How Marxism Understands “Cooperation”

Cooperation is an important category in Marxist theory. Marx pointed out: “When numerous workers work together side by side in accordance with a plan, whether in the same process or in different but connected processes, this form of labor is called cooperation.” [1]1 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. Cooperation produces a synergistic effect greater than that of individual labor. So, how does Marxism understand “cooperation”?

协作是马克思主义理论的重要范畴，马克思指出：“许多人在同一生产过程中，或在不同的但互相联系的生产过程中，有计划地一起协同劳动，这种劳动形式叫做协作。”协作会产生高于单个劳动的协同效应。那么，马克思主义是如何理解“协作”的呢？

Marx discussed the role of cooperation in different historical stages of development, pointing out that technological progress drives cooperation from simple to complex forms, giving rise to concrete forms of cooperation. Cooperation appears extensively in various production links across different historical periods, and combinations between different industries and organizations enhance production efficiency. In ancient societies, the construction of China’s Great Wall and the Egyptian pyramids could not have been completed without cooperation and the division of labor. During the period of manufacture, Marx discovered that integrated cooperation emerged between certain industries in England, specifically manifested in “the union of the manufacture producing the means of production with the manufacture producing the product.” [2]2 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 3. By the era of large-scale machine industry, the established division of labor was constantly being broken. Engels pointed out in *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific* that “the factory, which requires the cooperation of hundreds and thousands of people, replaced the small workshop,” [3]3 Friedrich Engels, *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, Chapter 3. and production changed from “individual action” to “social action,” giving rise to new forms of cooperation. “Modern industry, through machinery, chemical processes, and other methods, constantly revolutionizes the technical basis of production, and with it the functions of the workers and the social combinations of the labor process.” [4]4 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 15, Section 9. Such technological change causes “a revolution in the division of labor within society,” [5]5 Ibid. leading to the flow of factors of production, with “large amounts of capital and large numbers of workers moving from one branch of production to another.” [6]6 Ibid. Cooperation enables “socialization” and “common labor” to play their role. In *Capital*, Marx pointed out that cooperation is “the fundamental form of the capitalist mode of production” [7]7 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. and a specific method for producing relative surplus value, “presupposing from the outset the free wage-laborer who sells his labor-power to capital.” [8]8 Ibid. However, this mode of production is “the first negation of individual private property based on one’s own labor.” [9]9 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 32. Human society is constantly progressing and developing; “modern industry never views and treats the existing form of a production process as the final one.” [10]10 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 15, Section 9. In the transition to communism, “we must adopt large-scale cooperative production as an intermediate link,” [11]11 Karl Marx, “Conspectus of Bakunin’s *Statism and Anarchy*.” achieving “the negation of the negation” through cooperation under socialist conditions. “On the basis of cooperation and the common possession of the land and the means of production produced by labor itself, individual property is re-established.” [12]12 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 32.

马克思论述了协作在不同历史发展阶段的作用，指出技术进步推动协作由简单向复杂转变，形成了协作的具体形式。协作广泛地出现在不同历史发展时期的各个生产环节，不同的行业与组织之间发生结合提高生产效率。在古代社会，中国万里长城和埃及金字塔的建造完成离不开协作和组织分工。在工场手工业时期，马克思发现英国的一些行业之间出现了一体化的协作，具体体现在“制造生产资料的工场手工业同制造产品的工场手工业联合起来了”。到了机器大工业时期，固有的分工不断被打破，恩格斯在《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》中指出，“需要成百上千的人进行协作的工厂代替了小作坊”，生产从“个人行动”变成“社会行动”，协作出现了新的形式。“现代工业通过机器、化学过程和其他方法，使工人的职能和劳动过程的社会结合不断地随着生产的技术基础发生变革。”这样的技术变革使得“社会内部的分工发生革命”，要素流动出现，“大量资本和大批工人从一个生产部门投到另一个生产部门”，协作促使“社会化”“共同的劳动”发挥作用。马克思在《资本论》中指出，协作是“资本主义生产方式的基本形式”，是生产相对剩余价值的具体方式，“一开始就以出卖自己的劳动力给资本的自由雇佣工人为前提”。然而这种生产方式是对“个人的、以自己劳动为基础的私有制的第一个否定”。人类社会不断在进步发展，“现代工业从来不把某一生产过程的现存形式看成和当作最后的形式”。在向共产主义过渡时，“我们必须大规模地采用合作生产作为中间环节”，以社会主义条件下的协作实现“否定的否定”。“在协作和对土地及靠劳动本身生产的生产资料的共同占有的基础上，重新建立个人所有制。”

In *Capital*, Marx gave a vivid example, pointing out that cooperation raises social labor productivity: “The offensive power of a squadron of cavalry or the defensive power of a regiment of infantry is essentially different from the sum of the offensive or defensive powers of the individual cavalrymen or infantrymen taken separately.” [13]13 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. The reason is that cooperation not only “raises the productive power of the individual” but also creates a productive power “which is itself necessarily a collective power.” [14]14 Ibid. Cooperation creates productive forces, creating a productivity that individual labor cannot achieve; that is, the overall function is greater than the sum of the partial functions, realizing the ability to concentrate resources to accomplish great tasks. So, why does cooperation enhance efficiency? Marx pointed out the reasons why cooperation increases productivity in the labor process.

马克思在《资本论》中举了一个形象的例子，指出协作提高了社会劳动生产率：“一个骑兵连的进攻力量或一个步兵团的抵抗力量，与每个骑兵分散展开的进攻力量的总和或每个步兵分散展开的抵抗力量的总和有本质的差别”。原因在于协作不仅“提高了个人生产力”，而且创造了一种生产力，“这种生产力本身必然是集体力”。协作创造了生产力，创造出单个劳动所无法实现的生产率，也就是整体功能大于局部功能之和，实现了集中力量办大事。那么，协作为什么能提升效率？马克思指出协作在劳动过程中提高生产力的原因。

First, cooperation possesses identity. Cooperation conforms to the simultaneity of action, enabling workers to gather in “the same space,” to implement “the same operation” for “the same result, the same product, the same use-value,” achieving “coordinated action.” [15]15 Ibid. On the one hand, cooperation shortens necessary labor time. “Compared with an equal sum of individual working days, the combined working day produces a greater quantity of use-values, and hence reduces the labor time necessary for the production of a given useful effect.” [16]16 Ibid. On the other hand, cooperation improves communication efficiency among workers, “giving the work of many people continuity and many-sidedness.” [17]17 Ibid. Bricklayers passing bricks hand over hand to the scaffold is much faster than each person carrying bricks up to the scaffold individually. Especially within a limited, short period, cooperation can complete urgent work.

其一，协作具有同一性。协作符合行动的同时性，使劳动者在“同一个空间”集聚，为了“同一个成果、同一个产品、同一个使用价值”，实施“同一种操作”，实现“协同行动”。一方面，协作缩短必要劳动时间。“和同样数量的单干的个人工作日的总和比较起来，结合工作日可以生产更多的使用价值，因而可以减少生产一定效用所必要的劳动时间。”另一方面，协作提升了劳动者之间的沟通效率，“使许多人的同种作业具有连续性和多面性”，瓦匠手递手把砖传送到脚手架，比每个人单独把砖搬到脚手架上去要快得多。特别在有限的短时间内，协作可以完成紧急的工作。

Second, cooperation possesses systematicity. Cooperation is a systemic whole formed by the interconnection and combination of individual workers; the sum of individual labor is essentially different from combined labor. In the *Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863*, Marx pointed out that “this form is the basis of all social combinations aimed at raising social labor productivity.” [18]18 Karl Marx, *Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863*. On the one hand, cooperation can expand the spatial scope of labor; under cooperation, labor “can process the object of labor from multiple aspects in space,” [19]19 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. such as digging canals, building roads, laying railways, and so on. On the other hand, cooperation can spatially reduce the production site, concentrating the application of labor power and means of production in a smaller area. Due to “the aggregation of workers, the proximity of different labor processes, and the concentration of means of production,” [20]20 Ibid. cooperation saves non-productive expenses, and “means of production used in common” [21]21 Ibid. generate economies of scale.

其二，协作具有系统性。协作是由单个劳动者相互联系结合形成的系统整体，单个劳动的总和与共同劳动有本质差别。马克思在《1861—1863年经济学手稿》中指出，“这种形式是一切以提高社会劳动生产率为目的的社会组合的基础”。一方面，协作可以扩大劳动空间，协作下的劳动“可以在空间上从多方面对劳动对象进行加工”，例如开凿运河、修筑道路、铺设铁路等等。另一方面，协作使空间上缩小生产场所，将劳动力和生产资料在较小的区域集中应用。由于“劳动者的集结、不同劳动过程的靠拢和生产资料的积聚”，协作节约了非生产费用，“共同使用的生产资料”产生规模效应。

Third, cooperation possesses sociality. Production activities have a social character. Marx pointed out that “an isolated individual outside society” engaging in production is “inconceivable.” [22]22 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*, Introduction. Humans are “by nature social animals,” [23]23 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. and the socialized production process inevitably involves connections between people. “When the worker cooperates in a planned way with others, he breaks through his individual limitations and exerts his species powers.” [24]24 Ibid. Engels pointed out in “The Part Played by Labor in the Transition from Ape to Man” that the development of labor prompted the close integration of members of society, because “everyone was clearly aware of the benefits of this common cooperation.” [25]25 Friedrich Engels, “The Part Played by Labor in the Transition from Ape to Man.” The objective existence of competitive relations in the cooperation process stimulates the subjective initiative of workers, prompting them not to lag behind and to concentrate their energy on improving work efficiency. Cooperation can stimulate “the competitive spirit of individuals” and “energize their vitality.” [26]26 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 1. Furthermore, workers play a complementary role. When a larger number of workers gather together, individual differences offset each other, manifesting as labor of a socially average nature. Complex labor processes can also “assign different operations to different people,” [27]27 Ibid. for example, in fishing, one person rows, one steers, and one casts the net.

其三，协作具有社会性。生产活动具有社会性，马克思指出，“孤立的一个人在社会之外进行生产”是“不可思议的”。人“天生是社会动物”，社会化的生产过程中必然伴随着人与人之间发生联系。“工人有计划地和他人合作，就打破了他个人的限制，发挥了他种属的能力”。恩格斯在《劳动在从猿到人的转变中的作用》中指出，劳动的发展促使社会成员紧密结合，因为“每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处”。协作过程客观存在着竞争的关系，激发了劳动者的主观能动性，促使其不甘落后，集中精力提高工作效率。协作能激发“个人的竞争心”“振奋精力”。此外，劳动者之间发挥了互补的作用。较多的工人聚集一起，个体的差异互相抵消，表现为社会平均性质的劳动。复杂的劳动过程也可以“把不同的操作分给不同的人”，例如，捕鱼过程中一人划船、一人掌舵、一人撒网。

Marx pointed out that large-scale socialized production requires commanding and coordinating individual activities to execute the overall movement of production. “A single violin player is his own conductor; an orchestra requires a conductor.” [28]28 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 4. The conductor performs the “functions of management, supervision, and regulation,” [29]29 Ibid. to “coordinate the activities of individuals and execute the general movement of production,” [30]30 Ibid. ensuring the orderly progress of social production, “just as a general’s commands are indispensable on the battlefield.” [31]31 Ibid. Engels, in *On Authority*, used the example of a railway to point out that “the cooperation of countless people is also absolutely necessary,” [32]32 Friedrich Engels, *On Authority*. and to ensure the safety of train operations, passengers must submit to the dominating will of the railway employees. In capitalist society, management has a dual character. On the one hand, management plays the role of directing social labor; the production process under management is “the social labor process for producing products.” [33]33 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume 1, Chapter 13, Section 4. When large-scale cooperation emerges, capitalists seek special wage-workers to perform the function of management, and “supervisory work becomes their exclusive function.” [34]34 Ibid. On the other hand, management is “the process of valorization of capital.” [35]35 Ibid. Capitalism is cooperative production commanded by capital; the capitalist’s command in production is aimed at “valorizing capital as much as possible.” [36]36 Ibid. Therefore, Marx pointed out that “capitalist management is despotic in its form.” [37]37 Ibid. The capitalist pays the value of individual labor power, not the value of cooperative labor power; therefore, the productive power generated by cooperation that exceeds the sum of individual labor costs the capitalist nothing. Today, the relative surplus value created by cooperation is much greater than in Marx’s time. The capitalist obtaining the productive power generated by cooperation “at no cost” means the deepening of the degree of exploitation.

马克思指出，社会化大生产需要指挥协调个人活动，执行生产总体运动。“一个单独的提琴手是自己指挥自己，一个乐队就需要一个乐队指挥。”指挥发挥着“管理、监督和调节的职能”，以“协调个人的活动，并执行生产总体的运动”，确保社会生产有序进行，“就像在战场上不能缺少将军的命令一样”。恩格斯在《论权威》中以铁路举例指出，“无数人的协作也是绝对必要的”，为了确保列车运行的安全，乘客必须服从铁路员工起支配作用的意志。在资本主义社会，管理具有二重性。一方面，管理发挥指挥社会劳动的作用，管理的生产过程是“制造产品的社会劳动过程”。当大规模的协作出现后，资本家寻找特殊的雇佣工人行使管理的职能，“监督工作固定为他们的专职”。另一方面，管理是“资本的价值增殖过程”。资本主义是以资本为指挥的协作生产，资本家在生产中的指挥是为了“尽可能多地自行增殖”。因此，马克思指出，“资本主义的管理就其形式来说是专制的”。资本家支付的是独立劳动力的价值并非协作劳动力的价值，因此协作产生的超过单个劳动总和的生产力，不费资本家分文。如今，协作创造的相对剩余价值比马克思所处的时代要大得多，资本家“不费分文”获得协作产生的生产力意味着剥削程度的加深。

Socialized large-scale production is deepening day by day, and cooperation is becoming increasingly important. We must make good use of the Marxist theory of cooperation to raise the level of departmental cooperation, organizational cooperation, and international cooperation. In particular, for developing new quality productive forces, we must promote deep integration of industries, deep integration of the digital economy and the real economy, and deep integration of industry, academia, and research, so as to achieve high-quality development. We must strengthen systematization, holism, and synergy, and further deepen reform across the board. We must expand the space for international cooperation, raise the scope and depth of cooperation, and create greater value. We must grasp the historical developmental trends and laws of cooperation, and, under the Party’s overall leadership and the centralized, unified leadership of the Party Central Committee, bring into play the collective force of cooperation, so as to concentrate resources to accomplish major tasks.

社会化大生产日益深化，协作越来越重要。我们要用好马克思主义协作理论，提高部门协作、组织协作、国际协作水平。尤其对于发展新质生产力来说，要推动产业深度融合、数字经济和实体经济深度融合、产学研深度融合等，实现高质量发展。加强系统性、整体性、协同性，进一步全面深化改革。扩大国际合作空间，提高合作的范围和深度，创造更大的价值。把握协作的历史发展趋势和规律，在党的全面领导和党中央集中统一领导下，发挥协作的集体力，实现集中力量办大事。

Online editor: Huihui

网络编辑：慧慧