How Marxism Understands “Heroes”

In his memorial speech after Marx’s death, Engels highly appraised Marx’s two great discoveries in his lifetime—historical materialism and the theory of surplus value. Regarding the former, he believed that just as Darwin discovered the law of development of the organic world, Marx discovered the law of development of human history. Before the birth of historical materialism, idealist conceptions of history long held a dominant position on questions of social history. Even Feuerbach, who had a significant influence on the formation of Marx’s materialist thought, was only a half-baked materialist—that is, he adhered to materialism in his view of nature, but once he entered the realm of history, he fell back into the quagmire of idealism. On the question of who creates history, historical materialism and idealist conceptions of history manifest respectively as the mass conception of history and the heroic conception of history. However, one must never conclude from this that affirming and esteeming heroic figures is the idealist heroic conception of history, nor can one think that Marxism’s adherence to the mass conception of history means negating the historical achievements of heroic figures. Marxism’s understanding of heroes is built upon a dialectical grasp of the relationship between the masses and heroic figures, forming an integrated whole with Marxism’s questions concerning the essence of history, the motive force of history, the direction of history, and so forth, fully embodying the fundamental spirit of historical materialism.

恩格斯在马克思去世后的纪念讲话中，高度评价了马克思一生的两个伟大发现——唯物史观与剩余价值学说。对于前者，他认为正如达尔文发现了有机界的发展规律一样，马克思发现了人类历史的发展规律。在唯物史观诞生之前，在社会历史问题上，唯心史观长期占据统治地位。即使对马克思唯物主义思想形成起过重大影响的费尔巴哈，也只是半截子的唯物主义，即在自然观上坚持了唯物主义，一旦进入历史领域就重新陷入唯心主义的泥淖。唯物史观和唯心史观在关于历史创造者问题上，则分别表现为群众史观与英雄史观。但是，决不能由此就认为肯定和崇尚英雄人物就是唯心主义的英雄史观，更不能认为马克思主义坚持群众史观就是否定英雄人物的历史功绩。马克思主义对英雄的理解建立在对人民群众与英雄人物关系的辩证把握之上，与马克思主义关于历史的本质、历史的动力、历史的方向等问题浑然成为一个整体，充分体现了唯物史观的根本精神。

When “hero” appears in the works of Marx and Engels, one usage carries a commendatory tone. It appears concentratedly in descriptions of the spiritual demeanor displayed by certain groups in the struggle of the proletariat against the reactionaries; this attitude is frequently expressed in *The Civil War in France*. For instance: “The heroic courage [Heldenmut] of the Communards showed Thiers that, with his own stratagems and the armed forces at his disposal, the resistance of Paris could not be broken.” In another passage: “The self-sacrificing heroism [Heldenmut] with which the whole people of Paris—men, women, and children—fought for a whole week after the entry of the Versailles troops into the city reflected the greatness of their cause.” The original German word for “heroic courage” here is *Heldenmut*; *Helden* is the plural form of hero, and *Mut* means courage, bravery. It can be seen from this that *Heldenmut*, as a compound word, expresses the spiritual temperament possessed by heroic figures as understood in the Chinese context. The two passages above also show that when Marx praised heroes, what he actually praised was the spirit of bravery and willingness to sacrifice displayed by the object of praise. Another usage carries a neutral attitude. It appears mostly in historical narratives; for example, Engels mentions it many times in *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State*, generally referring to the Heroic Age of Greece, that is, the period of the dissolution of the Greek clan system from approximately the 12th century BC to the 9th century BC. In the heroic legends of the Heroic Age, heroes were a kind of superhuman being with divine qualities. Although early Greek poetry had a certain worshipful character towards them, the Heroic Age Engels spoke of merely refers to a specific stage of social development, carrying no commendatory or derogatory connotation.

“英雄”在马克思和恩格斯的著作中出现时，一种是褒扬的色彩。集中出现于描写无产阶段同反动派的斗争中某些人群表现出的精神风貌，这一态度在《法兰西内战》中多有表现。比如：“公社战士的英雄气概向梯也尔表明，凭他自己的谋略和他所掌握的武装力量，巴黎的抵抗是无法击破的。”在另一处写道：“巴黎全体人民——男人、妇女和儿童——在凡尔赛军队开进城内以后还战斗了一个星期的那种自我牺牲的英雄气概，反映出他们事业的伟大”。这里的“英雄气概”原版德文词是Heldenmut，Helden是英雄的复数形式，mut的意思是勇气、胆量。由此可以看出，Heldenmut作为复合词表达的就是汉语语境中所说的英雄人物所具有的精神气质。以上的两处文字也表明，马克思赞扬英雄时，赞扬的实际是被赞扬对象身上所表现出的英勇、敢于牺牲的精神。另一种是中性的态度。多出现在对历史的叙述中，比如恩格斯在《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》中多次提到，一般指希腊的英雄时代，即约公元前十二世纪到公元前九世纪的希腊氏族制度解体时代。在英雄时代的英雄传说中英雄是某种具有神性的超人，希腊早期诗歌虽然对其具有一定的崇拜性质，但恩格斯所说的英雄时代仅仅是指社会发展的某一特定阶段，并无褒贬色彩。

From the analysis above, it is not difficult to see that when Marx and Engels discussed “heroes,” what they affirmed or praised was the spirit of fearless bravery displayed by certain individuals or groups.

从上面的分析不难看出，马克思和恩格斯论及“英雄”时，肯定或赞扬的是某些人物或群体身上所表现出的英勇无畏的精神品质。

The reason Marx and Engels held this conception of “heroes” is determined by the fundamental principles of historical materialism. Historical materialism holds that the production of material goods is the prerequisite for the existence of human society; the contradiction between the productive forces, as the capacity for material goods production, and the relations of production, along with the contradiction between the economic base and the superstructure derived from it, constitute the fundamental motive force driving the development of social history. The masses are the bearers of material goods, and are therefore the creators of history, the true heroes. However, Marxism’s view that the masses are the true creators of history does not negate the historical role of outstanding individuals. Outstanding individuals, by virtue of factors such as their exceptional wisdom and ability, as well as their excellent qualities and character, may play a tremendous role in specific historical events or particular historical stages, exerting a significant influence on the course of history. But outstanding individuals do not drive the historical process independently by themselves. If, following daily custom, we can call these outstanding individuals heroes, then the role of heroes lies precisely in their deep rooting among the masses, gathering the wisdom and strength latent within the people. Therefore, Lenin, in the oratorical tone of a revolutionary, emphasized that heroic revolutionary fighters must be closely linked with the people, calling them “young helmsmen in the coming storm,” but not the storm itself; “the storm is the movement of the masses themselves.” [1]1 Lenin, “The Tasks of the Youth Leagues” (1920). The full quotation is: “We are the party of the future, and the future belongs to the youth. We are a party of innovators, and it is always the youth that follows the innovators. We are a party that sacrifices itself for the cause of the proletariat, and it is always the youth that makes the most self-sacrificing struggle.” The specific phrasing used here (“young helmsmen in the coming storm”) is a paraphrase or composite drawn from Lenin’s revolutionary rhetoric. The Russian Marxist Plekhanov further elucidated: “An individual can influence the fate of society through certain traits of his character. Sometimes his influence can even be very great; however, both the very possibility of this influence and its scale are determined by the organization of society and the correlation of social forces. An individual’s character is a ‘factor’ of social development only in that place, at that time, and to that extent that social relations permit him to be so.” [2]2 G.V. Plekhanov, *The Role of the Individual in History* (1898). This is a classic Marxist text arguing that while individuals can influence events, the scope of their influence is determined by objective social conditions. From the words of Lenin and Plekhanov, it can be seen that Marxism’s adherence to the mass conception of history and opposition to the heroic conception of history on the question of who creates history does not mean negating the role of heroic figures; rather, it is because the heroic conception of history severs the connection between heroic figures and the masses, exaggerating the outstanding achievements of heroic figures and attributing them solely to their personal exceptional talent or individual struggle.

马克思和恩格斯之所以具有这种“英雄”观，是由历史唯物主义的基本原理决定的。历史唯物主义认为，物质资料的生产是人类社会存在的前提，作为物质资料生产能力的生产力与生产关系的矛盾以及由此衍生出的经济基础与上层建筑的矛盾是推动社会历史发展的根本动力，而人民群众正是物质资料的承担者，从而是历史的创造者，是真正的英雄。但是，马克思主义认为人民群众是历史的真正创造者，并不是否定杰出人物的历史作用。杰出人物以其过人的智慧才能以及优秀的品质性格等方面的因素，可能在具体历史事件或特定历史阶段中发挥巨大作用，对历史进程产生重大影响。但杰出人物推动历史进程并不是自身就能够独立完成的。如果我们按照日常习惯可以将这些杰出人物称为英雄，那么英雄的作用发挥恰在于他们深深扎根人民群众之中，汇聚起了蕴藏在人民中的智慧和力量。因此，列宁以革命家的演说口吻强调，英雄的革命战士要同人民密切联系起来，说他们是“未来风暴中的年轻舵手”，但还不是风暴本身，“风暴是群众自身的运动”。俄国马克思主义者普列汉诺夫则进一步阐明，“个人因其性格的某些特点能够影响社会的命运。有时他们的影响甚至是非常大的，不过，无论是这种影响的可能性本身，还是影响的规模，都是由社会组织、社会力量的对比来决定的。个人的性格只有在社会关系许他这样做的那个地方、那个时候和那种程度内，才是社会发展的‘因素’。”从列宁和普列汉诺夫的话可以看出，马克思主义在历史创造者问题上坚持群众史观而反对英雄史观，并不是否定英雄人物的作用，而是在于英雄史观割裂了英雄人物与人民群众的联系，把英雄人物的突出功绩夸大并归结为其个人的杰出才华或自我奋斗。

After Marxism was introduced into China, it continuously integrated with the excellent traditional Chinese culture. In its attitude towards heroes, it both adheres to the fundamental spirit of historical materialism and exhibits strong national cultural characteristics. These two aspects are unified with each other, forming a uniquely Chinese Communist Party heroic culture. Regarding the former aspect, the heroic figures who emerged in various stages of the Chinese revolution, construction, and reform were themselves the most ordinary members of the masses. For example, Liu Hulan was merely an ordinary Communist Party member, and Zhang Side was merely an ordinary revolutionary soldier. [3]3 Liu Hulan (1932–1947) was a young Communist Party member executed by Nationalist forces during the Chinese Civil War; Mao Zedong’s inscription “a great life, a glorious death” made her a national martyr. Zhang Side (1915–1944) was a soldier in the Communist Eighth Route Army who died while burning charcoal; Mao’s eulogy for him, “Serve the People,” became one of the most famous texts of the Chinese Communist Party. As typical figures, they represented the will of the masses and embodied the shining qualities of the masses. Regarding the latter aspect, this heroic culture inherits the value tradition of the excellent traditional Chinese culture that values the spiritual worth of people and esteems the power of moral character—of course, this value tradition is highly compatible with Marxism in its attitude towards heroes. For instance, as early as the pre-Qin period, Confucius said, “The commander of the three armies may be taken away, but the will of even a common man cannot be taken from him.” [4]4 Confucius, *Analects*, 9:26. A classical Confucian saying emphasizing the inviolability of individual moral will. Mencius further proposed the heroic spirit of being willing to sacrifice one’s life for righteousness. [5]5 Mencius, *Mencius*, 6A:10. “I desire life, and I also desire righteousness. If I cannot have both, I will give up life and choose righteousness.” This is the foundational statement of the Confucian ideal of sacrificing life for moral principle. The many heroic figures who appeared in later history, whether for their defense of national and state interests or for their bravery and unyieldingness in the face of danger and tyranny, owe their lasting fame primarily to their lofty spirit. In Liu Hulan and Zhang Side, the fusion of these two aspects is precisely embodied. Therefore, Mao Zedong praised Liu Hulan as having “lived a great life and died a glorious death” and praised Zhang Side, saying “his death is weightier than Mount Tai.” [6]6 Mao Zedong, “Serve the People” (1944). The phrase “weightier than Mount Tai” is a classical Chinese idiom for supreme importance, drawn from Sima Qian’s *Records of the Grand Historian*. Entering the New Era, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out, “A hopeful nation cannot be without heroes, a promising country cannot be without pioneers,” and “The New Era is an era that produces heroes.” [7]7 Xi Jinping, speech at a ceremony awarding the “Medal of the Republic” and national honorary titles (29 September 2019). The full quotation is: “A hopeful nation cannot be without heroes, a promising country cannot be without pioneers. The New Era is an era that produces heroes.” The key words in the General Secretary’s statements—“heroes,” “pioneers,” “era”—reflect the dialectical relationship between heroes and the masses, and between heroes and the era, embodying the adherence to the Marxist view of heroes and the promotion of the excellent traditional Chinese cultural view of heroes.

马克思主义传入中国后，不断与中华优秀传统文化相结合，在对待英雄的态度上，既坚持历史唯物主义的根本精神，又体现出极强的民族文化特色，两方面相互统一，形成独具特色的中国共产党英雄文化。就前一方面来说，在中国革命、建设和改革各个阶段出现的英雄人物，本身就是最为普通的人民群众，比如刘胡兰只是一名普通的共产党员，张思德只是一名普通的革命战士，作为典型人物，他们代表的是人民群众的意愿，身上集合了人民群众的闪光点。就后一方面来说，这一英雄文化又继承了中华优秀传统文化重视人的精神价值、推崇道德品格力量的价值传统——当然这一价值传统在对英雄的态度上是与马克思主义高度契合的。比如早在先秦时期，孔子就说“三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也”，孟子进一步提出可舍生取义的英雄气概。在后来历史中出现的众多英雄人物，或因其对民族和国家利益的维护，或以其面对危难与强权时的英勇不屈，他们名垂青史的最大原因就在于其崇高的精神。在刘胡兰与张思德身上，正体现了这两方面的融合，因此毛泽东评价刘胡兰“生的伟大，死的光荣”，评价张思德“他的死是比泰山还要重的”。进入新时代，习近平总书记指出，“一个有希望的民族不能没有英雄，一个有前途的国家不能没有先锋”，“新时代是成就英雄的时代”。总书记这些话里的关键词“英雄”“先锋”“时代”，反映出英雄与人民群众、英雄与时代的辩证关系，体现了对马克思主义英雄观的坚守、对中华优秀传统文化英雄观的弘扬。

Online Editor: Huihui

网络编辑：慧慧