Mao Zedong’s Three-Dimensional Remolding of the Traditional Chinese Doctrine of Contradiction

The doctrine of contradiction is the main content of the naive dialectical thought in traditional Chinese philosophy and the internal basis for the eternal vitality of traditional Chinese philosophy. The doctrine of contradiction in traditional philosophy was expressed respectively as the “yin-yang” theory, the “two ends” theory, the “two-one” theory, and the “reversal” theory. The “yin-yang” theory is the earliest form of expression of the traditional doctrine of contradiction, originating from the line symbols “--” and “—” in the *Book of Changes* [Yijing], which held that things are constituted by mutually opposing factors; the *Commentary on the Book of Changes* [Yizhuan] not only called them “yin lines” and “yang lines” but also put forward the proposition that “the alternation of yin and yang is called the Way,” which became the formal expression of the “yin-yang” theory. The concept of “contradiction” [maodun] was raised as early as the Warring States period by Han Feizi, but the “contradiction” he spoke of was still a contradiction in the logical sense and had not yet risen to the philosophical level. Liu Yuxi of the Tang dynasty was the first to propose the concept of “contradiction” in the philosophical sense. In his “On Causes: Warning on the Boat” [Yin Lun: Jing Zhou], he held: “The embryo of misfortune and fortune, its movement is very subtle; the contradiction of dependence and opposition, its principle is very clear.” And Fang Yizhi of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, in his *Questions and Answers on the Consistent Thread* [Yiguan Wenda], once again mentioned the concept of “contradiction” with the words: “The teachings established to instruct only fear contradiction, but those who study heaven and earth need not fear contradiction.” By the 1930s, the concept of “contradiction” had replaced concepts such as “yin-yang” and “two ends” in traditional philosophy, becoming a proper noun for expressing the phenomenon of the unity of opposites. As an outstanding Marxist philosopher of the 20th century, Mao Zedong believed that the law or doctrine of the unity of opposites is the fundamental law of materialist dialectics, and that the other two laws of materialist dialectics (the law of the negation of the negation, the law of the transformation of quantity into quality) and the five categories (content and form, essence and phenomenon, cause and effect, possibility and reality, necessity and contingency) are merely its embodiment and application. Consequently, Mao Zedong’s exploration of traditional Chinese dialectical thought is concentrated on his examination of the traditional doctrine of contradiction. Mao Zedong’s reflection on the traditional doctrine of contradiction is embodied in a three-dimensional remolding: namely, the sublation, innovative development, and creative transformation of the traditional doctrine of contradiction.

矛盾学说是我国传统哲学中朴素辩证法思想的主要内容,是我国传统哲学富有永恒生命力的内在根据。传统哲学中的矛盾学说分别以“阴阳”说、“两端”说、“两一”说、“反复”说来表示。“阴阳”说是传统矛盾学说的最早表现形式,起源于《易经》中的爻符“－－”“—”,认为事物都是由相互对立的因素构成的；《易传》不但称之为“阴爻”“阳爻”,还提出了“一阴一阳之谓道”的命题,成为“阴阳”说的正式表达形式。“矛盾”这一概念早在战国时代就被韩非子提了出来,但他所说的“矛盾”还只是逻辑意义上的矛盾,还没有上升到哲学的高度。唐代的刘禹锡首次提出了哲学意义上的“矛盾”概念。他在《因论・儆舟》中认为：“祸福之胚胎也,其动甚微；倚伏之矛盾也,其理甚明。”而明末清初的方以智在《一贯问答》中以“设教之言,惟恐矛盾,而学天地者,不妨矛盾”再一次提到了“矛盾”概念。至20世纪30年代,“矛盾”概念取代了传统哲学中的“阴阳”“两端”等概念,成为表达对立统一现象的专有名词。作为20世纪杰出的马克思主义哲学家,毛泽东认为对立统一规律或学说是唯物辩证法的根本规律,唯物辩证法的另外两条规律(否定之否定规律、质量互变规律)、五对范畴(内容和形式、本质和现象、原因和结果、可能和现实、必然和偶然)不过是它的体现和运用。因而,毛泽东对中国传统辩证法思想的探讨集中体现在对传统矛盾学说的考察上。毛泽东对传统矛盾学说的省察体现为三维重塑：即对传统矛盾学说的扬弃、创新性发展和创造性转化。

I. Sublation of the Traditional Doctrine of Contradiction

一、对传统矛盾学说的扬弃

Mao Zedong’s sublation of the traditional doctrine of contradiction refers to inheriting and developing the positive, rational factors of the traditional doctrine of contradiction, while criticizing and discarding its negative, irrational factors, embodying a dialectical attitude of both overcoming and inheriting and developing. Mao Zedong’s sublation of the traditional doctrine of contradiction is manifested in the following aspects.

毛泽东对传统矛盾学说的扬弃是指继承、发扬了传统矛盾学说的积极、合理因素,批判、摈弃了其消极、不合理的因素,体现了既克服又继承、发展的辩证态度。毛泽东对传统矛盾学说的扬弃体现在以下几个方面。

(1) Sublation of the Idea of the Transformation of the Two Sides of a Contradiction into Their Opposites

(一)对矛盾双方向对立面转化思想的扬弃

Traditional Chinese philosophy contained a relatively rich idea of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites, but it did not realize that this transformation requires certain conditions.

中国传统哲学包含了比较丰富的矛盾双方向对立面转化的思想,但没有意识到这种转化需要一定的条件。

The idea of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites in traditional Chinese philosophy also has a long history. From the available materials, the *Laozi* [Daodejing] was the first to clearly express the idea of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites. In its view, the positions of the two opposing sides of a contradiction are not fixed and unchanging; they will always, sooner or later, transform into the opposite side. Therefore, in the affirmative understanding of things, it contains a negative understanding. It asserts: “Thus things, sometimes diminish them and they increase, sometimes increase them and they diminish.” Chapter 40 of the *Laozi* declares that “reversal is the movement of the Way,” meaning that the transformation of things into their opposites is a movement conforming to the law. Yang Xiong of the late Western Han dynasty expressed the idea of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites with the phrase “when a thing reaches its extreme, it reverses.” “If yang does not reach its extreme, yin does not sprout; if yin does not reach its extreme, yang does not bud. Extreme cold generates heat, extreme heat generates cold; extreme trust leads to distance, extreme distance leads to trust.” This means that mutually contradictory natural phenomena such as yin and yang, cold and heat, extension and contraction, transform into each other. Zhou Dunyi, the founder of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, also expressed the idea of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites. He said: “The Ultimate of Non-being and yet the Great Ultimate! The Great Ultimate moves and generates yang; when movement reaches its extreme, it becomes still. It becomes still and generates yin; when stillness reaches its extreme, it becomes movement again. Movement and stillness, each is the root of the other.” This means that within the whole constituted by the two sides of contradictions such as Non-being and the Great Ultimate, movement and stillness, yin and yang, there is mutual transformation. Cheng Yi of the Northern Song dynasty then made a high-level summary of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites: “When a thing reaches its extreme, it returns; the principle is thus. Where there is life, there is death; where there is a beginning, there is an end.” This indicates that the two sides of all contradictions will transform into their opposites. Although ancient Chinese thinkers basically recognized that both sides of a contradiction transform into their opposites, apart from the authors of the *Book of Changes* and the author of *The Art of War* [Sunzi Bingfa], who recognized that the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites requires conditions, most thinkers did not recognize that this transformation requires certain conditions, leading to the emergence of the theory of unconditional transformation of contradictions.

中国传统哲学关于矛盾双方向对立面转化的思想同样源远流长。从现有资料看,《老子》最早明确表达矛盾双方向对立面转化的思想。在它看来,矛盾对立双方的地位不是一成不变的,总会或迟或早地向相反的一面转化,因而在对事物肯定的理解中包含着否定的理解。它主张：“故物,或损之而益,或益之而损。”《老子》第四十章断言“反者道之动”,意即事物向对立面转化是合乎规律的运动。西汉末年的扬雄以“物极必反”表达了矛盾双方向对立面转化的思想。“阳不极则阴不萌,阴不极则阳不牙(芽)。寒极生热,热极生寒；信致道离,诎道致信。”意即阴阳、寒热、伸屈等相互矛盾的自然现象相互转化。宋明理学的开创者周敦颐同样表达了矛盾双方向对立面转化的思想。他说：“无极而太极。太极动而生阳,动极而静；静而生阴,静极复动。一动一静,互为其根。”这就是说,无极—太极、动—静、阴—阳等矛盾双方构成的整体其内部是相互转化的。北宋的程颐则对矛盾双方向对立面转化做了高度概括：“物极必返,其理如此。有生便有死,有始便有终。”这表明,所有矛盾的双方都会向对立面转化。虽然中国古代思想家基本上认识到矛盾双方都会向对立面转化,但除了《易经》的作者和《孙子兵法》的作者认识到矛盾双方向对立面转化需要条件外,大部分思想家没有认识到矛盾双方向对立面转化需要一定的条件,导致无条件矛盾转化论的出现。

The *Laozi* is a classic text of ancient China rich in profound dialectical thought. Although it reveals the universality of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites in highly condensed language, it holds that this transformation does not require conditions. Its statement that “Misfortune is that upon which fortune depends; fortune is that in which misfortune is concealed. Who knows its ultimate? There is no correctness. The correct reverts to the strange, the good reverts to the monstrous” expresses this concept. In its view, there are no boundaries between misfortune and fortune, the strange and the correct, the good and the monstrous; they can transform arbitrarily. This theory of unconditional transformation of contradictions embodies a relativist standpoint and violates the real situation of the transformation of actual contradictions. This unconditional transformation of contradictions in the *Laozi* hindered people from creating conditions to achieve practical goals.

《老子》是中国古代蕴含着丰富又深刻的辩证法思想的典籍,虽然以高度概括的语言揭示了矛盾双方向对立面转化的普遍性,但却认为这种转化是不需要条件的。它所言“祸兮,福之所倚；福兮,祸之所伏。孰知其极？其无正也。正复为奇,善复为妖”就表达了这一观念。在它看来,祸福、奇正、善妖之间不存在什么界限,能够任意转化。这种无条件的矛盾转化论体现了相对主义的立场,违背了现实矛盾转化的真实情形。《老子》这种无条件的矛盾转化论阻碍了人们创造条件争取实践目的的实现。

As the greatest philosopher of ancient China, Wang Fuzhi also believed that the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites does not require conditions. He asserted: “Advance to the extreme of advance, retreat is by means of advance; retreat to the extreme of retreat, advance is by means of retreat; existence must be in existence, the existence of ancient times does not remain in today; extinction must be in extinction, what is extinguished today is not cut off from the future; its pattern cannot be fixed.” The merit of this passage lies in expressing that contradictory phenomena such as advance and retreat, existence and extinction, are not fixed and immovable or absolutely opposed, but can transform into their opposites. Its defect, however, lies in not revealing the conditions required for the transformation of advance and retreat, existence and extinction, falling into relativism. Even a philosopher as outstanding as Wang Fuzhi had such a defect on the issue of the transformation of contradictions, let alone ordinary philosophers.

作为中国古代最伟大的哲学家,王夫之同样认为矛盾双方向对立面的转化是不需要条件的。他断言：“进极于进,退者以进,退极于退,进者以退,存必于存,邃古之存不留于今日；亡必于亡,今者所亡不绝于将来；其局不可得而定也。”这段话的可取之处在于表达了进退、存亡等矛盾对立现象不是固定不移、绝对对立的,而是可以向对立面转化的。而它的缺失在于没有揭示进退、存亡的转化所需要的条件,陷入了相对主义。连王夫之这样杰出的哲学家在矛盾转化问题上都存在这样的弊端,更遑论一般的哲学家了。

1. Mao Zedong Inherited and Expanded the Idea in the Traditional Doctrine of Contradiction that Both Sides of a Contradiction Transform into Their Opposites

1.毛泽东继承、拓展了传统矛盾学说中关于矛盾双方都会向对立面转化的思想

*On Contradiction* holds that in the process of development and change of complex things, there are often multiple contradictions, among which there must be one principal contradiction that plays a dominant and decisive role; while other contradictions are secondary contradictions in a dominated and subordinate position. As for the two aspects contained in a specific contradiction, one aspect must be the principal aspect playing a dominant role, while the opposing aspect is the secondary aspect in a dominated position. The nature of a thing is determined by the principal aspect of the principal contradiction. But in Mao Zedong’s view, the positions of the principal contradiction and the principal aspect of the contradiction are not fixed and immovable, but transform into each other. “The principal and non-principal aspects of a contradiction transform into each other, and the nature of the thing changes accordingly.”

《矛盾论》认为,在复杂事物的发展变化过程中,往往存在多种矛盾,其中必定存在一种起支配、决定作用的主要矛盾；而其他矛盾则是处于被支配、服从地位的次要矛盾。而具体矛盾所包含的两个方面,必有一方面是起支配作用的主要方面,而对立的一方是处于被支配地位的次要方面。事物的性质就是由主要矛盾的主要方面决定的。但在毛泽东看来,主要矛盾、主要矛盾方面的地位不是固定不移的,而是相互转化的。“矛盾的主要和非主要的方面互相转化着,事物的性质也就随着发生变化。”

In March 1958, at the Chengdu Conference [1]1 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction*, August 1937. [return], Mao Zedong further elucidated the universality of the transformation of the two sides of a contradiction into their opposites. For example, urgency transforms into slowness, slowness transforms into urgency; labor transforms into rest, rest transforms into labor; combat transforms into rest and reorganization, rest and reorganization transforms into combat; unity transforms into struggle, struggle transforms into unity; production transforms into consumption, consumption transforms into production; war transforms into peace, peace transforms into war; quantitative change transforms into qualitative change, qualitative change transforms into quantitative change; the finite transforms into the infinite, the infinite transforms into the finite; and so on.

1958年3月,毛泽东在成都会议上更是阐明了矛盾双方向对立面转化的普遍性。如,急转化为缓,缓转化为急；劳转化为逸,逸转化为劳；战斗转化为休整,休整转化为战斗；团结转化为斗争,斗争转化为团结；生产转化为消费,消费转化为生产；战争转化为和平,和平转化为战争；量变转化为质变,质变转化为量变；有限转化为无限,无限转化为有限；等等。

2. Mao Zedong Discarded the Idea in the Traditional Doctrine of Contradiction of the Unconditional Transformation of the Two Sides of a Contradiction

2.毛泽东摈弃了传统矛盾学说中关于矛盾双方无条件转化的思想

In Mao Zedong’s view, the two sides of a contradiction can transform into their opposites, but this transformation requires certain conditions. This can be corroborated by his marginalia on Li Zhi’s “Preface to an Interpretation of the Laozi.” Li Zhi was an Enlightenment thinker of the late Ming dynasty; in the winter of 1574 (the second year of the Wanli reign) he printed in Nanjing Su Che’s (Northern Song dynasty) Interpretation of the Laozi and wrote a preface, the “Preface to an Interpretation of the Laozi.” This preface affirmed the Laozi’s theory of unconditional transformation of contradictions, but Mao Zedong expressed a differing opinion. In the “Preface to an Interpretation of the Laozi,” Li Zhi wrote the following passage: “By being good at taking the lower position and not contending, one becomes the king of all valleys; by delighting in war and taking pleasure in killing, by using military force only when unavoidable, by not considering victory as beautiful, by taking retreat as advance, by taking defeat as achievement, by taking fortune as misfortune, by taking gain as loss, by taking ignorance as knowledge, by taking desirelessness as desire, by taking namelessness as name—who says that non-action is insufficient to govern the world? The world has indeed never known the benefit of non-action.” This passage by Li Zhi affirmed the Laozi’s theory of unconditional transformation of contradictions. When Mao Zedong read it, he wrote the marginal note “under certain conditions” beside it, disagreeing with Li Zhi’s affirmation of the Laozi’s unconditional transformation of contradictions. In Mao’s view, the transformation of contradictory sides into their opposites is conditional, not unconditional. Mao Zedong clearly stated: “All contradictory things are interconnected; not only do they coexist in a unity under certain conditions, but they also transform into each other under certain conditions.” [2]2 Zuo Qiuming, *Zuo Zhuan* (Commentary of Zuo), “Duke Zhao, 32nd Year.” [return] In concise language, this reveals that both sides of a contradiction can transform into their opposites, but this requires the satisfaction of certain conditions.

在毛泽东看来,矛盾双方可以向对立面转化,但这种转化需要一定的条件。这可从他对李贽的《解老序》所作的批语中得到佐证。李贽是明代后期的启蒙思想家,曾于万历二年(1574)冬在南京刻行北宋苏辙所撰的《老子解》,并写了序言《解老序》。《解老序》肯定了《老子》无条件的矛盾转化论,毛泽东则提出了不同意见。李贽在《解老序》中有这样一段话：“以善下不争为百谷之王,以好战为乐而杀人,以用兵为不得已,以胜为不美,以退为进,以败为功,以福为祸,以得为失,以无知为知,以无欲为欲,以无名为名,熟谓无为而不足以治天下乎？世固未知无为之有益也。”李贽的这段文字肯定了《老子》无条件的矛盾转化论,毛泽东读到它时,在旁边写下了“在一定条件下”的批注,不赞同李贽对《老子》无条件的矛盾转化论的肯定。在毛泽东看来,矛盾着的双方向对立面转化是有条件的,而不是无条件的。毛泽东明确指出：“一切矛盾着的东西,互相联系着,不但在一定条件之下共处于一个统一体中,而且在一定的条件之下互相转化。”它以简洁的语言揭示了矛盾双方都可以向对立面转化,但需要满足一定的条件。

(II) Sublation of the Ideas of the Identity and Struggle of Contradiction in the Traditional Theory of Contradiction

(二)对传统矛盾学说中矛盾同一性和斗争性思想的扬弃

Identity and struggle are two important attributes of contradiction. The former refers to the tendency and connection of mutual dependence, mutual linkage, and mutual promotion between the opposites of a contradiction, manifesting as centripetal force and reflecting the attribute of unity; the latter refers to the tendency and trend of mutual exclusion, mutual separation, and mutual obstruction between the opposites of a contradiction, manifesting as centrifugal force and reflecting the attribute of opposition. Therefore, the struggle of contradiction and the identity of contradiction reflect the unity of opposites of contradiction.

同一性和斗争性是矛盾的两个重要属性,前者说的是矛盾对立面之间的相互依存、相互联结、相互促成的趋势和联系,呈现为向心力,反映了统一的属性；后者说的是矛盾对立面之间的相互排斥、相互分离、相互阻隔的倾向和趋势,呈现为离心力,反映了对立的属性。因此,矛盾斗争性和矛盾同一性反映的就是矛盾的对立统一。

China’s traditional theory of contradiction contains relatively rich ideas of the identity and struggle of contradiction, but there is a clear tendency: to emphasize the identity of contradiction and to disparage the struggle of contradiction. Mao Zedong inherited the exposition of the identity and struggle of contradiction in traditional Chinese dialectical thought, both valuing the identity of contradiction and emphasizing the role of the struggle of contradiction in the process of the development of things.

中国传统矛盾学说中具有比较丰富的矛盾同一性和斗争性思想,但存在着明显的倾向,即重视矛盾的同一性,贬损矛盾的斗争性。毛泽东继承了中国传统辩证法思想对矛盾同一性和斗争性的阐述,既重视矛盾的同一性,又强调矛盾的斗争性在事物发展过程中的作用。

China’s traditional theory of contradiction contains abundant expositions on the identity and struggle of contradiction.

中国传统矛盾学说中包含了丰富的矛盾同一性和矛盾斗争性方面的论述。

The classic text Laozi contains many expositions on the identity and struggle of contradiction coexisting in a single community. It says: “Being and non-being give rise to each other; difficult and easy complete each other; long and short contrast with each other; high and low incline toward each other; sound and voice harmonize with each other; front and back follow each other.” This means that contradictory phenomena such as being and non-being, difficult and easy, long and short, high and low, sound and voice, front and back are both opposed and unified. Dong Zhongshu of the Western Han dynasty held: “Sound has compliance and defiance; it must have clarity and turbidity. Form has good and evil; it must have crooked and straight. … Within turbidity, one must know its clarity; within clarity, one must know its turbidity. Within crookedness, one must know its straightness; within straightness, one must know its crookedness.” This means that contradictory phenomena such as compliance and defiance, clarity and turbidity, good and evil, crooked and straight are both opposed and unified. Ban Gu of the Eastern Han dynasty pointed out: “Benevolence and righteousness, respect and harmony, oppose each other yet both complete each other.” [3]3 *Commentary on the Book of Changes* (Yizhuan), “Appended Remarks, Part One.” [return] This was the first time that the attribute of the unity of opposites of the philosophical category of “contradiction” was expressed in Chinese discourse as “opposing yet completing each other.” Zhu Xi also provided a high-level summary of the unity of opposites of the two sides of contradiction: “There is never a thing under heaven that lacks a pair; where there is yin, there is yang; where there is benevolence, there is righteousness; where there is good, there is evil; where there is speech, there is silence; where there is movement, there is stillness; yet it is all just one principle.” Zhu Xi’s summary that “there is never a thing under heaven that lacks a pair” reached the same height as Ban Gu’s distilled notion of the two sides of contradiction “opposing yet completing each other.”

《老子》这部典籍中就有不少关于矛盾同一性和斗争性同处于一个共同体的论述。它说,“有无相生,难易相成,长短相较,高下相倾,音声相和,前后相随”。意即有无、难易、长短、高下、音声、前后等矛盾现象既是对立的,又是统一的。西汉的董仲舒以为：“声有顺逆,必有清浊。形有善恶,必有曲直。……于浊之中,必知其清；于清之中,必知其浊。于曲之中,必知其直；于直之中,必知其曲。”这就是说,顺逆、清浊、善恶、曲直等矛盾现象既是对立的,又是统一的。东汉的班固则指出：“仁之与义,敬之与和,相反而皆相成也。”这就首次以“相反相成”这一中国话语表达了西方哲学“矛盾”范畴的对立统一属性。朱熹也对矛盾双方的对立统一作了高度概括：“天下之物未尝无对,有阴便有阳,有仁便有义,有善便有恶,有语便有默,有动便有静,然又却只是一个道理。”朱熹所概括的“天下之物未尝无对”达到了班固所提炼的矛盾双方“相反相成”的高度。

However, China’s traditional theory of contradiction paid more attention and gave more weight to the identity of contradiction, while neglecting and belittling the struggle of contradiction, dissolving the aspect of opposition and strengthening the aspect of unity. The Daoist school, beginning with Laozi and Zhuangzi, initiated this ideological tendency. The Laozi holds: “How much difference is there between respectful assent and angry refusal? How much difference is there between beauty and ugliness?” In its view, there is little difference between a servile, respectful response and an upright, unyielding response, and little difference between goodness and ugliness. In ordinary people’s view, respect and disrespect, goodness and ugliness are sharply opposed and irreconcilable, but the Laozi sees only the consistent side of assent and refusal, beauty and ugliness, ignoring the opposing side of assent and refusal, beauty and ugliness. In other words, the Laozi only emphasizes the identity of contradiction and denies the struggle of contradiction. Based on this, the Laozi adopts an attitude of limiting and dissolving contradictions in real life. In its view, when facing contradictions, one should adopt the strategy of “blunt its sharpness, unravel its entanglements, harmonize its light, and mingle with its dust.” The essence of so-called “blunting sharpness,” “unraveling entanglements,” “harmonizing light,” and “mingling with dust” is to use unity to dissolve opposition, ultimately reaching the realm of “mysterious sameness” without contradiction. Its repeatedly emphasized concepts such as “non-action,” “non-contention,” and “embracing the one” tell people how to dissolve contradictions. As a representative of relativism, Zhuangzi held: “All things are one; what is long and what is short?” Using the theory of the equality of things as his theoretical basis, he asserted that there are no strict boundaries between right and wrong, honor and disgrace, self and other, success and failure, life and death, good and evil, and that there exists a bridge from one to the other. Therefore, Zhuangzi only saw the consistent and unified side of the two sides of contradiction, ignoring the exclusive and opposing side.

但中国传统矛盾学说更关注和重视矛盾的同一性,忽视和轻视矛盾的斗争性,消解了对立的方面,强化了统一的方面。道家学派的老子、庄子开了这种思想倾向的先河。《老子》以为：“唯之与阿,相去几何？美之与恶,相去若何？”在它看来,唯唯诺诺的恭敬回应与刚直不阿的回应没有多少区别,善良与丑恶也没有多少区别。在一般人看来,恭敬与怠慢、善良与丑恶是尖锐对立、水火不容的,《老子》却只看到唯与阿、美与丑一致的一面,无视唯与阿、美与丑对立的一面。换言之,《老子》只强调矛盾的同一性,否认矛盾的斗争性。基于此,《老子》对待现实生活中的矛盾采取了限制、消解的态度。在它看来,面对矛盾应该采取“挫其锐,解其纷,和其光,同其尘”的对策。所谓“挫锐”“解纷”“和光”“同尘”,其实质就是要用统一来消解对立,最后达到无矛盾的“玄同”境界。它反复强调的“无为”“不争”“抱一”等观念,就是告诉人们如何消解矛盾。作为相对主义的代表人物,庄子认为：“万物一齐,孰短孰长？”他以齐物论为理论依据,断言是非、荣辱、彼此、成败、生死、善恶之间都不存在严格的界限,存在由此达彼的桥梁。因此,庄子只看到矛盾双方一致、统一的一面,无视矛盾双方排斥、对立的一面。

Zhang Zai and Wang Fuzhi were thinkers in traditional Chinese philosophy who made important interpretations of the theory of contradiction, but they too emphasized the identity of contradiction and dissolved the struggle of contradiction. Zhang Zai asserted: “Where there is a phenomenon, there is a pair; where there is a pair, it necessarily opposes its action. Where there is opposition, there is enmity; where there is enmity, it must be resolved through harmony.” This means that all things are constituted by two opposing sides of a contradiction; the two opposing sides necessarily move in opposite directions; opposition means enmity, means the struggle of the two sides of the contradiction; the result of struggle must be resolved through reconciliation and unity. Here, Zhang Zai uses the identity of contradiction to dissolve the struggle of contradiction. In the history of Chinese dialectical thought, Wang Fuzhi showed a tendency to give consideration to both the identity and struggle of contradiction. He said: “Opposition makes one doubt that they are not balanced, makes one doubt that they are not mutually beneficial. If they are not mutually beneficial, it is difficult for them to be of one measure; if they are not balanced, it is difficult for them to proceed in two ways. … One who is confined to uniformity and is ignorant of proceeding in two ways is a mediocre person. One who rides on proceeding in two ways yet insists on uniformity is a deluded person.” This means that the struggle of the opposites of a contradiction arises because the development of the two sides is inconsistent and unbalanced; if the development of the two sides is inconsistent, it is difficult to achieve undifferentiated “oneness”; if the development of the two sides is unbalanced, it is difficult to achieve the “two ways” of “equalizing right and wrong.” In Wang Fuzhi’s view, seeing only the unity of the two sides of a contradiction and not seeing their opposition, or seeing only their opposition and not their unity, are both one-sided. However, this only shows that Wang Fuzhi, in dealing with the issue of the identity and struggle of contradiction, did not unilaterally emphasize the identity of contradiction but appropriately gave consideration to the struggle of contradiction. In terms of his entire philosophical system, Wang Fuzhi placed greater emphasis on the identity of contradiction. He said: “Opposing each other and becoming enemies … there is no principle of eternal mutual enmity” and “they are reconciled and resolved.” This means that, like Zhang Zai, Wang Fuzhi ultimately emphasized the identity of contradiction and dissolved the struggle of contradiction.

张载、王夫之是中国传统哲学中对矛盾学说做出了重要阐释的思想家,但他们同样强调矛盾的同一性,消解矛盾的斗争性。张载断言：“有象斯有对,对必反其为。有反斯有仇,仇必和而解。”意即所有事物都是由矛盾对立的两方面构成的,矛盾对立的两方面必然向相反方向运动,相反就是相仇、就是矛盾双方的斗争；斗争的结果,必然以调和、统一的方式解决。在这里,张载以矛盾的同一性消解了矛盾的斗争性。在中国辩证法思想史上,王夫之表现出兼顾矛盾的同一性和斗争性的思想。他说：“反者,疑乎其不相均也,疑乎其不相济也。不相济,则难乎其一揆；不相均,则难乎其两行。……规于一致,而昧于两行者,庸人也。乘乎两行,而执为一致者,妄人也。”意即矛盾对立面的斗争是因为矛盾双方发展不一致、不平衡；矛盾双方发展不一致,就难以实现无差别的“合一”；矛盾双方发展不平衡,就难以达到“齐是非”的“两行”。在王夫之看来,只看到矛盾双方的一致而看不到矛盾双方的对立,或者只看到矛盾双方的对立而看不到矛盾双方的统一,都是片面的。不过,这只能说明王夫之在对待矛盾同一性和斗争性的问题上不是一味地强调矛盾的同一性,而是适当地兼顾了矛盾斗争性。就整个哲学体系而言,王夫之更重视矛盾的同一性。他说：“相反而相为仇……无终相敌之理”“和而解矣”。这就是说,王夫之和张载一样,最终强调的是矛盾的同一性,消解了矛盾的斗争性。

Precisely because of this, in dealing with the relationship between the identity and struggle of contradiction, the traditional theory of contradiction often emphasized “grasping the two ends and using the middle” and “combining two into one,” opposing “stubbornly holding to one end” and “dividing one into two.” [4]4 The “Three Bonds and Six Relations” (san’gang liuji) is a Confucian ethical framework for social order, systematized by Ban Gu (32–92 CE) in the *Bai Hu Tong* (White Tiger Hall Discussions). [return]

正因如此,在对待矛盾同一性和斗争性的关系问题上,传统矛盾学说往往强调“执两用中”“合二而一”,反对“固执一端”“一分为二”。

Mao Zedong’s sublation of the ideas of the identity and struggle of contradiction in the traditional theory of contradiction is manifested in two aspects: he adhered to and inherited the correct expositions of ancient thinkers on the meaning of the identity and struggle of contradiction, and he discarded the deviation of ancient thinkers who, in their entire ideological systems, emphasized the identity of contradiction and dissolved and obliterated the struggle of contradiction.

毛泽东对传统矛盾学说中矛盾同一性、斗争性思想的扬弃体现在两个方面,即坚持、继承了古代思想家关于矛盾同一性、斗争性思想的正确阐述,摈弃了古代思想家在整个思想体系上重视矛盾同一性,消解、泯灭矛盾斗争性的偏差。

1. Mao Zedong adhered to and inherited the definitions of the meaning of the identity and struggle of contradiction by earlier philosophers

1.毛泽东坚持、继承了先哲关于矛盾同一性、斗争性含义的界定

In his view, the so-called identity of contradiction is the unity, consistency, mutual penetration, mutual interpenetration, mutual dependence, mutual interconnection, or mutual cooperation between the two opposing sides of a contradiction. The identity of contradiction contains two meanings: each of the two aspects of every concrete contradiction takes the aspect opposed to it as the prerequisite for its own existence, and the two sides coexist in a single unity; the two sides of a contradiction transform into each other under given conditions.

在他看来,所谓矛盾的同一性,就是矛盾对立双方之间的统一、一致、相互渗透、相互贯通、相互依赖、相互联结或相互合作。矛盾同一性包含两层含义：每一种具体矛盾的两个方面,各以和它对立的方面为己方存在的前提,双方共处于一个统一体中；矛盾双方根据一定的条件向对立面转化。

Of the two meanings of the identity of contradiction summarized by Mao Zedong, the first meaning is precisely what the traditional doctrine of contradiction called the “opposites complement each other” [xiangfan xiangcheng] of the two sides of a contradiction, while the second meaning is what the traditional doctrine of contradiction pointed to as “the movement of the opposite is the way of the Dao” [fanzhe dao zhi dong] and “when a thing reaches its extreme, it reverses” [wuji bifan]. On the question of the identity of contradiction, Mao Zedong not only revealed its two meanings in clearer language, but also pointed out its role in promoting the process of quantitative change in things.

毛泽东所概括的矛盾同一性的两层含义,第一层含义就是传统矛盾学说所说的矛盾双方的“相反相成”,而第二层含义就是传统矛盾学说所指出的“反者道之动”和“物极必反”。在关于矛盾同一性的问题上,毛泽东除了用更清晰的语言揭示了其两层含义外,还指出了它在推动事物量变过程中的作用。

Mao Zedong did not give a clear definition of the struggle of contradiction, but rather revealed the struggle of contradiction by expounding its different roles in promoting the processes of quantitative and qualitative change in things. In his view, the development and change of things manifest two states: quantitative change and qualitative change; the struggle of contradiction is not only the force that promotes quantitative change in things, but even more so the force that promotes qualitative change in things; in the process of qualitative change, the struggle of contradiction causes the old unity to disintegrate and the new unity to be born. Therefore, in Mao Zedong’s view, the struggle of contradiction is the tendency of the two opposing sides of a contradiction to mutually exclude and mutually differentiate each other. This also inherited the view of ancient thinkers that the two opposing sides of a contradiction, because they manifest opposite tendencies, inevitably mutually differentiate and disintegrate.

毛泽东并没有对矛盾的斗争性做出清晰的界定,而是通过阐述其在促进事物量变、质变的过程中的不同作用来揭示矛盾斗争性的。在他看来,事物的发展变化呈现量变和质变两种状态；矛盾斗争性既是推动事物量变的力量,更是推动事物质变的力量；在质变过程中,矛盾斗争性促使旧的统一体解体、新的统一体诞生。因此,在毛泽东看来,矛盾斗争性就是矛盾对立双方相互排斥、相互分化的趋势。这也继承了古代思想家所说的矛盾对立双方因表现出相反的趋势而必然相互分化、瓦解的观点。

2. Mao Zedong rejected the tendency of traditional Chinese thinkers to emphasize and exalt the identity of contradiction while neglecting and dissolving the struggle of contradiction, manifesting a characteristic of placing greater emphasis on the struggle of contradiction

2.毛泽东摈弃了中国传统思想家强调、推崇矛盾同一性,忽视、消解矛盾斗争性的倾向,体现出更重视矛盾斗争性的特点

In Mao Zedong’s view, the identity of contradiction is conditional, temporary, and relative, while the struggle of contradiction is unconditional, eternal, and absolute. Mao Zedong demonstrated this view from the processes of quantitative and qualitative change in things and their developmental tendencies. The identity of contradiction mainly plays the role of maintaining the status quo of the unity of contradiction during the process of quantitative change in things, while the struggle of contradiction not only pushes things from balanced development to unbalanced development, thereby producing quantitative change; it also causes the unbalanced development of the two sides of a contradiction to reach an extreme, thereby causing the old quality to disintegrate and the new quality to be produced. In other words, the struggle of contradiction is not only the force that promotes quantitative change in things, but even more so the force that promotes qualitative change in things. The development of things always proceeds from quantitative change to qualitative change, in an endless cycle; therefore, the identity of contradiction is relative, and the struggle of contradiction is absolute. “The constancy of all processes is relative, but the mutability of one process transforming into another is absolute.” “In the movement of contradiction in all processes, identity is relative, and struggle is absolute—this is true of any process whatsoever.”

在毛泽东看来,矛盾的同一性是有条件的、暂时的、相对的,而矛盾的斗争性则是无条件的、永恒的、绝对的。毛泽东是从事物量变和质变过程及发展趋势来论证这一观点的。矛盾同一性主要在事物的量变过程中发挥维持矛盾统一体现状的作用,而矛盾斗争性既推动事物由平衡发展到不平衡,从而产生量变；更使事物矛盾双方的不平衡发展达到极值从而使旧质解体、新质产生。换言之,矛盾斗争性不但是推动事物量变的力量,更是推动事物质变的力量。事物的发展总是由量变到质变,循环往复不已,因而,矛盾的同一性是相对的,矛盾的斗争性是绝对的。“一切过程的常住性是相对的,但是一种过程转化为他种过程的这种变动性则是绝对的。”“一切过程矛盾的运动,同一是相对的,斗争是绝对的,这是任何过程都是如此。”

Mao Zedong also held that within the identity of contradiction there exists struggle; without struggle there is no identity. He used the phrase “opposites complement each other” [xiangfan xiangcheng], summarized by ancient Chinese thinkers, to demonstrate this view: this idiom reveals that within opposites there is contained identity, embodying a dialectical insight, and is anti-metaphysical. “Opposites” [xiangfan] means that the two aspects of a contradiction mutually exclude and mutually struggle. “Complement each other” [xiangcheng] means that the two opposing aspects of a contradiction, under given conditions, mutually interconnect and obtain identity, that is, the two opposing sides of a contradiction mutually support or promote each other. Therefore, within identity there exists struggle; without struggle there is no identity. Based on this, Mao Zedong held that the functions and roles of the identity and struggle of contradiction in the process of the development of things are different; the struggle of contradiction is the fundamental force and decisive force driving the development of things, and especially the sole force driving the qualitative change of things.

毛泽东还认为：矛盾同一性中存在着斗争性,没有斗争就没有同一性。他以中国古代思想家所概括的“相反相成”来论证这一观点：这一成语揭示了相反的东西中包含了同一性,体现了辩证法的见解,是反形而上学的。“相反”即矛盾对立的两个方面相互排斥、相互斗争。而“相成”就是说矛盾对立的两个方面在一定条件下相互联结起来,获得了同一性,也就是矛盾对立双方相互支持或促成。因此,同一性中存在着斗争性,没有斗争性就没有同一性。基于此,毛泽东认为矛盾同一性和斗争性在事物发展过程中的功能和作用是不同的,矛盾斗争性是推动事物发展的根本动力和决定力量,特别是推动事物质变的唯一动力。

In order to highlight the important role of the struggle of contradiction in promoting the development of things, Mao Zedong, in his essay “On Contradiction,” also put forward for the first time the category of “antagonism” [duikang]. In Mao Zedong’s view, antagonism is a form of the struggle of contradiction, not all forms of the struggle of contradiction. Antagonism is the form of external conflict taken when the struggle between the two sides of a contradiction develops to a certain stage. For example, in class society, when the struggle between the exploiting class and the exploited class develops to a certain stage, that is, the stage of irreconcilability, the exploited class will rise up and adopt the form of violent conflict, revolution. Antagonism is not only the means for the final resolution of class contradictions and struggles in class society, but also the means by which some new qualities in nature replace old qualities.

为了突出矛盾斗争性在推动事物发展过程中的重要作用,毛泽东在《矛盾论》中还首次提出了“对抗”这一范畴。在毛泽东看来,对抗是矛盾斗争的一种形式,而不是矛盾斗争的一切形式。对抗是矛盾双方的斗争发展到一定阶段时采取的外部冲突形式。如阶级社会中剥削阶级和被剥削阶级之间的矛盾斗争发展到一定阶段即不可调和的阶段时,被剥削阶级就会起来采取革命这种暴力冲突的形式。对抗不但是阶级社会中最终解决阶级矛盾和斗争的手段,也是自然界中部分新质取代旧质的手段。

Mao Zedong held that understanding and applying the method of finally resolving the struggle of contradiction through the external conflict form of antagonism is extremely important. “It enables us to understand that, in class society, revolution and revolutionary war are inevitable; without them, it is impossible to accomplish the leap in social development, impossible to overthrow the reactionary ruling class, and thus for the people to win political power.” Consequently, Mao Zedong’s introduction of the status of “antagonism” in the struggle of contradiction was precisely to demonstrate the rationality and inevitability of China’s New Democratic Revolution.

毛泽东认为,认识、运用以对抗这种外部冲突的方式最终解决矛盾斗争极为重要。“它使我们懂得,在阶级社会中,革命和革命战争是不可避免的,舍此不能完成社会发展的飞跃,不能推翻反动的统治阶级,而使人民获得政权。”因而,毛泽东提出“对抗”在矛盾斗争中的地位,就是为了论证了中国新民主主义革命的合理性、必然性。

II. Innovative Development of the Traditional Doctrine of Contradiction

二、对传统矛盾学说的创新性发展

The innovative development of the traditional doctrine of contradiction refers to Mao Zedong’s expansion of certain issues in the traditional doctrine of contradiction in terms of both breadth and depth, involving both quantitative expansion and, even more, qualitative elevation.

对传统矛盾学说的创新性发展是指毛泽东从广度和深度两方面对传统矛盾学说的某些问题做了拓展,既有量的扩张,更有质的升华。

(A) Innovative Development of the Theory of the Universality and Particularity of Contradiction and Their Interrelationship

(一)对矛盾普遍性和特殊性及其相互关系理论的创新性发展

Mao Zedong’s innovative development of the theory of the universality and particularity of contradiction and their interrelationship in the traditional doctrine of contradiction is manifested in the following aspects.

毛泽东对传统矛盾学说中矛盾普遍性和特殊性及其相互关系理论的创新发展体现在以下几个方面。

1. For the first time, the concepts of the universality of contradiction and the particularity of contradiction were explicitly used

1.首次明确使用了矛盾普遍性和矛盾特殊性这两个概念

Ancient Chinese philosophers left behind many propositions that reveal the connotations of the universality and particularity of contradiction:

中国先哲留下了不少揭示矛盾普遍性和特殊性内涵的命题：

Laozi was the first philosopher in Chinese history to posit the universal existence of contradiction in a highly abstract form. “All things bear yin and embrace yang; the rushing qi harmonizes them into a unity.” [5]5 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhouyi Waizhuan* (External Commentary on the Book of Changes). [return] This means that all things carry yin on their backs and embrace yang in front; the two qi of yin and yang mutually stimulate each other to form a harmonious unity. Although Laozi made a relatively high-level abstract generalization of the universal existence of contradiction, he expressed it in terms of the doctrine of yin and yang. Wang Anshi of the Northern Song Dynasty advanced the idea of the universality of contradiction to a new stage. He said: “One is soft, one is hard; one is dark, one is bright; therefore there is the correct and the deviant, the beautiful and the ugly… within the paired there is again the paired, and thus the changes of the ten thousand things reach infinity.” [6]6 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction*, August 1937. [return] The present author asserts that Wang Anshi advanced the idea of the universality of contradiction in traditional Chinese philosophy to a new stage, based on the fact that he recognized that the contradictions of things are hierarchical, and that contradictions exist universally at every level.

老子是中国历史上第一位以高度抽象的形式提出了矛盾普遍存在的哲学家。“万物负阴而抱阳,冲气以为和。”意即所有的事物都背阴而向阳,阴阳二气相互激荡而构成和谐的统一体。老子虽然对矛盾普遍存在作了较高抽象程度的概括,但以阴阳学说表达出来。北宋的王安石将矛盾普遍性的思想推进到了一个新的阶段。他说：“一柔一刚,一晦一明,故有正有邪,有美有恶,……耦之中又有耦焉,而万物之变遂至于无穷。”笔者断言,王安石将中国传统哲学中矛盾普遍性思想推进到了新的阶段,根据就在于他认识到了事物的矛盾是分层次的,每个层次都普遍地存在矛盾。

Wang Fuzhi of the Ming-Qing transition extended the universality of contradiction to the Supreme Ultimate [taiji], which is without anything beyond it, that is, the cosmos. He asserted: “Those who misunderstand the ‘Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate’ say that the Supreme Ultimate originally had no yin and yang, and that only through movement did it begin to produce yang, and through stillness did it begin to produce yin. They do not know that the yin and yang produced by movement and stillness are the inherent, interpenetrating substance [yun], the fundamental qualities of cold and heat, dryness and moisture, male and female; this interpenetrating substance fills everything prior to movement and stillness.” [7]7 *A Course in Dialectical Materialism* (1932) by Soviet philosophers M. Shirokov and A. Eisenberg was a key text in the dissemination of Soviet Marxist philosophy in China; its Chinese translation by Li Da and Lei Zhongjian was widely studied by Chinese Communists in the 1930s. [return] That is to say, in Wang Fuzhi’s view, the contradictory unity of opposites of yin and yang is inherent to the Supreme Ultimate itself; it is precisely because of the unity of opposites of yin and yang that the Supreme Ultimate is constituted. This insight, for the first time in the history of Chinese philosophy, extended the contradictory opposites of yin and yang to the realm of the Supreme Ultimate, demonstrating the omnipresence of contradiction, that is, demonstrating the universality of contradiction. “Supreme Ultimate” [taiji], as an important concept in Chinese philosophy, was regarded by Song-Ming Neo-Confucians after Zhou Dunyi as not containing the contradiction of yin and yang, as indivisible. Wang Fuzhi held that the Neo-Confucians such as the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi, in maintaining that the Supreme Ultimate itself does not contain the contradiction of yin and yang, misunderstood Zhou Dunyi’s thought; he asserted that the Supreme Ultimate contains contradiction, thereby expanding the idea of the universality of contradiction.

明清之际的王夫之则将矛盾的普遍性拓展到至大无外的太极即宇宙。他断言：“误解《太极图》说者,谓太极未有阴阳,因动而始生阳,静而始生阴。不知动静所生之阴阳,乃固有之缊,为寒暑、润燥、男女之情质,其细缊充满在动静之先。”这就是说,在王夫之看来,阴阳的矛盾对立统一是太极本身所固有的,正因为有阴阳的对立统一才构成太极。这一见解在中国哲学史上首次将阴阳的矛盾对立拓展到太极领域,论证了矛盾的无处不在,也就是论证了矛盾的普遍性。“太极”作为中国哲学的一个重要概念,在周敦颐以后的宋明理学家看来,它是不包含阴阳矛盾的,是不可分割的。王夫之认为程朱等理学家主张太极本身不包含阴阳矛盾误解了周敦颐的思想,他断言太极包含矛盾,拓展了矛盾普遍性思想。

Based on available materials, Confucius was the first to express the idea that attention should be paid to the particularity of contradiction. In answering Fan Chi’s questions about “humaneness” [ren] and “wisdom” [zhi], he said: “The wise delight in water; the humane delight in mountains. The wise are active; the humane are still. The wise are joyful; the humane are long-lived.” [8]8 Mao Zedong’s annotations on *A Course in Dialectical Materialism*, November 1936–April 1937. [return] Confucius’s answer was precisely an attention to the particularity of contradiction.

从现有资料看,孔子首次表达了应关注矛盾特殊性的思想。他在回答樊迟问“仁”和“知”时说,“知者乐水,仁者乐山。知者动,仁者静。知者乐,仁者寿”。孔子的回答就是对矛盾特殊性的关注。

On the basis of asserting that all things in the universe, including the Supreme Ultimate (taiji), are universally composed of the two opposites yin and yang, Wang Fuzhi emphasized that each type of thing also has its own special law, i.e., its special contradiction. He said: “The myriad things flourish in profusion, each forming its own category; and in the formation of these categories each has its own order and principle. Therefore thunder, rain, frost, and snow each appear in their proper season; moving things, plants, flying things, and swimming things each belong to their own kind; there is certainly no principle by which long summers have frost and snow, harsh winters have thunder and rain, or humans, birds, and plants are chaotically mixed together.” [9]9 Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692), a late Ming and early Qing dynasty Confucian philosopher, was a leading figure in the school of “practical learning” and a materialist thinker. The quotation is from his *Zhengmeng zhu* (Annotations on *Correcting Youthful Ignorance*). That is to say, the myriad things all operate in an orderly manner according to their own special laws and special contradictions. Precisely because of this, when people grasp these special laws and special contradictions, they will understand how to transform things in accordance with special laws and contradictions.

王夫之在主张包括太极在内的宇宙万物都普遍地由阴阳两个对立面组成的基础上,强调每类事物又有其特殊规律即特殊矛盾。他说：“庶物繁兴,各成品汇,乃其品汇之成各有条理,故露雷霜雪各以其时,动植飞潜各以其族,必无长夏霜雪、严冬露雷、人禽草木互相淆杂之理。”这就是说,万事万物都根据各自的特殊规律、特殊矛盾而有秩序地运行。正因为如此,人们掌握了这些特殊规律、特殊矛盾,就会懂得根据特殊规律和矛盾变革事物。

However, China’s ancient thinkers merely revealed the meaning of the universality of contradiction and the particularity of contradiction; they did not generalize and form the two concepts of “the universality of contradiction” and “the particularity of contradiction.” On the basis of comprehending the relevant content of the traditional Chinese doctrine of contradiction, Mao Zedong generalized and formed the two concepts of “the universality of contradiction” and “the particularity of contradiction.”

不过,中国先哲仅仅揭示了矛盾普遍性和矛盾特殊性的含义,并没有概括形成“矛盾的普遍性”和“矛盾的特殊性”这两个概念。毛泽东在领悟中国传统矛盾学说相关内容的基础上,概括形成了“矛盾的普遍性”和“矛盾的特殊性”两个概念。

After the Party Central Committee moved its base to Yan’an in January 1937, before writing *On Contradiction*, Mao Zedong had read Ai Siqi’s *Popular Philosophy*, and had read and annotated *A Textbook of Dialectical Materialist Philosophy* by Shirokov and Eisenberg, the first volume of *Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism* by Mitin, and Ai Siqi’s *Philosophy and Life*, among other works. None of the above works used the two concepts of the universality and particularity of contradiction. *On Contradiction* not only used the two concepts of “the universality of contradiction” and “the particularity of contradiction” clearly for the first time, but also used them as chapter and section headings. Influenced by *On Contradiction*, philosophical workers thereafter gradually came to use the two concepts of “the universality of contradiction” and “the particularity of contradiction” when discussing the law of the unity of opposites. In 1939, Ai Siqi drafted a detailed “Philosophy ‘Research Outline’”; the third part of the outline, “Dialectical Materialism,” discussed the “law of the unity of opposites.” In the section on the “law of the unity of opposites,” Ai Siqi employed the two concepts of “the universality of contradiction” and “the particularity of contradiction.” In January 1957, Ai Siqi drafted an “Outline for Lectures on Dialectical Materialism”; when the outline touched on the law of the unity of opposites, a basic law of dialectics, it used the two concepts of “the universality and particularity of contradiction.” In 1961, the title of the third section of the fourth chapter of *Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism*, a philosophy textbook for the humanities in institutions of higher learning edited by Ai Siqi, was “The Universality and Particularity of Contradiction.” According to research, from 1939 onward, whenever Ai Siqi’s important philosophical works touched on the law of the unity of opposites, they all mentioned the universality and particularity of contradiction.

中共中央于1937年1月进驻延安后,毛泽东在撰写《矛盾论》之前,曾阅读过艾思奇的《大众哲学》,阅读、批注过西洛可夫、爱森堡撰写的《辩证法唯物论教程》、米定(丁)撰著的《辩证唯物论与历史唯物论》上册、艾思奇的《哲学与生活》等书。上述著作都没有使用矛盾的普遍性和特殊性这两个概念。《矛盾论》不但首次明确使用了“矛盾的普遍性”和“矛盾的特殊性”两个概念,而且把它们作为章节的标题。受《矛盾论》的影响,此后,哲学工作者在讨论对立统一规律时,逐渐使用了“矛盾普遍性”和“矛盾特殊性”两个概念。1939年,艾思奇拟定了一份详尽的“哲学‘研究提纲’”,提纲第三部分“辩证法唯物论”中讨论了“对立统一法则”。在“对立统一法则”这一节中,艾思奇就运用了“矛盾的普遍性”和“矛盾的特殊性”两个概念。1957年1月,艾思奇拟定了一份“辩证唯物主义讲课提纲”,提纲在涉及事物的对立统一规律这一辩证法的基本规律时,就使用了“矛盾的普遍性和特殊性”这两个概念。1961年,艾思奇主编的高等学校文科哲学教科书《辩证唯物主义历史唯物主义》的第四章第三标的标题就是“矛盾的普遍性和特殊性”。据考证,自1939年以来,艾思奇在其重要的哲学论著中,涉及对立统一规律时,都提到了矛盾的普遍性和特殊性。

In May 1937, Li Da published a revised edition of *An Outline of Sociology* at the Shanghai Bigengtang Bookstore. Although the book was titled *An Outline of Sociology*, it was actually a work expounding the principles of Marxist philosophy. When the third chapter of this work examined the law of the “unity of opposites,” a law of materialist dialectics, it likewise did not generalize and form the two concepts of the universality and particularity of contradiction. Starting in July 1952, Li Da published *An Explanation of “On Contradiction”* serially in *New Construction*; the second and third parts of this work were titled “The Universality of Contradiction” and “The Particularity of Contradiction.” Based on currently available materials, this was the first time Li Da used the two concepts of the universality and particularity of contradiction. From 1961 to 1965, entrusted by Mao Zedong, Li Da edited the book *An Outline of Marxist Philosophy*; when expounding the law of the unity of opposites, it also examined the two situations of the universality and particularity of contradiction.

1937年5月,李达在上海笔耕堂书店出版了《社会学大纲》的修订版,该书虽名为《社会学大纲》,实际上是一部阐述马克思主义哲学原理的著作。该书的第三章在考察“对立统一的法则”这一唯物辩证法的法则时,同样没有概括形成矛盾的普遍性和特殊性这两个概念。1952年7月起,李达在《新建设》陆续发表《<矛盾论>解说》,其中的第二部分、第三部分就以矛盾的普遍性和矛盾的特殊性为题。从目前掌握的资料看,这是李达首次使用矛盾的普遍性和特殊性这两个概念。1961—1965年,李达受毛泽东委托主编《马克思主义哲学大纲》一书,在阐述对立统一规律时,也考察了矛盾的普遍性和特殊性两种情形。

From the early 1930s onward, Ai Siqi and Li Da, as two outstanding representatives in the field of Chinese Marxist philosophy, both accepted the treatment in *On Contradiction* of the universality and particularity of contradiction as important aspects for elucidating the law of the unity of opposites; other philosophical workers were even more so.

从20世纪30年代初期开始,艾思奇、李达作为中国马克思主义哲学领域的两位杰出的代表人物,他们都接受了《矛盾论》中将矛盾的普遍性和特殊性作为阐明对立统一规律的重要方面,别的哲学工作者更是如此。

2. Explored the Manifestations of the Universality and Particularity of Contradiction

2。探讨了矛盾普遍性、特殊性的表现

Before the publication of *On Contradiction*, because the philosophical world had not yet generalized and formed the two concepts of the universality and particularity of contradiction, it had also not explored their manifestations. *On Contradiction* examined the manifestations of the universality and particularity of contradiction for the first time. Regarding the universality of contradiction, Mao Zedong inherited relevant ideas from traditional Chinese philosophy and from Engels and Lenin, revealing its two aspects of meaning: first, contradiction exists in the process of development of all things, i.e., there are contradictions in everything; second, in the process of development of each thing, there is a movement of contradiction from beginning to end, i.e., there are contradictions at all times.

在《矛盾论》问世前,哲学界因还没有概括形成矛盾普遍性和特殊性两个概念,也就没有探讨它们的表现。《矛盾论》首次考察了矛盾普遍性和特殊性的表现。在关于矛盾的普遍性方面,毛泽东继承了中国传统哲学和恩格斯、列宁的有关思想,揭示了它的两方面含义：一是矛盾存在于一切事物的发展过程中,即事事有矛盾；二是每一事物的发展过程中存在自始至终的矛盾运动,即时时有矛盾。

As for the particularity of contradiction, although China’s ancient thinkers touched on it, it was very superficial and not comprehensive. To remedy this deficiency, Mao Zedong conducted an innovative examination of the manifestations of the particularity of contradiction. *On Contradiction* analyzed five manifestations of the particularity of contradiction: the contradictions in each form of motion of matter all possess particularity; the contradictions in each developmental process of each form of motion of matter all possess particularity; the various aspects of the contradictions in the different developmental processes of each form of motion possess particularity; the contradictions in the different developmental stages of a given developmental process possess particularity; and the different aspects of the contradictions in different developmental stages possess particularity.

对于矛盾的特殊性,中国的先哲虽有所涉及,但很肤浅,也不全面。为弥补这一不足,毛泽东对矛盾特殊性的表现进行了创新性的考察。《矛盾论》分析了矛盾特殊性的五种表现：各种物质运动形式的矛盾都带有特殊性、每一种物质运动形式在各个发展过程中的矛盾都带有特殊性、各种运动形式不同发展过程中的矛盾的各个方面带有特殊性、不同发展过程在其各个发展阶段上的矛盾带有特殊性、不同发展阶段上矛盾的不同方面带有特殊性。

In the history of Chinese philosophy and Marxist philosophy, Mao Zedong conducted the most comprehensive and profound examination of the manifestations of the particularity of contradiction.

在中国哲学、马克思主义哲学发展史上,毛泽东对矛盾特殊性的表现做了最全面和深刻的考察。

3. Emphasized the Great Significance of Grasping the Universality and Particularity of Contradiction

3.强调了把握矛盾普遍性和矛盾特殊性的重要意义

In Mao Zedong’s view, the two processes of human cognition—from the particular to the general and from the general to the particular—are realized precisely by grasping the universality and particularity of contradiction. In terms of the order of the movement of cognition, people proceed from cognizing the particular essence of many different things to gradually expanding to cognizing the common essence of a class of things. This is a rise from grasping the particularity of contradiction to grasping the universality of contradiction; and in terms of the cognitive process, it is a movement from the individual to the general. After people have grasped the common essence of a class of things, they go on to examine those things within this class that have not yet been deeply studied, find their particular essence, and thereby supplement, enrich, and develop the cognition of the common essence of things. This is a movement from grasping the universality of contradiction to then grasping the particularity of contradiction; and in terms of the cognitive process, it is a movement from the general to the individual. Here, Mao Zedong, for the first time, elucidated the great significance of grasping the universality and particularity of contradiction from the perspective of epistemology. In addition, Mao Zedong also pointed out the great significance of grasping the particularity of contradiction: grasping the particularity of contradiction means proceeding from reality in everything and making a concrete analysis of concrete conditions; only by grasping the particularity of contradiction can one correctly cognize the contradictions of things and resolve contradictions with a definite target in view. Therefore, grasping the particularity of contradiction and making a concrete analysis of concrete conditions is the living soul of Marxism.

在毛泽东看来,人类认识由特殊到一般、由一般到特殊的两个过程就是凭借把握矛盾普遍性和特殊性实现的。从认识运动的秩序来说,人们是由认识许多不同事物的特殊本质,逐步扩大到认识一类事物的共同本质。这就从把握矛盾的特殊性上升为把握矛盾的普遍性；而从认识过程来说,就是由个别到一般。人们在把握了一类事物的共同本质后,又去考察这类事物中尚未深入研究过的事物,找出其特殊本质,以补充、丰富、发展对事物共同类本质的认识。这就是从把握矛盾的普遍性进而把握矛盾的特殊性,而从认识过程来说,就是由一般到个别。在这里,毛泽东首次从认识论的高度阐明了把握矛盾普遍性和矛盾特殊性的重要意义。此外,毛泽东还指出了把握矛盾特殊性的重大意义：把握矛盾的特殊性就是一切从实际出发,具体问题具体分析；只有把握矛盾的特殊性,才能正确认识事物的矛盾,才能有的放矢地解决矛盾。因此,把握矛盾的特殊性,具体问题具体分析是马克思主义的活的灵魂。

4. For the First Time Revealed the Dialectical Relationship between the Universality and Particularity of Contradiction

4.首次揭示了矛盾普遍性和特殊性的辩证关系

Mao Zedong revealed the dialectical relationship between the universality and particularity of contradiction from two aspects. The relationship between the universality and particularity of contradiction is in fact the relationship between the commonality and individuality of contradiction. The universality of contradiction is the commonality of contradiction, i.e., absoluteness; while the particularity of contradiction is the individuality of contradiction. “This truth concerning the commonality and individuality, the absolute and the relative, is the essence of the problem of the contradiction of things; to fail to understand it is to abandon dialectics.”

毛泽东从两个方面揭示了矛盾普遍性和矛盾特殊性的辩证关系。矛盾的普遍性与特殊性之间的关系其实就是矛盾的共性与个性的关系。矛盾的普遍性即矛盾的共性,也就是绝对性；而矛盾的特殊性,则是矛盾的个性。“这一共性个性、绝对相对的道理,是关于事物矛盾的问题的精髓,不懂得它,就等于抛弃了辩证法。”

The universality of contradiction exists within the particularity of contradiction; the particularity of contradiction reflects the universality of contradiction.

矛盾的普遍性存在于矛盾的特殊性之中,矛盾的特殊性反映矛盾的普遍性。

The universality and particularity of contradiction are relative. Mao Zedong held: “Because the scope of things is extremely vast and their development is infinite, what is universal in one context becomes particular in another. Conversely, what is particular in one context becomes universal in another.” [1]1 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction*, August 1937. [return] That is to say, the relationship between the two is not fixed but relative. The dialectical relationship between the universality and particularity of contradiction that Mao Zedong revealed is both the dialectics inherent in objective things and a scientific method of human cognition. This method requires people to concretely grasp contradiction through the connection between individuality and commonality, the relative and the absolute, the particular and the universal, thereby promoting the ascent of cognition from the individual to the general, and then from the general to the individual, gradually linking dialectics with epistemology.

矛盾的普遍性和特殊性具有相对性。毛泽东认为：“由于事物范围的极其广大,发展的无限性,所以,在一定场合为普遍性的东西,而在另一一定场合则变为特殊性。反之,在一定场合为特殊性的东西,而在另一一定场合则变为普遍性。”这就是说,二者的关系不是固定不变的,而是相对的。毛泽东所揭示的矛盾普遍性和特殊性的辩证关系,既是客观事物所固有的辩证法,又是人们科学的认识方法。这一方法要求人们在个性与共性、相对与绝对、特殊与普遍的联结中对矛盾进行具体把握,促使认识由个别上升到一般,再由一般到个别,进而将辩证法与认识论逐步联系起来。

(II) Innovative Development of the Theory of the Principal and Non-Principal Aspects of Contradiction and Their Interrelationship

(二)对矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面理论及其相互关系的创新性发展

Mao Zedong’s innovative development of the theory of the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction and their interrelationship is manifested in the following aspects.

毛泽东对矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面及其相互关系理论的创新性发展体现在以下方面。

1. The First Clear Use of the Two Concepts “Principal Aspect of Contradiction” and “Non-Principal Aspect of Contradiction”

1.首次明确使用了“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”两个概念

Ancient Chinese philosophers also had some awareness of the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction. From the available materials, Zuo Qiuming was the first in Chinese history to put forward the idea of the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction. He once pointed out: “Things are born with two, with three, with five, with assistants. Thus Heaven has three luminaries, Earth has five elements, the body has left and right, each has its mate. The king has dukes, the feudal lords have ministers, all have their seconds.” [2]2 Zuo Qiuming, *Zuo Zhuan* (Commentary of Zuo), “Duke Zhao, 32nd Year.” [return] The “two” and “second” here refer to the two opposing aspects of contradiction, which are inherent in all things. This contains not only the concept of the universal existence of contradiction but also the concept of “emphasis” within the “two points,” that is, the idea that things are composed of a principal aspect and a non-principal aspect of contradiction. In the contradiction between “king” and “duke,” the “king” is clearly the principal aspect of contradiction, and the “duke” is the non-principal aspect; in the contradiction between “feudal lord” and “minister,” the “feudal lord” is the principal aspect, while the “minister” is the non-principal aspect.

中国先哲对矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面也有所认知。就现有资料看,左丘明在中国历史上首次提出了矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面的思想。他曾指出：“物生有两,有三,有五,有陪贰。故天有三辰,地有五行,体有左右,各有妃耦。王有公,诸侯有卿,皆有贰也。”这里的“两”与“贰”指的便是矛盾对立的两个方面,它们内涵于所有事物之中。这里既包含了矛盾普遍存在的观念,也包含了“两点”中有“重点”的观念,即事物由矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面构成的思想。在“王”与“公”这对矛盾中,“王”显然是矛盾的主要方面,“公”是矛盾的非主要方面；在“诸侯”与“卿”这对矛盾中,“诸侯”是矛盾的主要方面,而“卿”是矛盾的非主要方面。

As an exposition of the *Book of Changes*, the *Commentary on the Book of Changes* likewise expressed the idea that the unity of opposites in things contains both the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction. The *Commentary* asserts: “Heaven is exalted, Earth is lowly; thus Qian and Kun are determined. The lowly and the exalted are arranged; the noble and the base have their positions.” [3]3 *Commentary on the Book of Changes* (Yizhuan), “Appended Remarks, Part One.” [return] This clearly indicates that in the contradiction between “Heaven” and “Earth,” “Heaven” occupies the principal aspect, while “Earth” occupies the non-principal aspect.

作为对《易经》的阐发之作《易传》同样表达了事物的矛盾统一体中包含了矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面思想。《易传》主张：“天尊地卑,乾坤定矣。卑高以陈,贵贱位矣。”这明确地表示,在“天”“地”这对矛盾中,“天”处于主要方面,而“地”处于非主要方面。

The “Three Bonds and Six Relations” [4]4 The “Three Bonds and Six Relations” (san’gang liuji) is a Confucian ethical framework for social order, systematized by Ban Gu (32–92 CE) in the *Bai Hu Tong* (White Tiger Hall Discussions). [return] for handling interpersonal relationships, proposed by Ban Gu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, also contained the idea of the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction. The Three Bonds are: the ruler is the bond for the minister, the father is the bond for the son, and the husband is the bond for the wife. The Six Relations are: the father’s brothers have kindness, the mother’s brothers have righteousness, brothers have closeness, clan members have order, teachers and elders have respect, and friends have trust. The “bond” and the “relation” are relative; the former is the main cord of a net, while the latter are the mesh holes; when the main cord is lifted, the mesh holes open. Thus, in the contradiction between bond and relation, the bond is the principal aspect of contradiction, and the relation is the non-principal aspect; the bond commands the relation, and the relation obeys the bond. Specifically applied to the relationships between ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, the ruler, father, and husband are the principal aspects of contradiction and occupy the dominant position, while the minister, son, and wife are the non-principal aspects and occupy the dominated position.

东汉班固提出的处理人际关系的“三纲六纪”也包含了矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面的思想。三纲为君为臣纲、父为子纲、夫为妻纲,六纪为诸父有善、诸舅有义、昆弟有亲、族人有序、师长有尊、朋友有信。纲与目相对,前者是网状物的总绳,而目是网状物的网眼,纲举则目张。因而在纲与目这对矛盾中,纲为矛盾的主要方面,目为矛盾的非主要方面,纲统率目,目服从纲。具体落实到君臣、父子、夫妻关系上,君、父、夫是矛盾的主要方面而处于支配地位,臣、子、妻是矛盾的非主要方面而处于被支配地位。

The thinker Wang Fuzhi of the Ming-Qing transition period held that the principal and non-principal aspects of contradiction in things are not fixed but can transform into each other. He said: “Heaven is exalted above, yet Heaven enters into Earth, and there is no depth it does not penetrate; Earth is lowly below, yet Earth rises to the heavens, and there is no height it does not reach; their boundaries cannot be cut apart.” [5]5 Wang Fuzhi, *Zhouyi Waizhuan* (External Commentary on the Book of Changes). [return] From the use of propositions such as “Heaven is exalted, Earth is lowly,” Wang Fuzhi adhered to the ancient philosophers’ view of the distinction between Heaven and Earth, maintaining that “Heaven” occupies the dominant position and is the principal aspect of contradiction, while “Earth” occupies the dominated position and is the non-principal aspect. However, Wang Fuzhi believed that the positions of the principal and secondary aspects of contradiction are not fixed but transform into each other.

明清之际的思想家王夫之则认为事物矛盾的主要方面和非主要方面不是固定不变的,而是可以相互转化的。他说：“天尊于上,而天入地中,无深不察；地卑于下,而地升天际,无高不彻,其界不可得而剖也。”从使用“天尊”“地卑”这样的命题看,王夫之坚持了先哲关于天地之辨的观点,主张“天”处于支配的地位,是矛盾的主要方面,主张“地”处于被支配的地位,是矛盾的非主要方面。不过,王夫之认为矛盾主要方面和次要方面的地位不是固定不变的,而是相互转化的。

In *On Contradiction*, Mao Zedong clearly used the two concepts “principal aspect of contradiction” and “non-principal aspect of contradiction.” In Mao’s view, in addition to distinguishing the principal and secondary contradictions in the movement and development of complex things and grasping the principal contradiction, one must also pay attention to the fact that the positions of the two aspects of a contradiction are not equal. “In any contradiction, the development of the contradictory aspects is uneven. … Of the two contradictory aspects, one must be principal and the other secondary. The principal aspect is the one playing the leading role in the contradiction.” [6]6 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction*, August 1937. [return] The principal aspect of contradiction is the aspect that plays the leading role in the contradiction, while the non-principal aspect of contradiction is the aspect that plays the non-leading role.

毛泽东在《矛盾论》中明确使用了“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”两个概念。在毛泽东看来,除了将复杂事物的运动发展区分为主要矛盾和次要矛盾、应捉住主要矛盾外,还应当注意矛盾着的两个方面的地位不是平齐的。“无论什么矛盾,矛盾着的诸方面,其发展是不平衡的。……矛盾着的两个方面,必有一方面是主要的,他方面是次要的。其主要的方面,即所谓矛盾起主导作用的方面。”主要的矛盾方面是矛盾中起主导作用的方面,而非主要的矛盾方面是矛盾中起非主导作用的方面。

Mao Zedong’s innovative proposal of the two concepts “principal aspect of contradiction” and “non-principal aspect of contradiction” in *On Contradiction* was influenced, on the one hand, by traditional Chinese philosophy, and on the other hand, inspired by the book *A Course in Dialectical Materialism* [7]7 *A Course in Dialectical Materialism* (1932) by Soviet philosophers M. Shirokov and A. Eisenberg was a key text in the dissemination of Soviet Marxist philosophy in China; its Chinese translation by Li Da and Lei Zhongjian was widely studied by Chinese Communists in the 1930s. [return] by Shirokov, Eisenberg, and others.

毛泽东在《矛盾论》中创新性地提出“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”两个概念,一方面受中国传统哲学的影响,另一方面是受西洛可夫、爱森堡等人所著《辩证法唯物论教程》启发。

In January 1936, Ai Siqi renamed his *Philosophical Talks* as *Popular Philosophy* and published it through Shanghai Reading Life Publishing House. In the chapter on “Methodology” of this book, when discussing the “law of the unity of contradictions,” i.e., the “law of the unity of opposites,” it had not yet touched upon the two pairs of concepts “principal contradiction” and “non-principal contradiction,” and “principal aspect of contradiction” and “non-principal aspect of contradiction.” Therefore, Mao Zedong could not have been inspired by *Popular Philosophy* to form the pair of concepts “principal aspect of contradiction” and “non-principal aspect of contradiction.”

1936年1月,艾思奇将《哲学讲话》改名为《大众哲学》由上海读书生活出版社出版,该书的“方法论”一章在讨论“矛盾的统一律”即“对立统一规律”时,还未涉及“主要的矛盾”和“非主要的矛盾”、“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”这两对概念。因而,毛泽东不可能受《大众哲学》的启发而形成“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”这对概念。

From November 1936 to April 1937, Mao Zedong read and annotated *A Course in Dialectical Materialism* (third edition of the Chinese translation) by the Soviet philosophers Shirokov, Eisenberg, and others, translated by Li Da and Lei Zhongjian. The chapter “The Fundamental Law of Dialectics—The Law of the Transformation of Quality into Quantity and Quantity into Quality” discussed “principal contradiction” and “non-principal contradiction,” and “the leading aspect of contradiction” and “the non-leading aspect of contradiction.” When dealing with “the leading aspect of contradiction,” Mao annotated: “If one treats both aspects of any contradiction equally, that is a great mistake. Of the two sides, one must be the principal side, and the other the secondary side; the former is what is called the side playing the leading role in the contradiction.” [8]8 Mao Zedong’s annotations on *A Course in Dialectical Materialism*, November 1936–April 1937. [return] He excerpted the book’s view that in the pairs of contradictions “value and use-value,” “productive forces and relations of production,” and “theory and practice,” “value,” “productive forces,” and “practice” are the leading aspects, while “use-value,” “relations of production,” and “theory” are the non-leading aspects. Four months after finishing reading and annotating *A Course in Dialectical Materialism*, when Mao Zedong wrote *On Contradiction*, he used the two concepts “principal aspect of contradiction” and “non-principal aspect of contradiction,” and the wording he used to define “the principal aspect of contradiction” was basically the same as the wording used in his annotations. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that the use of these two concepts was likely inspired by the two concepts “the leading aspect of contradiction” and “the non-leading aspect of contradiction” in *A Course in Dialectical Materialism*.

1936年11月—1937年4月,毛泽东阅读并批注了苏联哲学家西洛可夫、爱森堡等人所著,李达、雷仲坚所译的《辩证法唯物论教程》(中译本第3版)。该书的“辩证法的根本法则—由质到量及由量到质转变的法则”一章讨论了“主要的矛盾”和“非主要的矛盾”、“矛盾之主导的方面”和“矛盾之非主导的方面”。在涉及“矛盾之主导的方面”时,毛泽东批注说：“如果平均地去看任何矛盾之两方面,那就是大错的。两方中必有一方是主要方面,他一方是次要方面；前一方面即所谓矛盾之起主导作用的方面。”他摘录了该书的观点,认为在“价值和使用价值”“生产力和生产关系”“理论和实践”几对矛盾中,“价值”“生产力”“实践”是起主导作用的方面,而“使用价值”“生产关系”“理论”是起非主导作用的方面。阅读、批注完《辩证法唯物论教程》后的4个月,毛泽东在撰写《矛盾论》时,便使用了“主要的矛盾方面”和“非主要的矛盾方面”两个概念,而且界定“矛盾的主要方面”所使用的语句与批注使用的语句基本相同。因而,有理由推断,这两个概念的使用应当受到《辩证法唯物论教程》中“矛盾之主导的方面”和“矛盾之非主导的方面”两个概念的启发。

2. The First Clear Proposition That the Nature of a Thing Is Determined by the Principal Aspect of the Principal Contradiction

2.首次明确提出事物的性质是由主要矛盾的主要方面决定的

When examining “the fundamental law of dialectics—the law of the transformation of quality into quantity and vice versa,” the authors of *A Course in Dialectical Materialism*, such as Shirokov and Aizenberg, employed the concepts of “the dominant aspect of a contradiction” and “the non-dominant aspect of a contradiction.” However, they did not point out that the dominant aspect of the principal contradiction determines the nature of a thing, nor did they indicate that the position of the dominant aspect of a contradiction is not fixed but relative. Mao Zedong, for the first time, explicitly stated: the nature of a thing is determined by the principal aspect of its principal contradiction. “The nature of a thing is mainly determined by the principal aspect of the contradiction, the aspect which has gained the dominant position.” [10]10 Mao Zedong, “On Contradiction,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 1, p. 322. [11] Ibid., p. 322. [12] Ibid., pp. 322-323. [13] Wang Xiangqing, “On the Methodological Significance of the ‘Two Integrations’,” *Journal of Social Sciences of Xiangtan University*, 2024, No. 1. [14] Mao Zedong, “Strengthen Party Unity and Carry Forward the Party’s Tradition,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 5, p. 308. [15] Mao Zedong, “Draft of Sixty Articles on Working Methods,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 7, p. 356. [16] Mao Zedong, “The Tasks of the Chinese Communist Party in the Period of Resistance to Japan,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 2, p. 527. [17] Mao Zedong, “Some Questions Concerning Methods of Leadership,” *Selected Works of Mao Zedong*, Vol. 3, p. 900. The contradiction that has gained the dominant position is the contradiction that plays the leading role among the multiple contradictions contained in a complex thing, i.e., the principal contradiction. This can be illustrated by the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in old China and new China, and by their respective positions. In old China during the period of the New Democratic Revolution, the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie was the principal contradiction in society at that time. Since the Kuomintang regime, which represented the interests of the bourgeoisie, was the aspect playing the dominant role, China was at that time a state under the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.

西洛可夫、爱森堡等人所著《辩证法唯物论教程》在考察“辩证法的根本法则—由质到量及由量到质转变的法则”时,虽然使用了“矛盾之主导的方面”和“矛盾之非主导的方面”两个概念,但并没有指出主要矛盾的主导方面决定事物的性质,也没有指出矛盾的主导方面的地位不是固定不变的而是相对的。毛泽东则首次明确指出：事物的性质是由主要矛盾的主要方面决定的。“事物的性质,主要是由取得支配地位的矛盾的主要方面所规定的。”取得支配地位的矛盾,也就是在复杂事物包含的多种矛盾中起主导作用的矛盾,即主要矛盾。这可以用旧中国、新中国中无产阶级和资产阶级的矛盾及其地位来说明。在新民主主义革命时期的旧中国,无产阶级和资产阶级的矛盾是当时社会的主要矛盾,由于代表资产阶级利益的国民党政权是起主导作用的方面,因而中国当时是资产阶级专政的国家。

3. Innovatively proposing that the positions of the principal and non-principal aspects of a contradiction are not fixed but relative

3.创新性地提出主要的矛盾方面和非主要的矛盾方面的地位不是固定不变的,而是相对的

Mao Zedong pointed out: “The principal and the non-principal aspects of a contradiction transform themselves into each other and the nature of the thing changes accordingly. In a given process or at a given stage of the development of a contradiction, A is the principal aspect and B is the non-principal aspect; at another stage or in another process, the roles are reversed, a change determined by the extent of the increase or decrease in the force of each aspect in its struggle with the other in the course of the development of the thing.” [11]11 “Dissecting a sparrow” (jiepou maque) is a Maoist metaphor for studying a typical case in depth to understand the general situation, analogous to a biologist dissecting a single specimen to learn about the species. Mao Zedong used the idiom “the new supersedes the old” (新陈代谢) to interpret his viewpoint. The process by which a thing, according to its own nature and conditions, transforms into another thing through different forms of leap is precisely the process of the new superseding the old. In his view, all things internally contain the contradiction between the new and the old aspects, thereby constituting a series of tortuous struggles. As a result of the struggle between the contradictions, the new aspect continuously grows from small to large, rising to become the aspect in the dominant position; the old aspect continuously shrinks from large to small, becoming the aspect gradually heading toward extinction. “Once the new aspect gains dominance over the old, the nature of the old thing changes into the nature of the new thing. It can thus be seen that the nature of a thing is mainly determined by the principal aspect of the contradiction, the aspect which has gained the dominant position. When the principal aspect of a contradiction which has gained the dominant position changes, the nature of the thing changes accordingly.” [12]12 “Experimentation” (shiyan) refers to the method of conducting pilot projects or trials in selected units before generalizing a policy or practice.

毛泽东指出：“矛盾的主要和非主要的方面互相转化着,事物的性质也就随着起变化。在矛盾发展的一定过程或一定阶段上,主要方面属于甲方,非主要方面属于乙方；到了另一发展阶段或另一发展过程时,就互易其位置,这是依靠事物发展中矛盾双方斗争的力量的增减程度来决定的。”毛泽东用“新陈代谢”这个成语来诠释自己的观点。事物根据自身的性质和条件,经过不同的飞跃形式,转化为他事物,就是新陈代谢的过程。在他看来,所有事物内部都包含新旧两个方面的矛盾,从而构成一系列曲折的斗争。矛盾斗争的结果,新的方面不断由小变大,上升为居支配地位的方面；旧的方面则不断由大变小,变成逐步趋于灭亡的方面。“一当新的方面对于旧的方面取得支配地位的时候,旧事物的性质就变化为新事物的性质。由此可见,事物的性质主要地是由取得支配地位的矛盾的主要方面所规定的。取得支配地位的矛盾的主要方面起了变化,事物的性质也随着变化。”

III. The Creative Transformation of the Traditional Doctrine of Contradiction

三、对传统矛盾学说的创造性转化

“As the fundamental viewpoints and fundamental perspectives for humanity to understand and transform the world, world outlook and methodology occupy a foundational position in the human ideological system.” [13]13 “Squatting at a point” (dun dian) refers to the practice of cadres staying at a grassroots unit for an extended period to investigate and guide work firsthand. In Mao Zedong’s view, philosophy, as a theory of world outlook, implies methodology. Those engaged in philosophical research should reveal the methodology implied within it in order to guide practical work. On the basis of sublating and innovatively developing the traditional doctrine of contradiction, Mao Zedong also creatively transformed it into a leadership method characterized by the unity of opposites.

“作为人类认识世界和改造世界的根本观点和根本看法,世界观和方法论在人类思想体系中占有基础性地位。”在毛泽东看来,哲学作为世界观的学说,蕴涵了方法论。哲学工作者从事哲学研究,应当将其中蕴涵的方法论揭示出来,以指导实际工作。在扬弃、创新性发展传统矛盾学说的基础上,毛泽东还将它创造性地转化为以对立统一为特征的领导方法。

(A) Creatively transforming the traditional doctrine of contradiction into the investigation and research method of combining “viewing flowers from horseback” with “dismounting to look at flowers”

(一)将传统矛盾学说创造性地转化为“走马看花”与“下马看花”相结合的调查研究方法

In Mao Zedong’s view, without investigation there is no right to speak, because without investigation one cannot grasp the national conditions, provincial conditions, or local conditions, and thus cannot formulate correct policies and strategies. As early as the Great Revolution period, Mao Zedong conducted a 32-day investigation of five counties in Hunan—Xiangtan, Xiangxiang, Hengshan, Liling, and Changsha—and wrote the brilliant document *Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan*. During the Jinggangshan struggle period and the Central Soviet Area struggle period, Mao Zedong carried out in-depth and meticulous investigations and research in the surrounding rural areas. *Report on Xunwu* was written after Mao Zedong conducted a focused investigation of more than ten days in the counties of Anyuan, Xunwu, and Pingyuan in southern Jiangxi during the Central Soviet Area struggle period. According to relevant research findings disclosed, Mao Zedong adopted the method of combining “viewing flowers from horseback” and “dismounting to look at flowers” during his Xunwu investigation.

在毛泽东看来,没有调查就没有发言权,因为没有调查就不能把握国情、省情及局部的情况,从而不能制定正确的政策、策略。早在大革命时期,毛泽东就对湖南的湘潭、湘乡、衡山、醴陵、长沙五县做了为期32天的调查,撰成了《湖南农民运动考察报告》这一光辉文献。井冈山斗争时期、中央苏区斗争时期,毛泽东都对周边的农村地区开展了深入细致的调查研究。《寻乌调查》就是中央苏区斗争时期,毛泽东对赣南的安远、寻乌、平远等县开展十多天的集中调查后撰成的。据已有相关研究成果披露,毛泽东在寻乌调查过程中就采取了“走马看花”和“下马看花”相结合的方法。

“Viewing flowers from horseback” refers to hastily and roughly observing things, understanding the general and universal situation of things, while “dismounting to look at flowers” means going deep into reality to investigate individual things and conducting earnest investigation and research. The investigation and grasp of the general attributes of things can regulate the direction of understanding the individual; while the individual is richer than the general, and a profound understanding of the individual helps to grasp the general. Therefore, these two methods of grasping things, “viewing flowers from horseback” and “dismounting to look at flowers,” are both opposite and unified, embodying the attribute of the unity of opposites of contradiction.

“走马看花”是指匆忙、粗略地观察事物,了解事物的一般情况、普遍情况,而“下马看花”是深入实际考察个别事物,认真调查研究。对事物一般属性的考察、把握,能够规范认知个别的方向；而个别比一般丰富,深刻认识个别,有助于把握一般。因此,“走马看花”和“下马看花”这两种把握事物的方法既对立又统一,体现了矛盾对立统一和属性。

On September 25, 1956, when meeting with representatives of some Latin American political parties attending the Eighth National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Mao Zedong introduced to them some of the historical experiences of the Chinese Communist Party in achieving revolutionary success. One of these experiences was clarifying the situation in the countryside through investigation, formulating correct policies, and winning the support of the broad masses of peasants. Mao Zedong pointed out: “There are two methods of investigation: one is viewing flowers from horseback, the other is dismounting to look at flowers. Viewing flowers from horseback is not deep, because there are so many flowers. Your coming from Latin America to Asia is viewing flowers from horseback. There are so many flowers in your countries; it is very insufficient to just take a look and a glance and then leave. You must also use the second method, which is dismounting to look at flowers, carefully examining a flower, analyzing one ‘flower,’ dissecting a ‘sparrow.’” [14]14 “Be not ashamed to ask and learn from one’s inferiors” is a classical allusion from the Analects of Confucius (5.15), where Confucius praises a noble character for being willing to learn from those beneath him. Mao Zedong suggested that the leaders of Latin American political parties, when investigating and understanding their own national conditions, should combine “viewing flowers from horseback” with “dismounting to look at flowers” in order to comprehensively and accurately understand their national conditions.

1956年9月25日,毛泽东在和参加中国共产党第八次全国代表大会的拉丁美洲一些政党的代表谈话时,向他们介绍了中国共产党取得革命成功的一些历史经验。经验之一就是通过调查弄清了农村的情况,制定了正确的政策,赢得了广大农民的支持。毛泽东指出：“调查有两种方法,一种是走马看花,一种是下马看花。走马看花,不深入,因为还有那么多花嘛。你们从拉丁美洲到亚洲来,是走马看花的。你们国家有那么多的花,看一看望一望就走,这是很不够的,还必须用第二种方法,就是下马看花,过细看花,分析一朵‘花’,解剖‘麻雀’。”毛泽东建议拉丁美洲政党的领导人在调查、了解自己的国情时,应当将“走马看花”和“下马看花”结合起来,以全面、准确地了解国情。

In January 1958, in the *Draft of Sixty Articles on Working Methods* drafted for the Party Central Committee, Mao Zedong once again reiterated that senior Party cadres should adopt the method of combining “viewing flowers from horseback” with “dismounting to look at flowers” to conduct investigation and research. He demanded that members of the Party committees of the central, provincial, directly administered municipality, and autonomous region levels, except for those who were ill or elderly, should spend four months each year taking turns leaving their offices to go down to the grassroots to conduct investigation and research, hold meetings, and travel around. And the investigation “should adopt the two methods of viewing flowers from horseback and dismounting to look at flowers. Even if it means going to a place and talking for only three or four hours before leaving, that is fine. One must come into contact with workers and peasants to increase perceptual knowledge.” [15]15 The Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC was held in March 1949 in Xibaipo, Hebei Province, on the eve of the nationwide victory of the Chinese Communist Revolution. Mao’s “playing the piano” metaphor is from his speech on the working methods of Party committees, later included in the Selected Works of Mao Zedong. Here again, the method of combining “viewing flowers from horseback” and “dismounting to look at flowers” in investigation and research was emphasized.

1958年1月,毛泽东在为中共中央起草的《工作方法六十条(草案)》中再次重申了党的高级干部应采取“走马看花”和“下马看花”相结合的方法开展调查研究。他要求,中央和省、直属市、自治区两级党委的委员,除了生病和年老的以外,每年要有四个月的时间轮流离开办公室,到下面去进行调查研究、开会、到处跑。而调查“应当采取走马看花、下马看花两种方法。哪怕到一个地方谈三四个小时就走也好。要和工人、农民接触,要增加感性知识”。这里再一次强调了调查研究应当采取“走马看花”和“下马看花”相结合的方法。

Mao Zedong once said: “The responsibility of leadership boils down mainly to two things: making decisions and using cadres.” [16] Making decisions means making policy decisions and determining major policies and guidelines; using cadres means grasping leadership. Grasping these two things means grasping the essence of being a leader. And both making good decisions and using cadres well are inseparable from investigation and research into the actual situation. Therefore, from this perspective, the unity of opposites between “viewing flowers from horseback” and “dismounting to look at flowers” is an important leadership method.

毛泽东曾说过：“领导的责任,归结起来,主要是出主意、用干部两件事。”出主意,就是做决策,确定大政方针；用干部,就是抓领导。把握了这两条,也就抓住了当领导的根本。而要出好主意、用好干部,都离不开对实际情况的调查研究。因此,从这一角度说,“走马看花”和“下马看花”的对立统一是重要的领导方法。

(B) Creatively transforming the traditional doctrine of contradiction into the leadership method of combining “general calls” with “individual guidance”

(二)将传统矛盾学说创造性地转化为“一般号召”与“个别指导”相结合的领导方法

On June 1, 1943, in his article “Some Questions Concerning Methods of Leadership,” Mao Zedong pointed out that the primary method for Chinese Communists to carry out work is the combination of “general calls” and “individual guidance.” He believed that, no matter what work is carried out, if general and universal calls are not made, it is impossible to mobilize the broad masses to take action. However, if one is limited to general calls, and the leaders do not first directly implement the called-for work in a few departments, break through at one point, gain experience, and then use this experience to guide other units, then not only is it impossible to test whether the general calls one has made are correct, but it is also impossible to enrich the content of the general calls, and it may even cause the general calls to fall into the danger of being in vain. Based on this, Mao Zedong emphasized: “Any leading personnel who do not obtain concrete experience from individual units, individual persons, and individual events at the lower levels will inevitably be unable to give universal guidance to all units.” [17] That is to say, individual guidance is the guarantee of the correctness of general calls. Therefore, the general calls and individual guidance in carrying out specific work are both opposite and unified, embodying the attribute of the unity of opposites of contradiction.

1943年6月1日,毛泽东在《关于领导方法的若干问题》一文中指出中国共产党人开展工作的首要方法是“一般号召”和“个别指导”相结合。他认为,无论开展何种工作,假如不进行一般的普遍的号召,就无法动员广大群众行动起来,但假如仅限于一般号召,而领导者不首先直接地从若干部门将所号召的工作付诸实施,突破一点,取得经验,然后利用这种经验去指导其他单位,不但无法检验自己提出的一般号召是否正确,而且无法充实一般号召的内容,还会使一般号召陷入落空的危险。基于此,毛泽东强调：“任何领导人员,凡不从下级个别单位的个别人员、个别事件取得具体经验者,必不能向一切单位作普遍的指导。”这就是说,个别指导是一般号召正确的保障。因此,开展具体工作中的一般号召与个别指导既是对立的,又是统一的,体现了矛盾的对立统一属性。

In January 1945, Mao Zedong delivered a speech titled “We Must Learn to Do Economic Work” at the conference of model workers and exemplary personnel in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, emphasizing that both general calls and individual guidance are important methods for leaders to advance economic construction. He pointed out that, in order to effectively promote production in the border region and the various anti-Japanese base areas, on the one hand, a system of individual bonuses graded by quality should be implemented, so that those engaged in economic production could benefit; on the other hand, leaders must take responsibility, act themselves, and adopt the method of combining general calls with individual guidance.

1945年1月,毛泽东在陕甘宁边区劳动英雄和模范工作者大会上做了题为《必须学会做经济工作》的讲话,强调一般号召和个别指导同样是领导者推进经济建设的重要方法。他指出,边区和各抗日根据地为了有效地促进生产,一方面要实行按质分等的个人分红制度,使从事经济生产的人员得到利益；另一方面领导者必须负起责任来,自己动手,实行一般号召和个别指导相结合的方法。

After the founding of New China, as Mao Zedong applied the method of combining general calls with individual guidance to the practical process of socialist construction, he conducted innovative explorations of the link of individual guidance. This was reflected in his proposal of specific leadership methods such as “dissecting a sparrow” [11]11 “Dissecting a sparrow” (jiepou maque) is a Maoist metaphor for studying a typical case in depth to understand the general situation, analogous to a biologist dissecting a single specimen to learn about the species., “experimentation” [12]12 “Experimentation” (shiyan) refers to the method of conducting pilot projects or trials in selected units before generalizing a policy or practice., and “squatting at a point” [13]13 “Squatting at a point” (dun dian) refers to the practice of cadres staying at a grassroots unit for an extended period to investigate and guide work firsthand., which found effective ways to accurately grasp the individual. At the same time, the application of these methods enriched the leadership’s understanding of the general, which in turn enabled leaders to better guide other individual work.

新中国成立后，毛泽东在将一般号召和个别指导相结合的方法运用于社会主义建设的实践过程中,对个别指导这一环节做了富有新意的探讨。这体现为他提出了“解剖麻雀”“试验”“蹲点”等具体的领导方法,为准确地把握个别找到了有效的途径。同时,这些方法的运用充实了领导对一般的认识,反过来能促进领导者更好地指导其他个别工作。

(3) Creatively transforming traditional contradiction theory into the leadership method of combining “leadership” and “the masses”

(三)将传统矛盾学说创造性转化为“领导”和“群众”相结合的领导方法

To effectively implement the leadership method of combining “general calls” with “individual guidance,” it must be practically supplemented by the leadership method of combining “leadership” and “the masses,” that is, combining coming from the masses and going to the masses.

要将“一般号召”与“个别指导”相结合的领导方法有效地实施下去,还必须切实辅之以“领导”和“群众”相结合,即从群众中来与到群众中去相结合的领导方法。

In Mao Zedong’s view, in any work, if only the leading cadres are active but the broad masses are not mobilized, it will become a futile bustle of a few. Conversely, if only the broad masses are active but there are no strong leading cadres to stimulate and sustain their enthusiasm, then the masses’ enthusiasm can neither be lasting nor may it lose direction, making it difficult to reach the proper height. He also believed that, in terms of attitude toward work, the masses as a social group roughly consist of three parts: the relatively active, the intermediate, and the relatively backward. Therefore, leaders must be adept at uniting a small number of activists as the leading backbone, and use this backbone to raise the level of the intermediate and win over the relatively backward. Only in this way can work proceed smoothly and predetermined goals be achieved. “Whether carrying out central tasks such as war, production, and education (including rectification), or carrying out other work such as checking work and reviewing cadres, in addition to adopting the method of combining general calls with individual guidance, it is also necessary to adopt the method of combining the leading backbone with the broad masses.” Here, “leadership” and “the masses” are both opposite and unified; the leadership method of combining “leadership” and “the masses” embodies the characteristics of the unity of opposites.

在毛泽东看来,从事任何一项工作,只有领导骨干的积极性,而没有调动广大群众的积极性,便将成为少数人的空忙。而如果只有广大群众的积极性,而无有力的领导骨干去激励、维持群众的积极性,那么群众的这种积极性既不可能持久,也可能迷失方向,难以达到应有的高度。他还认为,从对工作的态度来说,群众作为社会群体大致包括比较积极的、中间状态的和比较落后的三部分人。因此,领导者务必要善于团结少数积极分子作为领导的骨干,并利用这批骨干去提高中间状态的人、争取比较落后的人。只有这样,才能顺利地开展工作,完成预定目标。“无论是执行战争、生产、教育(包括整风)等中心任务,或是执行检查工作、审查干部和其他工作,除采取一般号召和个别指导相结合的方法外,都须采取领导骨干和广大群众相结合的方法。”在这里,“领导”和“群众”既是对立的,又是统一的,“领导”和“群众”相结合的领导方法体现了对立统一的特征。

Mao Zedong further clarified how to implement the leadership method of combining leadership and the masses. “In all the practical work of our Party, all correct leadership must be ‘from the masses, to the masses.’” Specifically, this means taking the scattered and unsystematic opinions of the masses, turning them after study into concentrated and systematic opinions, then going to the masses to propagate and explain them, making them the masses’ own opinions, so that the masses hold to them and put them into action, and testing the correctness of these opinions in the mass movement. Then, once again, the opinions fed back by the masses are concentrated, and once again taken to the masses to be persisted in. From the perspective of logic, the process of coming from the masses is the process of inducing the masses’ knowledge to form general knowledge; while the process of going to the masses is the process of leaders using general knowledge to guide the masses’ practice, a deductive process. Of course, this process is not only one of guidance but also one of testing, revising, supplementing, and perfecting. Therefore, “concentrating from the masses and then persisting among the masses to form correct leadership opinions—this is the basic method of leadership.” In the subsequent New Democratic Revolution and socialist construction, Mao Zedong adhered to the leadership method of combining leadership and the masses. In March 1949, in his concluding remarks at the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC, when discussing methods for the Party committee to carry out its work, one of his admonitions to higher-level leading cadres was: “Never pretend to know what you do not know; ‘be not ashamed to ask and learn from one’s inferiors’ [14]14 “Be not ashamed to ask and learn from one’s inferiors” is a classical allusion from the Analects of Confucius (5.15), where Confucius praises a noble character for being willing to learn from those beneath him.; be good at listening to the opinions of cadres below you.” Relative to higher-level leaders, lower-level cadres are essentially no different in role from the masses. Therefore, what Mao Zedong meant here is that leading cadres, when advancing work, should pay attention to applying the leadership method of combining leadership and the masses.

毛泽东还进一步阐明了怎样推行领导和群众相结合的领导方法。“在我党的一切实际工作中,凡属正确的领导,必须是从群众中来,到群众中去。”具体说来,就是将分散的无系统的群众的意见,经过研究,化为集中的系统的意见,又到群众中作宣传解释,使之成为群众的意见,让群众坚持下去,付诸行动,并在群众运动中检验这些意见是否正确。然后又一次将群众反馈的意见集中起来,又一次到群众中坚持下去。从逻辑学的观点看,从群众中来的过程就是将群众的认识归纳起来,形成一般性认识的过程；而到群众中去的过程就是领导用一般性认识去指导群众实践的过程,是演绎的过程。当然,这一过程既是指导的过程,也是检验、修正、补充、完善的过程。因此,“从群众中集中起来又到群众中坚持下去,以形成正确的领导意见,这是基本的领导方法”。在此后的新民主主义革命和社会主义建设过程中,毛泽东坚持了领导和群众相结合的领导方法。1949年3月,他在中共七届二中全会所作的结论中谈及党委会开展工作的方法,其中之一就是告诫上级领导干部：“切不可强不知以为知,要‘不耻下问’,要善于倾听下面干部的意见。”相对于上级领导而言,下级干部与群众的角色没有本质的区别。因此,毛泽东这里所说的就是领导干部在推进工作时,应当注意运用领导与群众相结合的领导方法。

(4) Creatively transforming traditional contradiction theory into the leadership method of combining the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory”

(四)将传统矛盾学说创造性地转化为“两点论”与“重点论”相结合的领导方法

Advocating and practicing the leadership method of combining the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory” is another creative transformation of traditional contradiction theory by Mao Zedong.

提倡、践行“两点论”与“重点论”相结合的领导方法是毛泽东对传统矛盾学说的又一创造性转化。

The “two-point theory” is also called the “two-sided approach” or “one divides into two.” It is Mao Zedong’s concise and popular way of requiring people to use materialist dialectics, especially the law of the unity of opposites, to understand things and evaluate work. The “key-point theory” is a mode of thinking corresponding to the “two-point theory.” The “key-point theory” means that one should grasp the contradictions of things by distinguishing the important from the trivial and the primary from the secondary, and should not treat the two sides (the two points) of a contradiction equally; instead, one should make the study and resolution of the principal contradiction and the principal aspect of the contradiction the key point.

“两点论”又称“两分法”“一分为二”。它是毛泽东要求人们运用唯物辩证法特别是对立统一规律去认识事物、评价工作的简明、通俗的说法。“重点论”是与“两点论”相对应的一种思维方法。“重点论”是指应当区分轻重、主次地把握事物的矛盾,不能均衡地对待矛盾着的双方(两点),要把研究、解决主要矛盾和矛盾的主要方面等问题作为重点。

In April 1956, in his article “On the Ten Major Relationships,” Mao Zedong pointed out: “It must be admitted that there are always two points, merits and demerits. … For ten thousand years there will always be two points. The future will have its two points, the present has its two points, and each person has his own two points. In short, it is two points, not one point.” In November 1956, in his speech at the Second Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the CPC, Mao Zedong said: “Whether Chinese things or foreign things, they can all be analyzed; there are good things and bad things. The work of each province is the same; there are achievements and there are shortcomings. Each of us is also like this; there are always two points, merits and demerits, not just one point. The one-point theory has existed since ancient times, and the two-point theory has also existed since ancient times. This is metaphysics versus dialectics.” The “two-point theory” has its objective basis: all things and phenomena are composed of two contradictory sides that are both opposite and unified, and each has its own opposite two points. Precisely because of this, when people look at things and analyze problems, they should adopt a comprehensive view, seeing both the positive side and the negative side; seeing both achievements and shortcomings, and preventing the metaphysical one-point theory.

1956年4月,毛泽东在《论十大关系》一文中指出：“应当承认,总是有优点和缺点这两点。……一万年都有两点。将来有将来的两点,现在有现在的两点,各人有各人的两点。总之,是两点而不是一点。”1956年11月,毛泽东在中共八届二中全会上的讲话中说：“中国的东西也好,外国的东西也好,都是可以分析的,有好的,有不好的。每个省的工作也是一样,有成绩,有缺点。我们每个人也是如此,总是有两点,有优点,有缺点,不是只有一点。一点论是从古以来就有的,两点论也是从古以来就有的。这就是形而上学跟辩证法。”“两点论”有其客观根据：所有事物、现象都由既对立又统一的矛盾着的两个侧面构成,都有自己相反的两点。正因为如此,人们在看待事物、分析问题时要坚持全面地看问题,既看到积极的一面,又看到消极的一面；既看到成绩,又看到缺点,防止形而上学的一点论。

On the basis of adhering to the “two-point theory,” Mao Zedong, in “On Contradiction,” placed greater emphasis on grasping the principal contradiction and the principal aspect of the contradiction, highlighting the stance of focusing on the “key-point theory.” In Mao Zedong’s view, the “two-point theory” is the “two-point theory” within the “key-point theory”; divorced from the “key-point theory,” there is no “two-point theory” to speak of. Thus, the “two-point theory” is a “two-point theory” constrained by the “key-point theory.” Of course, without the “two-point theory,” there is no “key-point theory” either, because the “key-point theory” is the “key-point theory” within the “two-point theory.” Therefore, the leadership method of combining the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory” also embodies the attribute of the unity of opposites.

在坚持“两点论”的基础上,毛泽东在《矛盾论》中更强调抓住主要矛盾和矛盾的主要方面,凸显了聚焦“重点论”的立场。在毛泽东看来,“两点论”是“重点论”中的“两点论”,脱离了“重点论”,也就无所谓“两点论”。因而,“两点论”是受“重点论”制约的“两点论”。当然,离开了“两点论”,也就无所谓“重点论”,因为“重点论”是“两点论”中的“重点论”。因此,“两点论”与“重点论”相结合的领导方法也体现了对立统一的属性。

The “playing the piano” method that Mao Zedong advocated and practiced vividly and accurately embodies the leadership method of the unity of the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory.” In March 1949, in his conclusion at the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC, Mao discussed the working methods of Party committees, and “playing the piano” was one of them. He said: “To play the piano, all ten fingers must move; it won’t do for some to move while others remain still. But if all ten fingers press down at the same time, there will be no melody. To produce good music, the movement of the ten fingers must be rhythmic and coordinated. The Party committee must grasp the central task, and at the same time, around the central task, carry out work in other areas. We now manage many aspects; the work of all localities, all armies, and all departments must be taken care of. We cannot focus only on one part of the problem and discard the rest. Wherever there is a problem, we must touch on it. This method we must learn well. … Comrades on the Party committee must learn to ‘play the piano’ well.” [15]15 The Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC was held in March 1949 in Xibaipo, Hebei Province, on the eve of the nationwide victory of the Chinese Communist Revolution. Mao’s “playing the piano” metaphor is from his speech on the working methods of Party committees, later included in the Selected Works of Mao Zedong. Here, the working method of the Party committee is analogized to “playing the piano,” making it easy for people to accept and achieve the unity of the “two-point theory” and the “key-point theory.” When “playing the piano,” all ten fingers must play, which takes care of every aspect of the fingers and belongs to the “two-point theory”; while the rhythmic and coordinated movement of the ten fingers takes care of the key points. When the Party committee carries out its work, grasping the central task is the “key-point theory”; while simultaneously advancing work in other areas and taking into account wherever there are problems is the “two-point theory.”

毛泽东提倡、践行的“弹钢琴”方法,生动、准确体现了“两点论”和“重点论”对立统一的领导方法。1949年3月,毛泽东在中共七届二中全会所作的结论中谈及了党委会的工作方法,“弹钢琴”就是其中之一。他说：“弹钢琴要十个指头都动作,不能有的动,有的不动。但是,十个指头同时都按下去,那也不成调子。要产生好的音乐,十个指头的动作要有节奏,要互相配合。党委要抓紧中心工作,又要围绕中心工作而同时开展其他方面的工作。我们现在管的方面很多,各地、各军、各部门的工作,都要照顾到,不能只注意一部分问题而把别的丢掉。凡是有问题的地方都要点一下,这个方法我们一定要学会。……党委的同志必须学好‘弹钢琴’。”这里将党委会的工作方法与“弹钢琴”做类比,让人很容易接受去做到“两点论”与“重点论”的统一。“弹钢琴”时,十个指头都要弹,这照顾到指头的方方面面,属“两点论”,而十个指头的动作要有节奏,要互相配合,则是照顾重点。党委会在开展工作时,抓中心工作就是“重点论”；而同时推进其他方面的工作,有问题的地方都兼顾一下,就是“两点论”。

(Author bios: Wang Xiangqing, Researcher at the Mao Zedong Thought Research Center of Xiangtan University, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the School of Marxism, Xiangtan University; Yang Xue, Doctoral Candidate at the School of Marxism, Xiangtan University)

（作者简介：王向清，湘潭大学毛泽东思想研究中心研究员,湘潭大学马克思主义学院教授,博士生导师；杨雪,湘潭大学马克思主义学院博士研究生）

Online editor: Tongxin

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