The analytical framework of institutional process directly stems from theoretical innovation and is the sublimation and development of existing theories, but fundamentally it originates from practice. Specifically, the concept and analytical framework of institutional process are the induction and refinement of socialist system practice since the founding of New China.

概念来自实践，又靠实践检验。制度过程分析框架直接源于理论创新，是现有理论的升华和发展，但从根本上看来源于实践。具体来讲，制度过程概念和分析框架是新中国成立以来社会主义制度实践的归纳和提炼。

Establishing and perfecting the socialist system is a long historical process, showing clear stages. General Secretary Xi Jinping put forward the thesis of “two half-journeys,” [6]6 “Two half-journeys” (两个半程): A formulation by Xi Jinping dividing the historical task of socialist institutional construction in China into two phases: the first half (from 1949 to around 2012) focused on establishing the basic system and carrying out reforms, and the second half (from 2012 onward) focuses on perfecting and developing the system into a mature, stable form. dividing the institutional practice since the founding of New China into two half-journeys: “From the perspective of forming a more mature and more定型 [7]7 定型 (dìngxíng): A Chinese term meaning “finalized” or “fixed in form,” often used in official discourse to describe a system that has reached a mature and stable state. system, the first half-journey of China’s socialist practice has already been traversed. The main historical task of the first half-journey was to establish the basic socialist system and, on this basis, carry out reforms, which now has a good foundation. The main historical task of the second half-journey is to perfect and develop the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, providing a more complete, more stable, and more effective institutional system for the development of the Party and the country’s undertakings, for the happiness and well-being of the people, for social harmony and stability, and for the long-term peace and stability of the country.” [8]8 Xi Jinping, “Explanation of the ‘Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reform’” (November 9, 2013). The Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC pointed out that comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era “has generally completed the reform tasks set by the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee, achieved the goal of making various systems more mature and more定型 with obvious results by the centenary of the founding of the Party, provided a strong institutional guarantee for building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and realizing the Party’s first centenary goal, and propelled our country onto a new journey of comprehensively building a modern socialist country.” [9]9 “Communiqué of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China” (July 18, 2024). “The entire Party must consciously place reform in a more prominent position, closely centering on advancing Chinese-path modernization to further comprehensively deepen reform.” [10]10 Ibid. This means that the institutional practice of the “second half-journey” starting from the 18th National Congress of the CPC has achieved phased results and entered a new stage.

建立和完善社会主义制度是一个长期的历史过程，呈现明显的阶段性。习近平总书记提出“两个半程”论断，将新中国成立以来制度实践分为两个半程：“从形成更加成熟更加定型的制度看，我国社会主义实践的前半程已经走过了，前半程我们的主要历史任务是建立社会主义基本制度，并在这个基础上进行改革，现在已经有了很好的基础。后半程，我们的主要历史任务是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，为党和国家事业发展、为人民幸福安康、为社会和谐稳定、为国家长治久安提供一整套更完备、更稳定、更管用的制度体系”。党的二十届三中全会指出，新时代全面深化改革“总体完成党的十八届三中全会确定的改革任务，实现到党成立一百周年时各方面制度更加成熟更加定型取得明显成效的目标，为全面建成小康社会、实现党的第一个百年奋斗目标提供有力制度保障，推动我国迈上全面建设社会主义现代化国家新征程”。“全党必须自觉把改革摆在更加突出位置，紧紧围绕推进中国式现代化进一步全面深化改革。”这意味着，从党的十八大开始的“后半程”的制度实践已经取得阶段性成就，进入新的阶段。

According to the thesis of “two half-journeys,” from the founding of New China to the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, the practice of China’s socialist system can be divided into three stages. The first stage, from the founding of New China to the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, is the stage of establishing the socialist system. The second stage, from the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the 18th National Congress of the CPC, is the stage of establishing the socialist system with Chinese characteristics. The third stage, from the 18th National Congress of the CPC to the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, is the stage of perfecting and developing the socialist system with Chinese characteristics. The institutional practice of these three stages can all be analyzed to reveal a clear institutional process, which is the historical basis for the concept of “institutional process” and the practical verification of this analytical framework.

根据“两个半程”论断，从新中国成立到党的二十届三中全会，中国社会主义制度实践历程可以分为三个阶段。第一个阶段，新中国成立到党的十一届三中全会召开，是创立社会主义制度的阶段。第二个阶段，从党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大，是建立中国特色社会主义制度的阶段。第三个阶段，从党的十八大到党的二十届三中全会，是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的阶段。这三个阶段的制度实践都可以离析出清晰的制度过程，这是“制度过程”概念的历史依据，也是这一分析框架的实践验证。

(I) The Institutional Process in the Stage of Establishing the Socialist System

（一）创立社会主义制度阶段的制度过程

From the founding of New China to before the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, the Communist Party of China united and led the people of all ethnic groups across the country to complete the New Democratic Revolution, establish the basic socialist system, and lay the fundamental political prerequisite and institutional foundation for all development and progress in contemporary China. The practice of establishing the basic socialist system contains an institutional process.

新中国成立到党的十一届三中全会召开前，中国共产党团结带领全国各族人民，完成了新民主主义革命，创立了社会主义基本制度，为当代中国一切发展进步奠定了根本政治前提和制度基础。创立社会主义基本制度的实践包含一个制度过程。

First, institutional design. On the eve of the founding of New China, the Chinese Communists represented by Mao Zedong conducted systematic theoretical explorations around what kind of country to build and how to build such a country, what kind of system to establish and how to establish such a system, drawing a blueprint for the institutional construction of New China, including the state system of people’s democratic dictatorship, the form of government of the people’s congress system, the New Democratic economic form, the unitary state structure, and the political party system with Chinese characteristics. The Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (abbreviated as the Common Program), adopted at the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference held in September 1949, stipulated the nature and system of the New China, namely, a New Democratic state of people’s democratic dictatorship. The Common Program served as a provisional constitution before the convening of the National People’s Congress and the formulation of the Constitution, laying the legal foundation for the state system. The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, adopted at the First Session of the First National People’s Congress held in September 1954, established the state power of people’s democratic dictatorship, the direction of socialist development, the leadership position of the Communist Party of China, the political system of the people’s congresses, the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the Communist Party of China, and the system of regional ethnic autonomy. The 1954 Constitution was China’s first socialist constitution, establishing the top-level design of China’s socialist system.

一是制度设计。新中国成立前夕，以毛泽东为代表的中国共产党人围绕建设什么样的国家、怎样建设这样的国家，创立什么样的制度、怎样创立这样的制度进行了系统的理论探索，为建立新中国的制度建设绘制蓝图，包括人民民主专政的国体、人民代表大会制度的政体、新民主主义经济形态、单一制国家结构、中国特色政党制度等。1949年9月召开的中国人民政治协商会议第一届全体会议通过的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》（简称《共同纲领》），规定了新中国的国家性质和国家制度，即人民民主专政的新民主主义国家。《共同纲领》在全国人民代表大会召开和制定宪法之前起临时宪法作用，为国家制度奠定法制根基。1954年9月召开的第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过《中华人民共和国宪法》，确立了人民民主专政的国家政权、社会主义发展方向、中国共产党领导地位、人民代表大会政治制度、中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度等制度。1954年宪法是中国第一部社会主义宪法，确立了中国社会主义制度的顶层设计。

Second, institutional construction. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “After seizing national power, our Party united and led the people to formulate the Common Program and the 1954 Constitution, determining the state system, form of government, and state structure, and establishing the state power organizational system.” [11]11 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Conference Celebrating the 60th Anniversary of the Founding of the National People’s Congress” (September 5, 2014). On this basis, from the founding of New China to 1956, China’s socialist system was comprehensively constructed. First, the socialist economic system was constructed. Through the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts, and capitalist industry and commerce, individual ownership and capitalist ownership were basically eliminated, and socialist public ownership including collective economy and state-owned economy was established; at the same time, with the formulation and implementation of the First Five-Year Plan, the planned economic system was constructed. By 1956, a socialist economic system with highly centralized planning as its operating mechanism was constructed. Second, the socialist political system was constructed. In the early days of the founding of New China, local governments were elected through people’s representative conferences in the newly liberated areas, paving the way for the nationwide implementation of the people’s congress system. In September 1954, the First Session of the First National People’s Congress was convened, marking the establishment of the National People’s Congress as the fundamental political system. Third, the political party system with Chinese characteristics was constructed. In December 1954, the First Session of the Second National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference adopted the Charter of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, clarifying that the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference is a united front organization uniting various parties and groups, marking the establishment of the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the Communist Party of China. Fourth, the system of regional ethnic autonomy was upheld and perfected. In accordance with the 1954 Constitution, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and the Tibet Autonomous Region were successively established, achieving unprecedented unity and solidarity among the Chinese nation. Fifth, the socialist legal system was constructed. By the eve of the “Cultural Revolution,” [12]12 “Cultural Revolution” (文化大革命, 1966–1976): A decade-long socio-political movement launched by Mao Zedong, marked by widespread social upheaval, persecution of intellectuals and officials, and a breakdown of legal and institutional order. more than 130 laws and decrees had been enacted, “initially laying the foundation for the rule of law in socialism.” [13]13 Quotation from an unspecified source, likely a Party document or scholarly work summarizing the legal achievements of the early socialist period. Sixth, the guiding position of Marxism was established. Through measures such as the popularization of Marxism, the ideological remolding of intellectuals, and the criticism of bourgeois ideology, the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field was established.

二是制度构建。习近平总书记指出：“夺取全国政权后，我们党团结带领人民制定《共同纲领》、1954年宪法，确定了国体、政体、国家结构形式，建立了国家政权组织体系。”在此基础上，新中国成立到1956年，全面构建起了中国社会主义制度。首先，构建社会主义经济制度。通过对农业、手工业、资本主义工商业的社会主义改造，基本消灭了个体所有制和资本主义所有制，建立起包括集体经济和国营经济的社会主义公有制；同时，伴随“一五”计划的制定和实施，构建起计划经济体制。到1956年，构建起以高度集中的计划经济为运行机制的社会主义经济制度。其次，构建社会主义政治制度。新中国成立初期，新解放区通过人民代表会议选举产生地方政府，为全国推行人民代表大会制度铺展通道。1954年9月，第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议召开，标志着全国人民代表大会这一根本政治制度的建立。第三，构建中国特色政党制度。1954年12月召开的中国人民政治协商会议第二届全国委员会第一次会议通过《中国人民政治协商会议章程》，明确中国人民政治协商会议是团结各党派各团体的统一战线组织，标志着中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度的创立。第四，坚持和完善民族区域自治制度，依据1954年宪法，先后成立新疆维吾尔、广西僮族、宁夏回族和西藏自治区，中华民族实现空前团结统一。第五，构建社会主义法制体系。截止“文化大革命”前，共制定法律、法令130多部，“初步奠定了社会主义法治的基础”。第六，确立马克思主义指导思想地位，通过开展马克思主义宣传普及、知识分子思想改造、批判资产阶级思想等举措，确立马克思主义在意识形态领域的指导地位。

Third, system operation. With the establishment of the socialist system, China entered the stage of building socialism, and the socialist system began to operate in China. First, various socialist systems operated through their operation and implementation. For example, the system of the National People’s Congress, the fundamental political system, operated comprehensively. The National People’s Congress has a term of five years and holds one session each year. From 1954 to 1975, four National People’s Congresses were convened, deciding major policies for national construction. The First Session of the First National People’s Congress proposed preparing, within several five-year plans, to “build a powerful modernized industry, modernized agriculture, modernized transportation, and modernized national defense,” and to build China into “an industrialized great country with a high degree of modern culture,” first putting forward the idea of the Four Modernizations. [14]14 The “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” was adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in 1981. It provided an official Party assessment of major historical events, including the Cultural Revolution, and affirmed Mao Zedong’s historical role. At the First Session of the Third National People’s Congress, Zhou Enlai formally proposed in his government work report the strategic goal of the Four Modernizations and the strategic plan to achieve them in two steps within the 20th century. The First Session of the Fourth National People’s Congress reaffirmed: “Within this century, comprehensively realize the modernization of agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology, so that our national economy will be at the forefront of the world.” Second, various socialist systems operated amid reform and exploration. The establishment of the socialist system did not mean that the institutions, mechanisms, and policies for operating this system were already in place; it was necessary to explore institutions, mechanisms, and policies suited to China’s national conditions. Reforming institutions, mechanisms, and policies was to promote the effective operation of the system. From around the Eighth National Congress of the CPC to before the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, [15]15 Ye Jianying (1897–1986) was a Chinese Communist military leader and political figure. He served as Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and was a key figure in the post-Mao leadership. in response to the drawbacks exposed by the single public ownership system and the highly centralized planned economic system, the CPC conducted a series of explorations into the economic and political systems, seeking specific institutions, mechanisms, and policies for the operation of the socialist system. For example, in terms of ideas for economic system reform, addressing the rigidity caused by single public ownership, Mao Zedong proposed a “new economic policy” of “eliminating capitalism and yet engaging in capitalism,” and raised the issue of the long-term development of the non-public sector. Addressing the problems of the highly centralized planned economic operation mechanism, Chen Yun put forward the views of “three main bodies” and “three supplements.” [16]16 The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, held in December 1978, is a landmark meeting that launched China’s reform and opening-up policy under Deng Xiaoping’s leadership. In the practice of economic system reform, in 1956 it was decided to establish the State Economic Commission, responsible for annual planning work, while simultaneously constructing a hierarchical planning management system. In the distribution system, a wage system reform based on the principle of “distribution according to work” was introduced. In the economic management system, some management authority over industry, commerce, and finance was delegated to local governments and industrial and mining enterprises. Third, various socialist systems preserved their foundations amid twists and turns, even setbacks. For example, during the expansion of the Anti-Rightist Struggle in 1957, [17]17 The 18th National Congress of the CPC, held in November 2012, formally introduced the concept of “socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era” and elevated Xi Jinping to the position of General Secretary. some systems were either interrupted or damaged. The system of the People’s Congress was severely weakened; the work of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress could hardly proceed normally, its legislative functions tended to stall, the legislative power of the People’s Congress was replaced by the decision-making power of the Party, its supervisory power became a mere formality, and normal sessions could not be guaranteed. The expansion of the Anti-Rightist Struggle also damaged the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the CPC. During the “Cultural Revolution” period, [18]18 The “two unswerving commitments” (两个毫不动摇) refers to the policy of unswervingly consolidating and developing the public sector of the economy and unswervingly encouraging, supporting, and guiding the development of the non-public sector of the economy. the system of the People’s Congress was further damaged; at the national level, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress was retained, but at the local level it was replaced by revolutionary committees. In terms of government operation, the phenomenon of the Party substituting for the government and the lack of distinction between Party and government functions intensified, forming a political pattern where the Party took over and acted on behalf of state organs. These problems were caused by human damage and mistakes in exploration, not by problems inherent in China’s socialist system itself; the foundations of China’s socialist system were still preserved.

三是制度运转。社会主义制度创立，中国进入建设社会主义阶段，社会主义制度开始在中国运转。首先，社会主义各项制度在运行与执行中运转。例如，全国人民代表大会制度这一根本政治制度全面运转。全国人民代表大会每届任期5年，每年举行一次会议。1954年到1975年共举行四届全国人民代表大会，决定国家建设大政方针。一届人大一次会议提出，准备在几个五年计划之内，“建设起强大的现代化的工业、现代化的农业、现代化的交通运输业和现代化的国防”，将中国“建设成为一个工业化的具有高度现代文化程度的伟大的国家”，第一次提出四个现代化的思想。三届全国人大一次会议上，周恩来在政府工作报告中正式提出四个现代化的战略目标以及20世纪内分两步实现四个现代化的战略部署。四届全国人大一次会议重申：“在本世纪内，全面实现农业、工业、国防和科学技术的现代化，使我国国民经济走在世界的前列”。其次，社会主义各项制度在改革探索中运转。社会主义制度创立，并不意味着确立了运转这一制度的体制机制和政策，必须探索适合中国国情的体制机制和政策。改革体制机制和政策，就是推动制度有效运转。党的八大前后到党的十一届三中全会召开前，针对单一公有制和高度集中的计划经济体制暴露的弊端，中国共产党对经济体制和政治体制进行一系列探索，探索社会主义制度运转的具体体制机制和政策。例如，在经济体制改革思路方面，针对单一公有制带来的僵化问题，毛泽东提出“可以消灭了资本主义，又搞资本主义”的“新经济政策”，提出发展非公有制经济长期性的问题。针对高度集中的计划经济运行机制的问题，陈云提出“三个主体”和“三个补充”观点。在经济体制改革实践方面，1956年决定成立国家经济委员会，负责年度计划工作，同时构建计划分级管理体制。在分配制度方面，推出根据“按劳付酬”原则的工资制度改革。在经济管理体制方面，将部分工业、商业和财政管理权限下放到地方和工矿企业。第三，社会主义各项制度在曲折甚至挫折中保存根基。例如，1957年反右派斗争扩大化，一些制度或被中断或被破坏。人民代表大会制度遭到严重削弱，人大常委会工作难以正常展开，立法职能趋于停顿，人大立法权被党的决定权取代，人大监督权流于形式，正常会议难以保证。反右派斗争扩大化也破坏了中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度。“文化大革命”时期，人民代表大会制度遭到进一步破坏，国家层面保留全国人大常委会，地方层面被革命委员会取代。政府运行方面，以党代政、党政不分现象趋于强化，形成了党对国家机关包办代替的政治格局。这些问题是人为破坏和探索中的失误造成的，不是中国社会主义制度本身的问题，我国社会主义制度的根基仍然保存着。

Fourth, transformation of institutional advantages. China’s socialist system is the fundamental political prerequisite and institutional foundation for China’s development and progress. From 1956 to 1978, the socialist system released its institutional advantages during operation, transforming these advantages into developmental effectiveness, governance effectiveness, and security effectiveness. First, institutional advantages were transformed into achievements in social transformation. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “We carried out the socialist revolution,

四是制度优势转化。中国社会主义制度是中国发展进步的根本政治前提和制度基础。1956年到1978年间，社会主义制度在运转中释放制度优势，制度优势转化为发展效能、治理效能和安全效能。首先，制度优势转化为社会变革成就。习近平总书记指出：“我们进行社会主义革命，消灭在中国延续几千年的封建剥削压迫制度，确立社会主义基本制度，进行社会主义建设，战胜帝国主义、霸权主义的颠覆破坏和武装挑衅，实现了中华民族有史以来最为广泛而深刻的社会变革，实现了一穷二白、人口众多东方大国大步迈向社会主义社会的伟大飞跃，为实现中华民族伟大复兴奠定了根本政治前提和制度基础。”其次，制度优势转化为经济社会发展成就。经过实施几个五年计划，建立起独立的比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系，农业生产条件显著改变，教育、科学、文化、卫生、体育事业有很大发展。“两弹一星”等国防尖端科技不断取得突破，国防工业从无到有逐步发展起来。第三，制度优势转化为现代化建设基础。新中国成立后的探索过程虽然经历了严重曲折，但社会主义革命和建设中取得的独创性理论成果和巨大成就，为中国社会主义现代化建设奠定根本政治前提和宝贵经验、理论准备、物质基础。

Fifth, institutional evaluation. After the end of the “Cultural Revolution,” the Communist Party of China conducted a historical evaluation of China’s socialist system. First, the “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” pointed out that China had already established a socialist system and entered a socialist society. [14]14 The “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” was adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in 1981. It provided an official Party assessment of major historical events, including the Cultural Revolution, and affirmed Mao Zedong’s historical role. Second, China’s socialist system is a “good system.” The fact that it lagged behind developed countries in some respects was not caused by the socialist system, but by the history preceding the founding of New China. Finally, China’s socialist system was still in its infancy, immature and imperfect. In his speech at the rally celebrating the 30th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Ye Jianying pointed out that, compared with the capitalist system, which had a history of three or four hundred years, the socialist system was still in its infancy. [15]15 Ye Jianying (1897–1986) was a Chinese Communist military leader and political figure. He served as Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and was a key figure in the post-Mao leadership.

五是制度评价。“文化大革命”结束，中国共产党对中国社会主义制度进行历史评价。首先，《关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议》指出，我国已经建立了社会主义制度，进入了社会主义社会。其次，中国社会主义制度是个“好制度”。之所以在一些方面不如发达国家，不是社会主义制度造成的，而是新中国成立前的历史造成的。最后，中国社会主义制度还处在幼年时期，还不成熟、不完善。叶剑英在庆祝中华人民共和国成立三十周年大会上的讲话中指出，同已经有了三四百年历史的资本主义制度相比，社会主义制度还处在幼年时期。

Institutional evaluation is a process that combines historical summary with historical reflection, a process that looks backward and forward but primarily forward. Through institutional evaluation, the CPC recognized that China’s socialist system needed improvement, that the direction of improvement was building socialism with Chinese characteristics, and that the path of improvement was reform and opening up. Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “In the past, we copied the Soviet model of socialism, which brought many problems. We discovered this early on, but did not resolve it well. Now we must resolve this problem well; what we are building is socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

制度评价是一个历史总结与历史反思相结合的过程，是一个向后看与向前看相结合但主要是向前看的过程。在制度评价中，中国共产党认识到，中国社会主义制度需要完善，完善的方向是建设中国特色社会主义，完善的路径是改革开放。邓小平指出，“我们过去照搬苏联搞社会主义的模式，带来很多问题。我们很早就发现了，但没有解决好。我们现在要解决好这个问题，我们要建设的是具有中国自己特色的社会主义。”

In summary, China’s establishment of the socialist system underwent a complete institutional process. This round of institutional process laid a solid foundation and accumulated preliminary experience for the next round. More importantly, the final link in this round of institutional process, namely institutional evaluation, clarified the necessity of initiating a new round of institutional process, and clarified the direction and path of the new round. A new round of China’s institutional process was imminent.

综上所述，中国创立社会主义制度经历了一个完整的制度过程。这一轮制度过程为新一轮制度过程奠定了坚实基础，积累了初步经验。更重要的是，这一轮制度过程的最后一个环节，即制度评价明确了开启新一轮制度过程的必要性，明确了新一轮制度过程的方向与路径，中国新一轮制度过程呼之欲出。

(II) The Institutional Process in the Stage of Establishing the System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics

（二）建立中国特色社会主义制度阶段的制度过程

After the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, Chinese Communists explicitly proposed building socialism with Chinese characteristics, and China’s socialist system entered the stage of practicing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. [16]16 The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, held in December 1978, is a landmark meeting that launched China’s reform and opening-up policy under Deng Xiaoping’s leadership. The 18th National Congress of the CPC summarized and proposed the “system of socialism with Chinese characteristics,” clearly elaborating its connotations, marking the establishment of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. [17]17 The 18th National Congress of the CPC, held in November 2012, formally introduced the concept of “socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era” and elevated Xi Jinping to the position of General Secretary. The system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the crystallization of the practice of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee. From the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee to the 18th National Congress of the CPC, the institutional practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics underwent a complete institutional process.

党的十一届三中全会以后，中国共产党人明确提出建设有中国特色的社会主义，中国社会主义制度进入中国特色社会主义制度实践阶段。党的十八大概括提出“中国特色社会主义制度”，明确阐述其内涵，标志着中国特色社会主义制度的确立。中国特色社会主义制度，是党的十一届三中全会以来中国特色社会主义制度实践的结晶。从党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大，中国特色社会主义的制度实践经历了一个完整的制度过程。

First, institutional design. The practice of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is an unprecedented undertaking that must be carried out through exploration, and its institutional design is likewise a process of continuous development and improvement. Deng Xiaoping, as the chief architect of China’s reform and opening up and socialist modernization, put forward a series of guiding principles for the institutional design of socialism with Chinese characteristics, initiating the institutional design of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Deng Xiaoping not only historically raised and profoundly answered the questions of what socialism is and how to build socialism, founding Deng Xiaoping Theory and laying the theoretical foundation for a new round of institutional processes, but also explicitly proposed “solving problems from the institutional perspective,” putting forward a series of important ideas for the top-level design of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. On August 18, 1980, Deng Xiaoping delivered an important speech, “On the Reform of the Party and State Leadership System,” at an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, which put forward a series of guiding principles for the institutional design of socialism with Chinese characteristics and served as a programmatic document for the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. First, it clearly set forth the task of institutional construction, emphasizing that “reforming and improving the various systems of the Party and the state is an arduous and long-term task.” Second, it clearly identified the focus of institutional construction, emphasizing that “reforming and improving the various systems of the Party and the state, and reforming and improving the leadership system of the Party and the state, is the key to accomplishing this task.” Third, it clearly delineated the domains of institutional construction, dividing the political system into basic political systems and specific political systems, thereby distinguishing between the two. On this basis, the 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th National Congresses of the CPC successively enriched and improved the top-level design of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The scope of institutional construction continuously expanded. Building on Deng Xiaoping’s proposal for the construction of “two civilizations”—material civilization and cultural-ethical progress—the 13th National Congress of the CPC explicitly put forward a three-sphere plan encompassing political construction, economic construction, and cultural construction. The 17th National Congress of the CPC proposed a four-sphere plan encompassing political construction, economic construction, cultural construction, and social construction. The 18th National Congress of the CPC added ecological civilization construction, forming the “Five-Sphere Integrated Plan” overall layout. After the Third Plenary Session of the 12th Central Committee of the CPC adopted the “Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Economic System Reform,” the CPC Central Committee successively issued the “Decision on the Reform of the Science and Technology System,” the “Decision on the Reform of the Education System,” and the “Resolution on the Guiding Principles for Socialist Cultural-ethical Progress.” In October 1987, the Seventh Plenary Session of the 12th Central Committee of the CPC discussed and agreed in principle to the “General Conception of Political System Reform” and decided to incorporate its main content into the report of the 13th National Congress of the CPC, thereby forming a top-level design for institutional construction in the main domains of the economy, science and technology, education, politics, and culture.

一是制度设计。中国特色社会主义制度实践是一个前无古人的事业，必须在探索中进行，其制度设计也是一个不断发展完善的过程。邓小平作为中国改革开放和社会主义现代化建设总设计师，为中国特色社会主义制度设计提出了一系列指导思想，开启了中国特色的社会主义制度设计。邓小平不仅历史性地提出和深刻回答了什么是社会主义，如何建设社会主义的问题，创立邓小平理论，为新一轮制度过程奠定理论基础，而且明确提出“从制度方面解决问题”，提出了中国特色社会主义制度顶层设计的一系列重要思想。1980年8月18日，邓小平在中共中央政治局扩大会议上发表《党和国家领导制度的改革》重要讲话，提出了中国特色社会主义制度设计的一系列指导思想，是中国特色社会主义制度建设的纲领性文件。首先，明确提出制度建设任务，强调“改革和完善党和国家各方面的制度，是一项艰巨的长期的任务”。其次，明确提出制度建设重点，强调“改革和完善党和国家各方面的制度，改革并完善党和国家的领导制度，是实现这个任务的关键”。第三，明确提出制度建设领域，将政治制度分为基本政治制度和具体政治制度，对两方面制度加以区分。在此基础上，党的十二大、十三大、十四大、十五大、十六大、十七大接续丰富和完善中国特色社会主义制度建设顶层设计。制度建设的面不断拓展，在邓小平提出物质文明、精神文明“两个文明”建设基础上，党的十三大明确提出政治建设、经济建设、文化建设三位一体布局，党的十七大提出政治建设、经济建设、文化建设和社会建设四位一体布局，党的十八大提出生态文明建设，形成“五位一体”总体布局。党的十二届三中全会作出《中共中央关于经济体制改革的决定》之后，中共中央先后发布《关于科学技术体制改革的决定》《关于教育体制改革的决定》《关于社会主义精神文明建设指导方针的决议》，1987年10月，党的十二届七中全会讨论并原则同意《政治体制改革总体设想》并决定将其主要内容写入党的十三大报告，形成了经济、科技、教育、政治、文化等主要领域制度建设的顶层设计。

Second, institutional construction. The construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics gradually unfolded at the level of specific institutions. From the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee of the CPC, the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics was initiated. With regard to the fundamental system and basic systems of socialism, the system of people’s congresses was restored and improved, the system of multiparty cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC was improved, and the system of regional ethnic autonomy was improved. With regard to the leadership system of the Party and the state and the system of Party building, the Party’s discipline inspection organs were restored, and the state administrative supervision system was restored; the Secretariat of the Central Committee was established, forming the leadership framework of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, and the Secretariat of the Central Committee; the Central Advisory Commission was established, promoting the transition of leading cadres’ positions from life tenure to a retirement system; the system of responsibility under the leadership of the Party committee for factory directors, university presidents, institute directors, and school principals was established; the system combining collective leadership of local Party committees at all levels with individual responsibility based on division of labor was established; and the system of competitive elections for delegates to local Party congresses at all levels was established. With regard to the basic economic system of socialism, the single public ownership structure and the highly centralized planned economic system were changed, and a distribution system with distribution according to work as the mainstay and multiple modes of distribution coexisting was constructed and established. Through the above institutional construction, the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics was initially formed. From the Third Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee of the CPC to the 16th National Congress of the CPC, the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics was comprehensively advanced. With regard to the basic political system, the Electoral Law and the Organic Law of Local People’s Congresses were amended, the system for the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress to hear work reports from the State Council, the Supreme People’s Court, and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate was formed, and the system of people’s congresses was improved; “participating in the deliberation and administration of state affairs” was listed as a main function of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, and the system of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference was improved; the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy” was amended, and the system of regional ethnic autonomy was improved. With regard to the leadership system of the Party, the leadership framework of the CPC Central Committee, composed of the Central Committee, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, and the Central Military Commission, was constructed. With regard to the system of Party building, the responsibility system for building a clean and honest Party and government, the system of auditing leading cadres upon leaving office, the system of collective decision-making on major issues, the system of reporting personal major matters, and the system of inspection tours were established. With regard to the basic economic system and economic system, the socialist market economy system was established and constructed, the basic economic system and distribution system for the primary stage of socialism were established and constructed, and the transition from the planned economic system to the socialist market economy system was successfully achieved. In addition, the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics advanced from the economic and political domains to the cultural and social domains. Through the above measures, the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics was comprehensively carried out. From the 16th National Congress of the CPC to the 18th National Congress of the CPC, the construction of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics continuously expanded and deepened. With regard to the construction of the political system, the construction of the system of socialist democratic politics was proposed and strengthened, the system of grassroots self-governance was formally established as a basic political system, and a socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics, with the Constitution at its core and basic laws in criminal, civil, administrative, economic, and procedural matters as its pillars, was gradually formed. With regard to the construction of the economic system, the policy of “two unswerving commitments” [18]18 The “two unswerving commitments” (两个毫不动摇) refers to the policy of unswervingly consolidating and developing the public sector of the economy and unswervingly encouraging, supporting, and guiding the development of the non-public sector of the economy. and the goal of improving the socialist market economy system were proposed, and the basic socialist economic system and the socialist market economy system were improved. With regard to the system of Party building, important intra-Party regulations such as the “Regulations of the CPC on Intra-Party Supervision (for Trial Implementation)” were formulated, an overall layout for Party building including ideological construction, organizational construction, work style construction, institutional construction, and the fight against corruption and the promotion of clean governance was constructed, and the scientific and institutionalized development of Party building was advanced. In addition, with a focus on balancing urban and rural development, innovating social management, and establishing a social security system framework, the construction of the social system was continuously expanded. With a focus on cultural system reform, the construction of the cultural system was continuously expanded.

二是制度建设。中国特色社会主义制度建设从具体制度层面逐步展开。从党的十一届三中全会到党的十三届四中全会，开创中国特色社会主义制度建设。在社会主义根本制度和基本制度方面，恢复和完善人民代表大会制度、完善中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度。在党和国家领导制度和党的建设制度方面，恢复党的纪律检查机关，恢复国家行政监察体制；成立中央书记处，形成中共中央政治局常委会、中央政治局、中央书记处领导机构框架；设立中央顾问委员会，推进干部领导职务从终身制走向退休制；建立党委领导下的厂长、校长、院长、所长负责制，地方各级党委集体领导和个人分工负责相结合制度，地方各级党代会代表差额选举制度。在社会主义基本经济制度方面，改变单一公有制所有制结构和高度集中的计划经济体制，构建和确立以按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的分配制度。通过上述制度建设，初步形成中国特色社会主义制度。从党的十三届三中全会到党的十六大，中国特色的社会主义制度建设全面推进。在基本政治制度方面，修改选举法和地方组织法，形成全国人大常委会听取“一府两院”工作报告制度，完善人民代表大会制度；把“参政议政”列为人民政协主要职能，完善人民政协制度；修改《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》，完善民族区域自治制度。在党的领导制度方面，构建中央委员会、中央纪律检查委员会和中央军事委员会组成的中共中央领导框架。在党的建设制度方面，建立党风廉政建设责任制度、领导干部离任审计制度、重大问题集体决策制度、个人重大事项报告制度、巡视制度等。在基本经济制度和经济体制方面，确立和建设社会主义市场经济体制，确立和建设社会主义初级阶段基本经济制度、分配制度，成功实现从计划经济体制向社会主义市场经济体制的转变。此外，中国特色社会主义制度建设从经济、政治领域向文化领域和社会领域推进。通过上述举措，中国特色社会主义制度建设全面展开。从党的十六大到党的十八大，中国特色社会主义制度建设不断拓展和深化。在政治制度建设方面，提出和加强建设社会主义民主政治的制度建设，正式将基层群众自治制度确立为基本政治制度，逐步形成以宪法为核心，以刑事、民事、行政、经济、诉讼等方面基本法律为支柱的中国特色社会主义法律体系。在经济制度建设方面，提出“两个毫不动摇”方针和完善社会主义市场经济体制目标，完善社会主义基本经济制度和社会主义市场经济体制。在党的建设制度方面，制定《中国共产党党内监督条例（试行）》等重要党内法规，构建包括思想建设、组织建设、作风建设、制度建设、反腐倡廉建设在内的党的建设总体布局，推进党的建设科学化、制度化。此外，以城乡统筹发展、创新社会管理、建立社会保障制度框架为重点，不断拓展社会领域制度建设。以文化体制改革为重点，不断拓展文化领域制度建设。

Third, system operation. The system of socialism with Chinese characteristics operates while being established, and improves while operating. On the one hand, compared with the previous stage, the institutional practice of this period has a distinct goal orientation and problem orientation, thus placing greater emphasis on the execution and operation of the system. On the other hand, under the power framework of the Party-government system, centralization, and isomorphic responsibility structures, vertical supervision over local governments and horizontal competition among local governments ensured the implementation of policies by local governments, while also inducing selective policy implementation by local governments.[19]19 Selective policy implementation refers to local governments prioritizing policies that align with their own interests or performance evaluation criteria while neglecting or deviating from others. Therefore, the operation of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics encountered a more complex environment. Against this backdrop, the methods of system operation began to diversify. First, system operation was promoted through institutional construction. For example, in strengthening Party leadership, the collective study system of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee was established. Starting on July 24, 1980, the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee invited scientists to Zhongnanhai to deliver ten science and technology lectures. In 1986, the Secretariat invited experts to Zhongnanhai to conduct lectures on legal education. However, these had not yet formed a system and were not sustained. In 1994, the Politburo resumed collective study and gradually institutionalized it. The 16th CPC Central Committee Politburo conducted 44 collective study sessions, and the 17th CPC Central Committee Politburo conducted 33 collective study sessions. The collective study system of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee was institutionalized and operated effectively. Second, system operation was promoted through institutional functioning. For example, during this period, with the revision of the Constitution, the Electoral Law, and the Organic Law of Local People's Congresses, the People's Congress system made significant progress in institutional construction, most notably the establishment of standing committees of People's Congresses at and above the county level and the expansion of their powers, the strengthening of the functions of special committees under People's Congresses at various levels, and innovations in the operational mechanisms of People's Congresses. These institutional constructions promoted the routine operation of the People's Congress system, particularly the systems of representative inspection, liaison, and receiving letters and visits from the people formed during this period, which effectively drove the operation of the system during the recess of the People's Congresses. Third, system operation was promoted through law. For example, in December 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth National People's Congress adopted the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, which explicitly enshrined the system of multiparty cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC and the nature of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). The CPPCC Charter established various special committees and began to use the concept of "sectors," allowing representatives from all sectors to stand alongside political parties, groups, and specially invited individuals, thus ensuring the full operation of the system of multiparty cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC. Another example: after the 15th National Congress of the CPC proposed building a socialist country governed by the rule of law, not only was the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics constructed, but laws such as the administrative litigation system, the state compensation legal system, the administrative penalty system, and the administrative reconsideration system were also enacted, gradually bringing the administrative powers of people's governments at all levels into the orbit of the rule of law and promoting the operation of the system of law-based governance. Fourth, system operation was promoted through institutional reform and policy innovation. For example, the construction of the socialist market economy system laid the institutional foundation for the basic socialist economic system. To operate the basic socialist economic system, on the one hand, the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission was established in 2003 to separate government functions from enterprise management and government functions from capital management at the institutional level, establishing and improving the state-owned assets supervision system. On the other hand, in 2005, the State Council issued "Several Opinions on Encouraging, Supporting, and Guiding the Development of the Individual and Private Economy and Other Non-Public Sectors," proposing and implementing 36 policy measures in areas such as relaxing market access for the non-public sector and increasing fiscal and financial support for the non-public sector. Relevant departments subsequently issued over 40 supporting documents, forming a comprehensive set of policies to support and encourage the development of the non-public sector, thereby promoting the operation and implementation of the basic socialist economic system through policy innovation.

三是制度运转。中国特色社会主义制度在建立中运转，在运转中完善。一方面，与前一个阶段相比，这一时期的制度实践具有鲜明的目标导向和问题导向，因此更加重视制度的执行与运行。另一方面，在党政体制、中央集权和职责同构权力框架下，对地方政府的纵向监督以及地方政府的横向竞争保障了地方政府对政策的执行，同时，也诱发了地方政府选择性政策执行。1因此，中国特色社会主义制度运转遇到更为复杂的环境。在这种背景下，制度运转的方式开始多样化。首先，以制度建设推进制度运转。例如，在加强党的领导方面，构建中共中央政治局集体学习制度。1980年7月24日开始，中央书记处邀请科学家赴中南海开办10场科技讲座。1986年，中央书记处邀请专家赴中南海开展普法教育讲座。但还没有形成制度，没有坚持下来。1994年，中央政治局重启集体学习，并逐步形成制度。十六届中央政治局进行44次集体学习，十七届中央政治局进行33次集体学习。中共中央政治局集体学习制度化并得到有效运转。其次，以制度运行推进制度运转。例如，这一时期，随着宪法、选举法和地方组织法的修订，人民代表大会在制度建设方面取得长足进展，其中最主要的是县以上各级人大常委会的设立及其职权的扩展、各级人大下设专门委员会职能的强化，以及人大运作机制的创新。这些制度建设推动人民代表大会制度常规化运转，特别是这一时期形成的代表视察制度、联系制度、接待人民来信来访制度有效推动人民代表大会闭会期间的制度运转。第三，以法律推进制度运转。例如，1982年12月五届全国人大五次会议通过《中华人民共和国宪法》明确载入中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度和政协的性质，政协章程设置各专门委员会，开始使用“界别”概念，各界代表与党派、团体、特邀人士得以并列，中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度全面运转。再例如，党的十五大提出建设社会主义法治国家以后，不仅构建了中国特色社会主义法律体系，还制定行政诉讼制度、国家赔偿法律制度、行政处罚制度、行政复议制度等法律，将各级人民政府的行政权力逐步纳入法治化轨道，推动依法治国制度体系的运转。第四，以体制改革和政策创新推进制度运转。例如，构建社会主义市场经济体制，为社会主义基本经济制度奠定体制基础。为了运转社会主义基本经济制度，一方面于2003年成立国有资产监督管理委员会，从机构设置上实施政企分开、政资分开，建立完善国有资产监管体制，另一方面，于2005年国务院出台《关于鼓励支持和引导个体私营等非公有制经济发展的若干意见》，从放宽非公有制经济市场准入、加大对非公有制经济的财政金融支持等方面提出和实施36项政策措施。有关部门相继出台40多个配套文件，形成一整套支持鼓励非公有制经济发展的政策体系，以政策创新推动社会主义基本经济制度的运行和执行。

Fourth, transformation of institutional advantages. The system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has formed strong institutional advantages during its construction, and these advantages have been transformed into strong institutional effectiveness during its operation. First, institutional advantages were transformed into strong political effectiveness. For example, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, serious political disturbances occurred domestically, the "drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe"[20]20 The "drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" refers to the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. took place internationally, world socialism experienced serious setbacks, and the development of China's socialist cause faced enormous difficulties and pressures. At this critical historical juncture determining the fate of the Party and the country, the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics demonstrated strong political advantages. "The Party Central Committee, relying closely on all Party comrades and the people of all ethnic groups across the country, adhered unswervingly to the line since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee,[21]21 The Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, held in December 1978, marked the beginning of China's reform and opening-up era. successfully stabilized the overall situation of reform and development, and defended the great cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics."[22]22 This is a quotation from an official CPC historical resolution or document summarizing the period. Second, institutional advantages were transformed into strong development effectiveness. For example, the construction of the socialist market economy system and the transformation from the planned economy system to the socialist market economy system achieved a new historic breakthrough in reform and opening up, opened up a brand-new situation for China's economic, political, and cultural development, propelled the country's total economic output to the second place in the world, and continuously raised social productive forces, economic strength, and scientific and technological strength to new levels. The people's living standards, residents' income levels, and social security levels were continuously raised to new levels. Comprehensive national strength, international competitiveness, and international influence were continuously raised to new levels, bringing about historic changes in the country's appearance. Finally, institutional advantages were transformed into strong governance effectiveness. For example, in the new century and new stage, the international situation was volatile, competition in comprehensive national strength was unprecedentedly fierce, the international financial crisis caused severe difficulties for China's development, and domestically, China successively encountered the sudden SARS epidemic,[23]23 SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) was a viral outbreak that affected China and other countries in 2002-2003. the Wenchuan特大 earthquake,[24]24 The Wenchuan earthquake, a magnitude 8.0 earthquake, struck Sichuan Province on May 12, 2008, causing massive casualties and damage. and a series of major emergencies. "In a very complex domestic and international situation, the Party and the people withstood severe tests, consolidated and developed the overall situation of reform and opening up and socialist modernization, enhanced China's international status, and demonstrated the great superiority and strong vitality of socialism with Chinese characteristics."[25]25 This is a quotation from an official CPC document summarizing the achievements of the period.

四是制度优势转化。中国特色社会主义制度在建设中形成强大制度优势，这些优势在运转中转化为强大制度效能。首先，制度优势转化为强大政治效能。例如，20世纪80年代末90年代初，国内发生严重政治风波，国际上发生“苏东剧变”，世界社会主义出现严重曲折，中国社会主义事业发展面临巨大的困难和压力。在这个决定党和国家前途命运的重大历史关头，中国特色社会主义制度彰显出强大政治优势，“党中央紧紧依靠全党同志和全国各族人民，坚持十一届三中全会以来的路线不动摇，成功稳住了改革和发展的大局，捍卫了中国特色的社会主义伟大事业”。其次，制度优势转化为强大发展效能。例如，社会主义市场经济体制的构建，计划经济体制向社会主义市场经济体制的转变，实现了改革开放新的历史性突破，打开了我国经济、政治和文化发展的崭新局面，推动经济总量跃升到世界第二位，社会生产力、经济实力、科技实力不断迈上新台阶，人民生活水平、居民收入水平、社会保障水平不断迈上新台阶，综合国力、国际竞争力、国际影响力不断迈上新台阶，国家面貌发生历史性变化。最后，制度优势转化为强大治理效能。例如，新世纪新阶段，国际局势风云变幻，综合国力竞争空前激烈，国际金融危机使我国发展遭遇严重困难，国内先后遭遇突如其来的非典疫情、汶川特大地震、一系列重大突发事件，“在十分复杂的国内外形势下，党和人民经受住严峻考验，巩固和发展了改革开放和社会主义现代化建设大局，提高了我国国际地位，彰显了中国特色社会主义的巨大优越性和强大生命力”。

Fifth, institutional evaluation. The 18th National Congress of the CPC explicitly put forward “the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics” and its basic framework, namely, “the fundamental political system of the people’s congress system, the basic political systems of multiparty cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC, regional ethnic autonomy, and grassroots self-governance, the legal system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the basic economic system under which public ownership is the mainstay and diverse forms of ownership develop together, and the various specific systems of economic, political, cultural, and social systems established on the basis of these systems,” emphasizing that “the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics are the fundamental achievements of the Party and the people over ninety years of struggle, creation, and accumulation, and must be cherished, upheld, and developed unswervingly.” This is an overall evaluation of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics established during this period. It marks that the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has been established, and socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a stage of upholding and development. It is necessary to “unswervingly uphold and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics in keeping with the times, and constantly enrich its practical, theoretical, national, and contemporary features.” How to uphold and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics? The 18th National Congress of the CPC explicitly put forward the task and goal of “comprehensively deepening reform and opening up.” In his report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC, General Secretary Xi Jinping reviewed the prominent contradictions and problems existing before and after the 18th National Congress of the CPC in areas such as Party building and leadership, economic structure and system, confidence in the system, ideology, people’s livelihood security, resources and environment, national security, and “one country, two systems,” which affected the Party’s long-term governance, the country’s lasting peace and stability, and the people’s well-being and happiness. Some of these problems were due to an unsound system, such as “the system for safeguarding national security was incomplete”; some were due to unsound mechanisms for system operation, such as the unsound systems and mechanisms of “one country, two systems”; some were due to insufficient depth in system building, such as in economic development, where “some deep-seated institutional and structural problems and entrenched interests became increasingly apparent.” To solve these problems, it was necessary to push reform and opening up into the stage of comprehensively deepening reform. From the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC to the convening of the 18th National Congress of the CPC, the practice of the Chinese socialist system underwent another complete institutional process, namely, the institutional process of constructing and establishing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The 18th National Congress of the CPC explicitly put forward “upholding and developing,” shifting the focus of the practice of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics from “construction” to “upholding and developing,” and explicitly proposed “comprehensively deepening reform and opening up,” marking that a new round of institutional process was on the verge of being launched.

五是制度评价。党的十八大明确提出“中国特色社会主义制度”及其基本框架，即“人民代表大会制度的根本政治制度，中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度以及基层群众自治制度等基本政治制度，中国特色社会主义法律体系，公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展的基本经济制度以及建立在这些制度基础上的经济体制、政治体制、文化体制、社会体制等各项具体制度”，强调“中国特色社会主义道路，中国特色社会主义理论体系，中国特色社会主义制度，是党和人民九十多年奋斗、创造、积累的根本成就，必须倍加珍惜、始终坚持、不断发展”。这是对这个时期建成的中国特色社会主义制度的总体评价。这标志着中国特色社会主义制度已经确立，中国特色社会主义制度进入坚持和发展的阶段。必须“毫不动摇坚持、与时俱进发展中国特色社会主义，不断丰富中国特色社会主义的实践特色、理论特色、民族特色、时代特色”。如何坚持和发展中国特色社会主义？党的十八大明确提出“全面深化改革开放”的任务和目标。习近平总书记在党的二十大报告中，回顾了党的十八大前后存在的党的建设和领导、经济结构和体制、制度自信、意识形态、民生保障、资源环境、国家安全、“一国两制”等方面影响党长期执政、国家长治久安、人民幸福安康的突出矛盾和问题。这些问题有些是制度不健全的问题，如“维护国家安全制度不完善”，有些问题是制度运转机制不健全，如“一国两制”的体制机制不健全，有些是制度建设还不够深入，如经济发展方面“一些深层次体制机制问题和利益固化藩篱日益显现”。解决这些问题，必须将改革开放推向全面深化改革阶段。从党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大召开，中国社会主义制度实践又经历一次完整的制度过程，即构建和确立中国特色社会主义制度的制度过程。党的十八大明确提出“坚持和发展”，将中国特色社会主义制度实践的重点从“建设”转向“坚持和发展”，并明确提出“全面深化改革开放”，标志着新一轮制度过程箭在弦上。

(III) The Institutional Process in the Stage of Perfecting and Developing the System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics

（三）完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度阶段的制度过程

Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a New Era, and the practice of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has also entered a new stage, namely, shifting from constructing and establishing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics to the stage of perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, on the basis of the major achievements made in China’s development since the founding of New China, especially since reform and opening up, historic changes have taken place in the cause of the Party and the state, China’s development has stood at a new historical starting point, and socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new stage of development. The report to the 19th National Congress of the CPC explicitly pointed out that after long-term efforts, socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a New Era. On the one hand, the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics have been established, requiring the initiation of the second half of the practice of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. On the other hand, Deng Xiaoping’s vision in 1992 of using another 30 years to form a more mature and more well-defined system needed to be comprehensively promoted and implemented. “Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, changes in domestic and international circumstances and the development of various undertakings in our country have posed a major issue of the times, namely, the need to systematically answer, from the combination of theory and practice, what kind of socialism with Chinese characteristics to uphold and develop in the New Era and how to uphold and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics.” Answering this major issue of the times required new institutional practice. The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC explicitly proposed comprehensively deepening reform, perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, and promoting the self-improvement and development of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. From the perspective of institutional practice, the New Era is precisely the stage of perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The institutional practice of perfecting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics is advanced through comprehensively deepening reform. From the goal requirements of “comprehensively deepening reform and opening up” put forward by the 18th National Congress of the CPC to the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, which explicitly put forward new goal requirements and deployments for further comprehensively deepening reform, this marks the completion of a complete institutional process.

党的十八大以来，中国特色社会主义进入新时代，中国特色社会主义制度实践也进入新阶段，即从构建和确立中国特色社会主义制度转变到完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的阶段。党的十八大以来，在新中国成立特别是改革开放以来我国发展取得的重大成就基础上，党和国家事业发生历史性变革，我国发展站在新的历史起点上，中国特色社会主义进入了新的发展阶段。党的十九大报告明确指出，经过长期努力，中国特色社会主义进入了新时代。一方面，中国特色社会主义道路、中国特色社会主义理论体系、中国特色社会主义制度已经确立，需要启动中国特色社会主义制度实践的下半程。另一方面，邓小平1992年设想的再用30年形成一整套更加成熟、更加定型的制度的设想需要全面推进落实。“十八大以来，国内外形势变化和我国各项事业发展都给我们提出一个重大时代课题，这就是必须从理论和实践结合上系统回答新时代坚持和发展什么样的中国特色社会主义、怎样坚持和发展中国特色社会主义。”回答这个重大时代课题，需要新的制度实践。党的十八届三中全会明确提出全面深化改革，完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，推动中国特色社会主义制度自我完善和发展。从制度实践上看，新时代就是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的阶段。完善和发展中国特色社会主义的制度实践是通过全面深化改革推进的。从党的十八大提出“全面深化改革开放”目标要求到党的二十届三中全会召开明确提出进一步全面深化改革新的目标要求和部署，标志着一个完整制度过程的完成。

First, institutional design. The 18th National Congress of the CPC put forward the goals and tasks of comprehensively deepening reform and opening up, and the “Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Several Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reform” (hereinafter referred to as the “Decision”) adopted by the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC made the top-level design for comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era. The task of comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era was to achieve decisive results in reforms in important areas and key links by 2020, complete the reform tasks proposed in this Decision, form a system of institutions that is complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operational, and make various systems more mature and more well-defined. This required combining top-level design with groping for stones to cross the river, and promoting overall advancement and breakthroughs in key areas. Therefore, institutional design mainly consisted of two parts: the design of the “institutional system” and the design of “various systems.” Among them, the design of the “institutional system” was the top-level design and the focus of institutional design. The design of “various systems” was the specific construction design, which highly overlapped with institutional building and belonged to the content of the institutional building link.

一是制度设计。党的十八大提出全面深化改革开放的目标任务，党的十八届三中全会通过的《中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定》（简称《决定》）作出新时代全面深化改革的顶层设计。新时代全面深化改革的任务，就是到2020年，在重要领域和关键环节改革上取得决定性成果，完成本决定提出的改革任务，形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型。这就要求加强顶层设计和摸着石头过河相结合，整体推进和重点突破相促进。因此，制度设计主要是对“制度体系”的设计和“各方面制度”的设计两个部分。其中，“制度体系”的设计是顶层设计，是制度设计的重点。“各方面制度”的设计是具体的施工设计，与制度建设高度重合，属于制度建设环节的内容。

Comprehensively deepening reform, comprehensively advancing law-based governance, comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society, and comprehensively and strictly governing the Party form an organic whole. Comprehensively deepening reform is an important magic weapon for promoting the development of the Party and the state’s undertakings. The overall goal of comprehensively deepening reform is to perfect and develop the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and advance the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. Therefore, the top-level design of the “institutional system” for comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era has been progressively advanced. The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC proposed the basic framework for the top-level design of the “institutional system” for comprehensively deepening reform. By the time of the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era adhered to systematic overall design, and the specific content of the top-level design was continuously enriched and expanded. Reform tasks such as comprehensively advancing law-based governance, comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society, supply-side structural reform, comprehensively and strictly governing the Party, decisively building a moderately prosperous society, deepening the reform of Party and state institutions, institutional building for the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, reform in the new development stage, and reform tasks related to Chinese-path modernization were successively incorporated into the top-level design of reform.

全面深化改革与全面依法治国、全面建成小康社会、全面从严治党是一个有机整体，全面深化改革是推动党和国家事业发展的重要法宝，全面深化改革总目标是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，因此，新时代全面深化改革对“制度体系”的顶层设计是接续递进的。党的十八届三中全会提出了全面深化改革“制度体系”顶层设计基本框架。到党的二十届三中全会召开前，新时代全面深化改革坚持系统整体设计，顶层设计的具体内容不断充实和拓展。先后将全面依法治国、全面建成小康社会、供给侧结构性改革、全面从严治党、决胜全面建成小康社会、深化党和国家机构改革、国家治理体系和治理能力现代化的制度建设、新发展阶段改革、中国式现代化建设相关改革任务纳入改革顶层设计。

The top-level design of the “institutional system” for comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era and the expansion of its content exhibit continuity and progressiveness, reflecting the organic unity of the practical requirements of reform serving the overall situation and the internal logic of reform promoting institutional building. Overall, the top-level design of the “institutional system” has been continuously enriched and improved through expansion. Reform has expanded from the 330 tasks designed in the “Decision” to the fields of comprehensively advancing law-based governance, comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society, and comprehensively and strictly governing the Party, and has expanded to aspects such as structural reform, the new development pattern, and Chinese-path modernization, forming the pattern and characteristics of comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era. More importantly, the enrichment of the content of the top-level design has expanded the space and field of institutional building in the New Era.

新时代全面深化改革“制度体系”顶层设计及其内容的拓展呈现接续性和递进性，是改革服务大局实践要求和改革推进制度建设内在逻辑的有机统一。总体上看，“制度体系”顶层设计在拓展中不断充实和完善。改革从《决定》设计的330项任务，拓展到全面依法治国、全面建成小康社会、全面从严治党领域，拓展到结构改革、新发展格局、中国式现代化等方面，形成了新时代全面深化改革的格局与特征。更重要的是，顶层设计内容的丰富拓展了新时代制度建设的空间和场域。

The second is institutional building. In November 2012, in his speech at the first collective study session of the 18th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau, Xi Jinping emphasized that comprehensively deepening reform should place institutional building in a prominent position. The reform in the New Era has many new connotations and characteristics, among which a very important point is that the weight of institutional building has increased. By the time of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th CPC Central Committee, the Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reform (Central Commission for Comprehensively Deepening Reform) had held 72 important meetings, reviewed and approved over 600 reform documents, and guided the introduction of more than 3,000 reform plans across various fields, forcefully and orderly advancing the resolution of institutional obstacles, mechanistic blockages, and policy innovation issues in all areas and fields, achieving a profound transformation in the organizational mode of reform. In 2020, Xi Jinping pointed out at the 17th meeting of the Central Commission for Comprehensively Deepening Reform that, looking back on the reform work of these years, “This is a profound transformation of the national system and governance system. We have consistently highlighted the main line of institutional building, continuously improved the institutional framework, consolidated fundamental systems, perfected basic systems, and innovated important systems.”

二是制度建设。2012年11月，习近平总书记在十八届中共中央政治局第一次集体学习时的讲话中就强调，全面深化改革要把制度建设摆在突出位置。新时代改革具有许多新的内涵和特点，其中很重要的一点就是制度建设分量更重。到党的二十届三中全会召开，中央全面深化改革领导小组（中央全面深化改革委员会）召开72次重要会议，审议通过600多份改革文件，指引各方面出台3000多项改革方案，有力有序推进解决各领域各方面体制性障碍、机制性梗阻、政策性创新问题，实现改革组织方式的深刻变革。2020年，习近平总书记在中央全面深化改革委员会第十七次会议指出，回顾这些年改革工作，“这是一场国家制度和治理体系的深刻变革。我们始终突出制度建设这条主线，不断健全制度框架，筑牢根本制度、完善基本制度、创新重要制度”。

In the New Era, comprehensively deepening reform, based on the top-level design of the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee, systematically and holistically advanced institutional building. According to the inherent logical requirements of institutional building, it went through three stages: laying foundations and setting up pillars, comprehensively advancing and accumulating momentum, and system integration and coordinated efficiency. The period 2014-2016 was the stage of laying foundations and setting up pillars, focusing on launching foundational and pillar reforms, building the main framework of reform, and constructing the “four beams and eight pillars” [28]28 “Four beams and eight pillars” (四梁八柱) is a Chinese architectural metaphor for the main supporting framework of a structure, used here to describe the foundational framework of the institutional system. of institutional building. The period 2017-2019 was the stage of comprehensive advancement and momentum accumulation, focusing on basic fields decisive for the in-depth advancement of comprehensively deepening reform, such as state-owned enterprises, fiscal and tax systems, finance, land, urbanization, social security, ecological civilization, and opening up; on areas of concern and urgent difficulty for the masses, such as finance, tax and fee reductions, the business environment, science and technology, the rule of law, government management, education, medical care, employment, and environmental protection; and on fundamental and overall key and difficult points in the institutional system and governance system. It launched breakthrough, innovative, key, and leading reforms, continuously expanding the thickness of institutional building and accumulating momentum for promoting reform system integration and institutional integration. Since 2020, reform has entered the stage of system integration and coordinated efficiency, focusing on consolidating and deepening the reform achievements in resolving institutional obstacles, mechanistic blockages, and policy innovations from the previous stage. At the same time, through reform system integration and institutional integration, a series of overall institutional arrangements have been formed, such as the *Opinions on Accelerating the Improvement of the Socialist Market Economy System in the New Era*, the *Implementation Plan for Deepening Rural Reform*, the *Overall Plan for Deepening the Reform of the Education Evaluation System in the New Era*, and the *Opinions on Comprehensively Advancing the Construction of a Beautiful China*.

新时代全面深化改革根据党的十八届三中全会的顶层设计，系统整体推进制度建设。依据制度建设的内在逻辑要求，制度建设经历夯基垒台、立柱架梁，全面推进、积厚成势，系统集成、协同高效三个阶段。2014-2016年，是夯基垒台、立柱架梁阶段，重点推出基础性、支柱性改革，搭建改革主体框架，构建制度建设的“四梁八柱”。2017-2019年，是全面推进、积厚成势阶段，重点在国企、财税、金融、土地、城镇化、社会保障、生态文明、对外开放等决定全面深化改革纵深推进的基本领域，金融、减税降费、营商环境、科技、法治、政府管理、教育、医疗、就业、环保等群众牵肠挂肚、急难愁盼问题领域和制度体系和治理体系中具有根本性、全局性的重点难点部位，推出突破性和创新性、关键性和引领性改革，不断拓展制度建设的厚度，为推进改革系统集成和制度集成积蓄势能。2020年以来，改革进入系统集成、协同高效阶段，重点巩固和深化前一阶段解决体制性障碍、机制性梗阻、政策性创新方面取得的改革成果，同时通过改革系统集成和制度集成，形成了《关于新时代加快完善社会主义市场经济体制的意见》《深化农村改革实施方案》《深化新时代教育评价改革总体方案》《关于全面推进美丽中国建设的意见》等一系列总体性制度安排。

Through the advancement of these three stages, significant achievements have been made in institutional building across various fields. First, the basic institutional frameworks in various fields have been largely established. For example, in the economic system field, institutional arrangements have been established that enable the market to play a decisive role in resource allocation and the government to better play its role, and the basic institutional framework of the socialist market economy system has been largely established. In the rule of law field, reforms in law-based governance have promoted the construction of a socialist rule of law system with Chinese characteristics and the basic institutions of a socialist country under the rule of law. Second, many fields have achieved historic transformations, systematic reshaping, and holistic reconstruction. For example, reforms have driven historic changes in the institutional and governance systems concerning the nature and positioning of state-owned enterprises, the role of state-owned enterprises, their governance structures and management methods, and the management of state-owned assets and state-owned capital. The institutional and governance systems in the state-owned economic sector have taken on new forms and patterns. For another example, reforms have systematically reshaped the institutional and governance systems in the science and technology field, including the science and technology orientation and resource allocation system, the incentive and constraint system in science and technology, the science and technology management system, and the science and technology support and guarantee system, basically establishing basic institutions in the science and technology field oriented towards self-reliance and self-strengthening in science and technology. For yet another example, reforms have holistically reconstructed the institutional and governance systems for ecological civilization construction, including the holistic reconstruction of systems such as the property rights system for natural resource assets and the full-coverage land use control system, the delineation and implementation of ecological protection red lines, the system for paid use of resources and the ecological compensation system, the ecological environment governance system, and the comprehensive green development system. This has built a multi-dimensional and three-dimensional institutional system for protecting the ecological environment and promoting a fundamental improvement in the ecological environment. The institutional building of comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era has laid a solid foundation for forming a system of institutions that is complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operational, and for making institutions in all fields more mature and well-defined.

经过三个阶段的推进，各方面制度建设取得重大成就。其一，各领域基础性制度框架基本确立。例如，在经济体制领域，确立了使市场在资源配置中起决定性作用和更好发挥政府作用的制度安排，社会主义市场经济体制基础性制度框架基本确立。在法治领域，全面依法治国的改革推动构建中国特色社会主义法治体系和社会主义法治国家基础性制度。其二，许多领域实现历史性变革、系统性重塑、整体性重构。例如，改革推动国有企业属性和定位、国有企业作用、国有企业治理结构和经营管理方式、国有资产和国有资本管理等方面的制度体系和治理体系发生历史性变革，国有经济领域制度体系和治理体系呈现新的形态和格局。再例如，改革系统性重塑了科技领域制度体系和治理体系，包括科技导向与资源配置体系、科技领域激励约束体系、科技管理体系和科技支持保障体系，基本确立面向科技自立自强的科技领域基础性制度。又例如，改革整体性重构了生态文明建设制度体系和治理体系，包括自然资源资产产权制度和全覆盖的用途管制制度、划定和落实生态保护红线、资源有偿使用制度和生态补偿制度、生态环境治理体系、全面绿色发展体系等方面制度的整体性重构，为保护生态环境、推动生态环境根本好转构建多维度立体化制度体系。新时代全面深化改革的制度建设，为推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型奠定了坚实基础。

The third is institutional operation. Institutional building itself is not the end; the end is institutional operation. Comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era emphasizes institutional building, but even more so institutional operation. It is the equal emphasis on and organic unity of institutional building and institutional operation. When setting the goals for the construction of the institutional system, the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee put forward three requirements: “complete, scientifically standardized, and effectively operational.” Among these, “effectively operational” refers to the implementation, execution, operation, and functioning of the institutional system. When defining the functions of the Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reform, the Plenary Session clearly put forward four aspects: “overall design, overall coordination, overall advancement, and supervision and implementation.” Among these, “overall advancement and supervision and implementation” include the function of “institutional operation.” The reason for this is that the vitality of an institution lies in its implementation, in its operation. The national governance system and governance capacity are the concentrated embodiment of a country’s system and its implementation capacity; the two complement each other. Merely advancing institutional building without focusing on institutional operation makes it difficult to generate institutional effectiveness.

三是制度运转。制度建设本身不是目的，而是制度运转。新时代全面深化改革注重制度建设，更注重制度运转，是制度建设与制度运转的并重和有机统一。党的十八届三中全会在设定制度体系建设的目标时，提出“系统完备、科学规范、运行有效”三个方面要求，其中的“运行有效”就是制度体系的落实、执行、运行和运转。全会在明确中央全面深化改革领导小组职能时，明确提出“总体设计、统筹协调、整体推进、督促落实”四个方面，其中“整体推进、督促落实”包含着“制度运转”的职能。其所以如此，是因为制度的生命力在于执行，在于运转国家治理体系和治理能力是一个国家的制度和制度执行能力的集中体现，两者相辅相成。只推进制度建设，不注重制度运转，难以形成制度效能。

An important function of institutions is to ensure the implementation of the Party’s and the state’s lines, principles, policies, and major decisions and strategies. Comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era emphasizes the integrated design, integrated decision-making, integrated deployment, and integrated implementation of institutional building and institutional operation. This is also an important process characteristic of comprehensively deepening reform in the New Era. In response to the long-standing problems of insufficient implementation and weak execution in institutional operation, comprehensively deepening reform placed institutional implementation and operation in a prominent position from the very beginning, emphasizing that one part of planning must be matched by nine parts of implementation. First, institutional operation was incorporated into reform deployment. The implementation of reform measures was deployed together with the responsibility for implementation; reform tasks were arranged together with the subjects responsible for implementation. Especially after the Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee, around advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, the work of upholding and consolidating institutions, perfecting and developing institutions, and observing and implementing institutions was advanced as a whole. Second, reform supervision was used to promote the implementation of reform measures and institutional operation. The meetings of the Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reform established a reform supervision mechanism to promote the implementation and operation of reform measures and various institutions. In the reform process, “strengthening the supervision of institutional implementation” was emphasized, and a full-coverage mechanism for supervising institutional implementation was established, running the supervision of institutional implementation through the entire process of regional governance, departmental governance, industry governance, grassroots governance, and unit governance. Third, the pattern of the Party Central Committee, the National People’s Congress, the State Council, and the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference jointly grasping institutional implementation was used to promote institutional operation. The Party Central Committee grasps institutional operation through inspections, the National People’s Congress grasps institutional operation through law enforcement inspections, the State Council grasps institutional operation through “major inspections” and “special inspections,” and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference grasps institutional operation through research and consultation, forming a full-domain, full-chain system for promoting institutional implementation and operation. It is precisely because comprehensively deepening reform, by strengthening institutional implementation and the supervision of institutional implementation, has played a breakthrough and leading role in advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity, and has achieved the use of institutional advantages to cope with the impact of risks and challenges in the reform process, realizing the integration and transformation of institutional effectiveness and governance effectiveness. Comprehensively deepening reform has thus become a process of institutional innovation that integrates institutional building and institutional operation.

制度的重要功能就在于确保党和国家路线、方针、政策以及重大决策和战略的落实。新时代全面深化改革注重制度建设与制度运转一体设计、一体决策，一体部署、一体落实。这也是新时代全面深化改革的重要过程特征。针对长期以来制度运行中抓落实不够、执行力不强的问题，全面深化改革一开始就把制度落实与运转放在突出重要地位，强调一分部署、九分落实。首先，将制度运转纳入改革部署。实施改革举措与落实责任同部署，改革任务与落实责任主体同安排。特别是党的十九届四中全会以后，围绕推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，一体推进坚持和巩固制度、完善和发展制度、遵守和执行制度。其次，以改革督察推动改革举措落实和制度运转。中央全面深化改革领导小组会议构建改革督察机制，推动改革举措和各项制度的落实与运行。在改革进程中，强调“加强对制度执行的监督”，构建了全覆盖的制度执行监督机制，把制度执行和监督贯穿区域治理、部门治理、行业治理、基层治理、单位治理全过程。再次，通过党中央、全国人大、国务院、全国政协共抓制度执行格局推动制度运转。党中央通过巡视抓制度运转，全国人大通过执法检查抓制度运转，国务院通过“大督查”“专项督查”抓制度运转，政协通过调研、协商抓制度运转，形成全领域全链条制度落实与制度运转推进体系。正是由于全面深化改革通过强化制度执行和对制度执行的监督，改革发挥出对推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化的突破性和先导性作用，在改革进程中做到以制度优势应对风险挑战冲击，实现制度效能与治理效能融合转化。全面深化改革因此成为一个集制度建设、制度运转于一体的制度创新过程。

Fourth, the transformation of institutional advantages. Reform and opening up in the New Era takes institutional building as its main thread, but at the same time emphasizes taking the upholding and improvement of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics and the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity as its main axis. Therefore, it pays greater attention to transforming institutional advantages into institutional effectiveness. It is precisely because of the focus on institutional operation and institutional effectiveness that the various institutions in the fields of economy, politics, culture, society, ecological civilization, security, national defense and the military, and Party building are interconnected and mutually reinforcing, ensuring the actual results of reform. It is precisely because of the focus on institutional operation and the actual results of reform that the reform has promoted the formation and transformation of strong institutional advantages.

四是制度优势转化。新时代全面深化改革以制度建设为主线，但同时强调以坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度、推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化为主轴，因此更加注重把制度优势转化为制度效能。正是因为注重制度运转和制度效能，推动经济、政治、文化、社会、生态文明、安全、国防和军队、党的建设等领域各项制度之间相互衔接、相得益彰，确保了改革实效。正是因为注重制度运转和改革实效，改革推动形成和转化强大制度优势。

The Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC summarized the notable advantages of China’s national system and national governance system. Some of these were consolidated during the process of comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, such as the advantages of upholding the centralized and unified leadership of the Party, adhering to the Party’s scientific theory, maintaining political stability, and ensuring that the country always advances in the correct direction; the advantages of ensuring that the people are the masters of the country, developing people’s democracy, maintaining close ties with the masses, and relying closely on the people to drive national development; and the advantages of comprehensively advancing law-based governance, building a socialist country under the rule of law, and effectively safeguarding social fairness, justice, and the people’s rights. Some were elevated during the process of comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, such as the advantages of adhering to a national chessboard approach, mobilizing the initiative of all sides, and concentrating resources to accomplish major tasks; and the advantages of adhering to the basic economic system with public ownership as the mainstay and diverse forms of ownership developing together, and with distribution according to work as the mainstay and multiple modes of distribution coexisting, organically combining the socialist system with the market economy, and continuously unleashing and developing the productive forces. Some were strengthened during the process of comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, such as the advantages of adhering to common ideals, values, and moral concepts, promoting fine traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture, and promoting the close unity of all the people in thought and spirit; the advantages of adhering to the people-centered development philosophy, continuously safeguarding and improving people’s livelihoods, enhancing the well-being of the people, and following the path of common prosperity; and the advantages of adhering to reform, innovation, and keeping pace with the times, being adept at self-improvement and self-development, and keeping society always full of vitality. The transformation of institutional advantages means transforming institutional advantages into the effectiveness of the development of all undertakings of the Party and the state. Comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, on the one hand, focuses on institutional building and the construction of the institutional system, and on the other hand, promotes the implementation and effective implementation of institutions, advancing institutional operation. In this process, institutional advantages are transformed into development effectiveness, governance effectiveness, and security effectiveness, specifically reflected in the fields of economy, politics, culture, society, ecological civilization, security, national defense and the military, and Party building. It is precisely the achievements in institutional building in these fields, the process of institutional operation, the formation of institutional advantages, and the transformation of institutional advantages that have driven the historic achievements and historic transformations in the development of all undertakings of the Party and the state.

党的十九届四中全会概括我国国家制度和国家治理体系的显著优势。其中有些是在新时代全面深化改革进程中巩固的，如坚持党的集中统一领导，坚持党的科学理论，保持政治稳定，确保国家始终沿着正确方向前进的优势；坚持人民当家作主，发展人民民主，密切联系群众，紧紧依靠人民推动国家发展的优势；坚持全面依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家，切实保障社会公平正义和人民权利的优势。有些是在新时代全面深化改革进程中提升的，如坚持全国一盘棋，调动各方面积极性，集中力量办大事的优势；坚持公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展和按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存，把社会主义制度和市场经济有机结合起来，不断解放和发展社会生产力的优势。有些是在新时代全面深化改革进程中增强的，如坚持共同的理想信念、价值理念、道德观念，弘扬中华优秀传统文化、革命文化、社会主义先进文化，促进全体人民在思想上精神上紧紧团结在一起的优势；坚持以人民为中心的发展思想，不断保障和改善民生、增进人民福祉，走共同富裕道路的优势；坚持改革创新、与时俱进，善于自我完善、自我发展，使社会始终充满生机活力的优势。制度优势转化就是制度优势转化为党和国家各方面事业发展效能。新时代全面深化改革一方面抓制度建设和制度体系建设，一方面推进制度执行和制度落地见效，推进制度运转。在这一过程中，制度优势转化为发展效能、治理效能和安全效能，具体体现在经济、政治、文化、社会、生态文明、安全、国防和军队、党的建设等领域。正是这些领域的制度建设成果、制度运转过程、制度优势形成、制度优势转化，推动党和国家各项事业发展取得历史性成就、发生历史性变革。

Fifth, institutional evaluation. By the time of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era had generally completed the reform tasks set by the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC. The institutional process promoted by comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era entered the stage of institutional evaluation. At the 17th meeting of the Central Committee for Comprehensive Deepening of Reform held on December 30, 2020, General Secretary Xi Jinping made a preliminary evaluation of the achievements in institutional building from comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era, pointing out that “the basic institutional framework in various fields has been basically established, and many fields have achieved historic transformations, systematic reshaping, and overall reconstruction, laying a solid foundation for promoting the formation of a systematic, well-established, scientifically standardized, and effectively operating institutional system, and making institutions in all aspects more mature and more定型 [29]29 The Chinese term 定型 (dìngxíng) literally means “to finalize a shape or form.” In this political context, it refers to making the socialist system with Chinese characteristics more mature and well-defined in its institutional forms and operational mechanisms..” On this basis, the 20th National Congress of the CPC clearly made the evaluation that “the socialist system with Chinese characteristics has become more mature and more定型, and the level of modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity has been significantly improved.” The Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC further raised the tone of the evaluation, pointing out that comprehensive deepening of reform in the New Era had achieved the goal of making institutions in all aspects more mature and more定型 with obvious results by the 100th anniversary of the founding of the CPC, providing a strong institutional guarantee for building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and realizing the Party’s first centenary goal, and pushing China onto a new journey of comprehensively building a modern socialist country. On this basis, the plenary session clearly proposed to continue to improve and develop the socialist system with Chinese characteristics and promote the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. By 2035, a high-level socialist market economy system will be fully established, the socialist system with Chinese characteristics will be more complete, the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity will be basically realized, and socialist modernization will be basically realized, laying a solid foundation for comprehensively building a great modern socialist country by the middle of this century.

五是制度评价。到党的二十届三中全会召开前，新时代全面深化改革总体完成党的十八届三中全会确定的改革任务。新时代全面深化改革推进的制度过程进入制度评价环节。2020年12月30日召开的中央全面深化改革委员会第十七次会议上，习近平总书记对新时代全面深化改革的制度建设成果做出初步评价，指出，“各领域基础性制度框架基本确立，许多领域实现历史性变革、系统性重塑、整体性重构，为推动形成系统完备、科学规范、运行有效的制度体系，使各方面制度更加成熟更加定型奠定了坚实基础”，“开创了以改革开放推动党和国家各项事业取得历史性成就、发生历史性变革的新局面”。在此基础上，党的二十大明确做出“中国特色的社会主义制度更加成熟更加定型，国家治理体系和治理能力现代化水平明显提高”的评价。党的二十届三中全会进一步提高评价的基调，指出，新时代全面深化改革实现到中国共产党成立一百周年时各方面制度更加成熟更加定型取得明显成效的目标，为全面建成小康社会、实现党的第一个百年奋斗目标提供有力制度保障，推动我国迈上全面建设社会主义现代化国家新征程。在此基础上，全会明确提出，继续完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化。到二○三五年，全面建成高水平社会主义市场经济体制，中国特色社会主义制度更加完善，基本实现国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，基本实现社会主义现代化，为到本世纪中叶全面建成社会主义现代化强国奠定坚实基础。

Since the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, the Party Central Committee has closely focused on the main thread of institutional building, launched a series of reform and institutional building measures established by the plenary session, unified the thinking of the whole Party through special seminars for leading cadres at the provincial and ministerial levels, and guided various localities to write local chapters of Chinese-path modernization, fully opening a new round of institutional process!

从党的二十届三中全会以来，党中央紧紧围绕制度建设主线，推出全会确立的一系列改革与制度建设举措，通过省部级领导干部专题研讨班统一全党思想，通过指导各地谱写中国式现代化地方篇章，全面开启了新一轮制度过程！

III. Practical Significance: The Realization Path of the Self-Improvement of the Socialist System

三、现实意义：社会主义制度自我完善的实现路径

In summary, the analytical framework of the institutional process has a theoretical basis and practical foundation. At the same time, a scientific analytical framework should also have theoretical explanatory power, historical interpretive power, and future predictive power for the object of analysis. This article proposes the analytical framework of the institutional process from the perspective of the self-improvement of the socialist system. The analytical framework of the institutional process can analyze and answer three major questions: why the Chinese socialist system can self-improve, how it self-improves, and how it will continue to self-improve, thereby answering the core question of how the Chinese socialist system self-improves.

综上所述，制度过程分析框架具有学理基础和实践依据。同时，一个科学的分析框架还应该对所分析对象具有理论说明力、历史解释力和未来预见力。本文是从社会主义制度自我完善的角度提出制度过程分析框架的，制度过程分析框架可以分析和回答中国社会主义制度为什么能自我完善，如何自我完善，怎样继续自我完善等三个重大问题，从而回答中国社会主义制度是如何自我完善的这一核心问题。

First, from a theoretical perspective, the analytical framework of the institutional process can be used to analyze the question of why the Chinese socialist system can self-improve. In the Marxist view, any social system has a certain degree of self-improvement capacity, but the self-improvement capacity of all social systems based on private ownership is limited. The Chinese socialist system has unlimited space and strong momentum for self-improvement. On the one hand, the Chinese socialist system is built on the basis of public ownership, serves the interests of all the people, breaks free from the institutional limitations and narrowness of serving a minority, and has broad space for self-improvement. On the other hand, the institutional process formed in the practice of the Chinese socialist system constitutes the realization path for the self-improvement of the Chinese socialist system.

首先，从理论上看，制度过程分析框架能够用以分析中国社会主义制度为什么能自我完善的问题。在马克思主义看来，任何社会制度都有一定程度的自我完善能力，但是一切以私有制为基础的社会制度的自我完善能力都是有限的。中国社会主义制度具有自我完善的无限空间和强劲动力。一方面，中国社会主义制度建立在公有制基础上，为全体人民利益服务，摆脱了为少数人服务的制度局限和偏狭，具有广阔的自我完善空间。另一方面，中国社会主义制度实践中形成的制度过程，构成中国社会主义制度自我完善的实现路径。

The reason the Chinese socialist system is capable of self-improvement lies in the immense inclusiveness of the Chinese socialist system. The Chinese socialist system is borne and supported by a series of institutions, and these institutions can be reformed and improved. In the late 1980s, some Eastern European economists, represented by the Hungarian economist János Kornai, proposed that the Soviet-type economic system lacked “reformability” within the socialist framework, that the socialist system and the market economy system were incompatible, and that the only way out was to abandon socialism and turn to a capitalist market economy. The present author once wrote an article to refute this, pointing out that the Chinese socialist system and its institutions belong to two different levels of social construction, wherein institutions possess “reformability,” the socialist system and the market economy system can be compatible, and reform is the path to perfecting the socialist economic system. Looking at it now, the reason reform is the path to perfecting the socialist system is that, on the one hand, the socialist system has immense inclusiveness and compatibility with different institutions; on the other hand, a complete and continuous institutional process is endogenous to the practice of the Chinese socialist system, and the institutional process within the framework of the socialist system lays out the specific path of self-improvement of the socialist system through reform. The reason the Chinese socialist system is capable of self-improvement is also because the practice of the Chinese socialist system contains powerful endogenous momentum for the institutional process. As can be seen from the empirical analysis in the preceding text, the five links in the institutional process within the practice of the Chinese socialist system are closely interlocked. After one institutional process is completed, a new institutional process follows in succession, and different institutional processes constitute a spiraling upward form of institutional practice. Where does the endogenous momentum of the institutional process inherent in the practice of the Chinese socialist system lie? Clarifying this question can answer why the Chinese socialist system can “self”-improve, who the “self” in the self-improvement of the Chinese socialist system is, and who the subject of this “self” is. The leadership of the Communist Party of China is the most essential feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics; without the Communist Party of China, there would be no Chinese socialist system, and there would be no system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, the leadership of the Communist Party of China is an endogenous variable, an independent variable, of the Chinese socialist system. The Communist Party of China leads the Chinese people in exploring the creation, development, and improvement of the socialist system in China. The leadership of the Communist Party of China drives the interlocking and progressive advancement of each link within the institutional process, and drives the successive and spiraling progression of the institutional process. In this continuous institutional practice, the self-improvement of the Chinese socialist system is advanced. Therefore, the endogenous momentum of the Chinese socialist system’s institutional process lies in the leadership of the Communist Party of China. In the “self”-improvement of the Chinese socialist system, the object is the socialist system itself, and the subject is the leadership of the Communist Party of China inherent within it and the Chinese people led by it.

中国社会主义制度之所以能够自我完善，是因为中国社会主义制度的巨大包容性。中国社会主义制度是由一系列体制承载和支撑的，而这些体制是可以改革和改进的。上世纪80年代末期，以匈牙利经济学家亚诺什·科尔奈为代表的一些东欧经济学家提出，苏联型经济体制在社会主义框架内不具有“可改革性”（Reformability），社会主义制度与市场经济体制不能兼容，唯一的出路是放弃社会主义，转向资本主义市场经济。笔者曾撰文予以批驳，指出中国社会主义制度与体制属于两个不同层次的社会建制，其中体制具有“可改革性”，社会主义制度与市场经济体制可以兼容，改革是社会主义经济制度的完善之路。现在看来，改革之所以是社会主义制度的完善之路，是因为一方面，社会主义制度具有对不同体制的巨大包容性、兼容性；另一方面，完整的、连续的制度过程内生于中国社会主义制度实践之中，社会主义制度框架内的制度过程铺陈了改革这一社会主义制度自我完善的具体路径。中国社会主义制度之所以能够自我完善，也是因为中国社会主义制度实践中内涵着强大的制度过程内生动能。从前文实证分析可见，中国社会主义制度实践中的制度过程中的五个环节环环相扣。一个制度过程完成后，新的制度过程接续递进，不同制度过程构成螺旋上升的制度实践形态。中国社会主义制度实践内涵的制度过程内生动能何在？弄清楚这个问题，就可以回答中国社会主义制度为什么能“自我”完善、中国社会主义制度自我完善的“自我”是谁、这个“自我”的主体是谁的问题。中国共产党的领导是中国特色社会主义最本质的特征，没有中国共产党就没有中国社会主义制度，就没有中国特色社会主义制度。因此，中国共产党的领导是中国社会主义制度的内生变量、自变量。中国共产党领导中国人民探索在中国创立、发展和完善社会主义制度，中国共产党的领导推动制度过程内部各个环节环环相扣、层层递进，推动制度过程接续递进、螺旋上升。在这个接续不断的制度实践中推进中国社会主义制度的自我完善。因此，中国社会主义制度过程的内生动能在于中国共产党的领导，中国社会主义制度自我完善中“自我”，客体是社会主义制度本身，主体是其中内涵的中国共产党的领导及其领导的中国人民。

Secondly, from a historical perspective, the analytical framework of the institutional process can be used to analyze how the Chinese socialist system was created, developed, and self-improved. The institutional process analysis provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and analyzing the history of the formation and development of the Chinese socialist system, which is conducive to a better understanding of the scientific connotations and internal connections of General Secretary Xi Jinping’s judgments on the “two historical periods” [30]30 The “two historical periods” refers to the period before reform and opening up (1949–1978) and the period after reform and opening up (1978–present), which Xi Jinping has described as interconnected but distinct phases of socialist construction. and the “two half-journeys” [31]31 The “two half-journeys” refers to the first half-journey of establishing the basic socialist system (1949–1978) and the second half-journey of improving and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics (1978–present), as articulated by Xi Jinping., as well as Deng Xiaoping’s ideas on institutional construction, thereby enabling a complete grasp of the practical course of the Chinese socialist system.

其次，从历史上看，制度过程分析框架能够用以分析中国社会主义制度是如何创立、发展和自我完善的问题。制度过程分析提供了一个贯通性理解和分析中国社会主义制度形成与发展历史的解释框架，有利于更好理解习近平总书记关于“两个历史时期”“两个半程”论断以及邓小平有关制度建设设想的科学内涵及其内在关联，完整把握中国社会主义制度实践历程。

The institutional process analysis shows that the history of the Chinese socialist system is a complete and coherent history of the creation, improvement, and development of the Chinese socialist system. General Secretary Xi Jinping’s judgment on the “two historical periods,” put forward from the perspective of the practical exploration of socialist construction, emphasizes that “the socialist construction led by our Party has two historical periods: before and after reform and opening up. These are two periods that are interconnected yet significantly different, but in essence, they are both practical explorations of socialist construction led by our Party.” This mainly emphasizes the essential identity of the themes of practical exploration of the Chinese socialist system at different stages. The three institutional processes since the founding of the People’s Republic of China are consistent and successive, running through the same theme: creating, improving, and developing the Chinese socialist system. From the perspective of the historical inheritance and temporal succession of these three institutional processes, although the two historical periods differ, they are essentially identical and logically unified.

制度过程分析表明，一部中国社会主义制度史，就是一部完整的、连贯的中国社会主义制度创立、完善和发展的历史。习近平总书记从社会主义建设实践探索角度提出的“两个历史时期”论断，强调“我们党领导人民进行社会主义建设，有改革开放前和改革开放后两个历史时期，这是两个相互联系又有重大区别的时期，但本质上都是我们党领导人民进行社会主义建设的实践探索”，主要是强调不同阶段中国社会主义制度实践探索主题的本质同一性。中华人民共和国成立以来的三个制度过程是一贯的、继起的，贯穿着同一个主题，即创立、完善和发展中国社会主义制度。从这三个制度过程的历史继承性和时间继起看，两个历史时期虽有区别，但本质同一和逻辑统一。

The institutional process analysis shows that the history of the Chinese socialist system is also a complete and coherent history of the exploration, establishment, improvement, and development of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. General Secretary Xi Jinping’s judgment on the “two half-journeys,” put forward from the perspective of the practical exploration of the socialist system, emphasizes that the first half-journey has already been traversed, and for the second half-journey, our main historical task is to improve and develop the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. This mainly emphasizes the developmental nature and inheritance of the historical tasks of practical exploration of the Chinese socialist system at different stages. The three institutional processes since the founding of the People’s Republic of China not only share a consistent theme but also a consistent main line. The first institutional process, on the one hand, laid the core content and basic framework of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and on the other hand, began to explore “taking our own path.” Although the exploration encountered “twists and turns” and “setbacks,” it formed many socialist system elements with Chinese characteristics and accumulated valuable experience in exploring the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The second institutional process successfully established the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The third institutional process initiated the institutional practice of improving and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. The three institutional processes respectively explored and answered the questions of how to create a socialist system in China, how to establish a system of socialism with Chinese characteristics after creating a socialist system, and how to improve and develop it after establishing socialism with Chinese characteristics. It can be said that since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Communist Party of China has led the Chinese people in continuously exploring how to create, improve, and develop a socialist system adapted to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. This is the same main line running through the three institutional processes.

制度过程分析表明，一部中国社会主义制度史，也是一部完整的、连贯的中国特色社会主义制度探索、建立、完善和发展的历史。习近平总书记从社会主义制度实践探索角度，提出的“两个半程”论断，强调前半程已经走过了，后半程，我们的主要历史任务是完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度，主要是强调不同阶段中国社会主义制度实践探索历史任务的发展性和继承性。中华人民共和国成立以来的三个制度过程，不仅主题一致，而且主线一致。第一个制度过程一方面奠定中国特色社会主义制度的核心内容和基本框架，另一方面开始探索“走自己的路”，尽管探索中遭遇“曲折”和“挫折”，但形成了诸多有中国特色的社会主义制度要素和积累了探索中国特色社会主义制度的宝贵经验。第二个制度过程成功建立了中国特色社会主义制度。第三个制度过程开启了完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的制度实践。三个制度过程分别探索和回答了如何在中国创立社会主义制度的问题、创立社会主义制度后如何建立中国特色社会主义制度的问题、建立中国特色社会主义后如何完善和发展的问题。可以说，中华人民共和国成立以来，中国共产党领导中国人民一直在探索如何创立、完善和发展中国化时代化的社会主义制度，这是三个制度过程蕴含的同一主线。

The institutional process analysis shows that the history of the Chinese socialist system is also a complete and coherent history of constructing a complete set of more mature, more stable, and more effective institutional systems. In 1992, Deng Xiaoping proposed the phased goal of institutional construction: “I am afraid it will take another thirty years before we can form a complete set of more mature and more定型 [32]32 The Chinese term 定型 (dìngxíng) means “fixed in form” or “stabilized,” implying a mature and finalized institutional shape. institutions in all aspects.” If we count from the start of reform and opening up, Deng Xiaoping’s vision actually covers the period from the beginning of reform and opening up to the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China. The so-called “30-year vision” is actually a “40-year vision.” From “solving problems from the institutional aspect” to the “40-year vision,” this reflects the development of the Chinese Communists’ thinking on institutions. If, in the early days of reform and opening up, the emphasis on “solving problems from the institutional aspect” was because, on the one hand, institutions were very important, and on the other hand, the Chinese socialist system was still in its infancy and not yet mature, then the proposal of the “40-year vision” reflects a deeper and longer-term institutional concern: to provide a complete set of more mature, more stable, and more effective institutional systems for the development of the Party and the country’s undertakings, for the happiness and well-being of the people, for social harmony and stability, and for the long-term peace and stability of the country. From “solving problems from the institutional aspect” to the “40-year vision,” from constructing institutions to constructing an institutional system, this is both a summary of the historical experience of the Chinese Communist Party’s institutional practice and institutional process, and a manifestation of the Chinese Communist Party’s consistent deep-seated and long-term institutional concern and pursuit. The three institutional processes show that constructing a complete set of more mature, more stable, and more effective institutional systems is the consistent goal pursued in the practice of the Chinese socialist system.

制度过程分析表明，一部中国社会主义制度史，也是一部完整的、连贯的构建一整套更完备、更稳定、更管用的制度体系的历史。1992年，邓小平提出“恐怕再有三十年的时间，我们才会在各方面形成一整套更加成熟、更加定型的制度”的制度建设阶段性目标设想。如果从改革开放算起，邓小平的这一设想实际上涵盖从改革开放开启到中国共产党成立一百周年的时期。所谓“30年设想”实际上是“40年设想”。“从制度方面解决问题”到“40年设想”，体现了中国共产党人制度思想的发展。如果说改革开放初期强调“从制度方面解决问题”，是因为一方面制度很重要，另一方面中国社会主义制度还处在幼年期、还不成熟，那么提出“40年设想”则体现更深层次更长远的制度关切，即为党和国家事业发展、为人民幸福安康、为社会和谐稳定、为国家长治久安提供一整套更完备、更稳定、更管用的制度体系。“从制度方面解决问题”到“40年设想”，从构建制度到构建制度体系，既是中国共产党制度实践与制度过程历史经验的总结，又是中国共产党一以贯之的深层、长远制度关切与制度追求的体现。三个制度过程表明，构建一整套更完备、更稳定、更管用的制度体系，是中国社会主义制度实践一以贯之的目标追求。

Third, from a practical perspective, the framework of institutional process analysis can be used to analyze how China’s socialist system can continue to improve itself. The establishment of the socialist system does not equate to the self-improvement of socialism. The self-improvement of the socialist system does not equate to automatic improvement. The “second half” of perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has already been set in motion. By applying the framework of institutional process analysis, we can obtain many insights into how to continue promoting the self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the future.

再次，从现实上看，制度过程分析框架能够用以分析中国社会主义制度怎样继续自我完善的问题。社会主义制度的创立，不等于社会主义的自我完善。社会主义制度的自我完善不等于自动完善。完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度“后半程”已经启动。运用制度过程分析框架，可以获得关于未来如何继续推动中国特色社会主义制度自我完善的诸多启示。

The self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a long-term dynamic process, requiring the continuous advancement of the institutional process. “Making the system more mature and more established is a dynamic process, and the modernization of governance capacity is also a dynamic process; it cannot be achieved overnight, nor can it be done once and for all. The goals we have set for the construction of the national system and national governance system must keep pace with the times as practice develops; we must neither be overly idealistic and impatient for success, nor blindly complacent and rest on our laurels.” [33]33 Xi Jinping, “Explanation on the ‘Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Upholding and Perfecting the System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Advancing the Modernization of the National Governance System and Governance Capacity’,” 2019. The “second half” of developing and perfecting the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics has already completed one institutional process, and further deepening reform comprehensively has already initiated a new round of institutional process. The “second half” will be a long-term process. On the one hand, whether viewed from the overall goal of reform or from the guiding ideology of reform, the new round of institutional process is a continuation and progression of the previous round. On the other hand, the standards for the perfection and development of the socialist system, as well as the goals for the construction of the national system and national governance system, will keep pace with the times as practice develops and Chinese-path modernization advances. Therefore, the “second half” will be a historical stage of institutional practice that includes multiple institutional processes.

中国特色社会主义制度的自我完善是一个长期动态过程，需要接续不断推进制度过程。“制度更加成熟更加定型是一个动态过程，治理能力现代化也是一个动态过程，不可能一蹴而就，也不可能一劳永逸。我们提出的国家制度和国家治理体系建设的目标必须随着实践发展而与时俱进，既不能过于理想化、急于求成，也不能盲目自满、故步自封”。发展和完善中国特色社会主义制度“后半程”已经完成一个制度过程，进一步全面深化改革已经开启新一轮制度过程。“后半程”将是一个长期过程。一方面，无论从改革的总目标看，还是从改革的指导思想看，新一轮制度过程是上一轮制度过程的接续递进。另一方面，社会主义制度完善和发展的标准以及国家制度和国家治理体系建设的目标将随着实践发展和中国式现代化的推进而与时俱进。因此，“后半程”将是一个包括多个制度过程的制度实践历史阶段。

The self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a process of mutual transformation between quantitative change and qualitative change, requiring the “stepwise progression” of the institutional process. What is the historical orientation of the “second half”? How long will it last? This depends on the phased realization of the transformation from quantitative change to qualitative change in the stage of China’s social development. General Secretary Xi Jinping has previously proposed two major propositions, namely the “new stage of development” and “reform in the new stage of development.” “The new stage of development is a stage within the primary stage of socialism, and at the same time, it is a stage that, after decades of accumulation, has stood at a new starting point.” “Building a modern socialist country in all respects and basically realizing socialist modernization are not only the requirements of China’s development in the primary stage of socialism but also the requirements for China’s socialism to move from the primary stage to a higher stage.” [34]34 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Seminar on the Study and Implementation of the Spirit of the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the CPC,” 2021. This clearly indicates two points. First, the primary stage of socialism will be roughly divided into three phases. The first phase, from entering socialism in 1956 to building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and achieving the first centenary goal in 2021. The second phase, from building a moderately prosperous society in all respects to basically realizing socialist modernization, i.e., the new stage of development. The third phase, after basically realizing modernization, China will move from the primary stage of socialism to a higher stage. Second, the new stage of development is a new stage within the primary stage of socialism, different from previous stages, i.e., the second phase. The historical positioning of this stage is to promote the “quantitative accumulation and development changes increasingly approaching a qualitative leap” in the primary stage of socialism. Therefore, “reform in the new stage of development” needs to focus on the “qualitative leap” in institutional construction and promote the “quantitative accumulation” of institutional construction. “It is necessary to combine deepening reform with promoting institutional integration, focus on foundational reform measures with significant traction, strengthen full linkage and coordination of institutional innovation, and enhance the comprehensive effectiveness of reform.” [35]35 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Central Committee’s Deepening Reform Comprehensively Commission’s 18th Meeting,” 2020. From this perspective, current and future institutional practice is not a simple cycle of institutional processes but requires greater attention to institutional integration, institutional innovation, and institutional effectiveness, achieving the “stepwise progression” of the institutional process.

中国特色社会主义制度的自我完善是一个量变和质变相互转化的过程，需要“阶梯式递进”推进制度过程。“后半程”的历史方位是什么？会有多长？取决于中国社会发展阶段量变到质变的阶段性实现。习近平总书记曾经提出两个重大命题，即“新发展阶段”和“新发展阶段改革”。“新发展阶段，就是社会主义初级阶段中的一个阶段，同时是其中经过几十年积累、站到了新的起点上的一个阶段。”“全面建设社会主义现代化国家、基本实现社会主义现代化，既是社会主义初级阶段我国发展的要求，也是我国社会主义从初级阶段向更高阶段迈进的要求。”这就清楚地表明两点，其一，社会主义初级阶段将大体上分为三个阶段。第一个阶段，从1956年进入社会主义到2021年全面建成小康社会、实现第一个百年奋斗目标。第二个阶段，从全面建成小康社会到基本实现社会主义现代化，即新发展阶段。第三个阶段，基本实现现代化以后，中国将从社会主义初级阶段向更高阶段迈进。其二，新发展阶段是社会主义初级阶段中不同于以往阶段的一个新阶段，即其中的第二个阶段。这个阶段的历史定位是推进社会主义初级阶段实现“日益接近质的飞跃的量的积累和发展变化”。因此，“新发展阶段改革”需要聚焦制度建设“质的飞跃”，推进制度建设“量的积累”，“要把深化改革攻坚同促进制度集成结合起来，聚焦基础性和具有重大牵引作用的改革举措，加强制度创新充分联动和衔接配套，提升改革综合效能”。从这个意义上看，现实与未来的制度实践不是简单的制度过程的循环，而是需要更加注重制度集成、制度创新和制度效能，实现制度过程的“阶梯式递进”。

The self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a process of constructing and manifesting institutional advantages, requiring the expansion of the path of institutional development through the institutional process. Precisely because the institutional process in the current and future period belongs to the institutional practice of the primary stage of socialism, the foothold for perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics remains the reality of “underdevelopment” as proposed by Deng Xiaoping. “Underdevelopment” is manifested not only in the underdevelopment of productive forces but also in the underdevelopment of institutions. It is precisely based on this that the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC proposed the major proposition of “three better adaptations”: better adaptation between relations of production and productive forces, between the superstructure and the economic base, and between national governance and social development. [36]36 The Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC, held in July 2024, focused on further deepening reform comprehensively to advance Chinese-path modernization. The starting point for perfecting and developing the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is to expand the development space of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, broaden the development path of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and open up the development prospects of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, current and future institutional processes need to continue focusing on constructing and enhancing institutional advantages, enhancing institutional vitality, and manifesting and transforming institutional effectiveness.

中国特色社会主义制度的自我完善是一个制度优势构筑与彰显的过程，需要以制度过程拓展制度发展道路。正是因为现实和未来一个时期的制度过程属于社会主义初级阶段的制度实践，完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的立足点依然是邓小平提出的“不发达”现实。“不发达”不仅表现在生产力不发达，而且表现在制度不发达。正是基于此，党的二十届三中全会提出“生产关系与生产力、上层建筑与经济基础、国家治理与社会发展”三个更好相适应的重大命题。完善和发展中国特色社会主义制度的出发点，是拓展中国特色社会主义制度发展空间，拓宽中国特色社会主义制度发展道路，拓开中国特色社会主义制度的发展前景。因此，现实和未来的制度过程，需要继续聚焦构筑和增强制度优势、增强制度生命力、彰显和转化制度效能。

The self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a process of historical initiative and historical creation, requiring the enhancement of the endogenous momentum of the institutional process. As mentioned earlier, the self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics does not equate to automatic improvement; it is crucial to clarify who this “self” is and to enhance the subjectivity, initiative, and creativity of this “self.” The endogenous momentum for continuously advancing the institutional process originates from the historical initiative and historical creation of the Communist Party of China and the Chinese people, and from the concern for the historical destiny of the Chinese nation. To make the Chinese nation stand up, the first institutional process was advanced; to make the Chinese nation prosperous, the second institutional process was advanced; to make the Chinese nation strong, the third institutional process is being advanced. National pursuits and national dreams such as striving for national independence, shaking off poverty, and building a moderately prosperous society in all respects can easily stimulate strong historical initiative and historical creativity, forming a powerful momentum to drive the institutional process. The new round of institutional process is oriented toward Chinese-path modernization, which involves more uncertainties and faces deep-seated “barriers of solidified interests.” The new context places new demands on enhancing the endogenous momentum of the institutional process. Continuously advancing the institutional process depends on the Communist Party of China persistently leading the institutional process in a posture of historical initiative and historical creation. In this sense, the two “selfs”—the self-revolution of the Communist Party of China and the self-improvement of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics—are highly unified!

中国特色社会主义制度的自我完善是一个历史主动与历史创造的过程，需要增强制度过程的内生动能。如前所述，中国特色社会主义制度自我完善，不等于自动完善；中国特色社会主义制度自我完善，弄清这个“自我”是谁、增强这个“自我”的主体性、主动性、创造性至关重要。接续推进制度过程的内生动能来源于中国共产党和中国人民的历史主动与历史创造，来源于对中华民族历史命运的关怀。为了让中华民族站起来，推进第一个制度过程，为了让中华民族富起来，推进第二个制度过程，为了让中华民族强起来，推进第三个制度过程。争取民族独立、摆脱贫穷、全面建成小康社会等民族追求和民族梦想，容易激发强大的历史主动性和历史创造性，形成推动制度过程的强大动能。新一轮制度过程面向的是中国式现代化，现代化有更多的不确定性，面临的“利益固化的藩篱”具有深层次性。新的背景对增强制度过程的内生动能提出了新的要求。接续不断推进制度过程，取决于中国共产党以历史主动和历史创造的姿态持续领导制度过程。从这个意义上讲，中国共产党的自我革命、中国特色社会主义制度的自我完善中的两个“自我”，是高度统一的！

(Author’s bio: Zhao Lingyun, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the School of Marxism, Central China Normal University)

（作者简介：赵凌云，华中师范大学马克思主义学院教授、博士生导师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心