How Marxism Understands “Productive Forces”

Productive forces are the ultimate decisive force driving the development and progress of human society. The state of development of productive forces represents the breadth and depth of humanity’s transformation and utilization of nature, marking the level of development and degree of civilization of human society. The theory of productive forces has also become a fundamental theory within the categories of Marxist political economy and philosophy. So, what are “productive forces”? How should we understand the dynamic evolution of “productive forces”?

生产力是推动人类社会发展和进步的最终决定力量，生产力的发展状况代表着人类改造和利用自然的广度和深度，标志着人类社会的发展水平和文明程度，生产力理论也成为马克思主义政治经济学和哲学范畴的基本理论。那么，什么是“生产力”呢？如何理解“生产力”的动态演进呢？

In Marx’s view, productive forces are humanity’s capacity to transform and utilize nature, that is, the material force formed in the course of production practice to transform and influence nature so that it meets social needs. Productive forces originate from the practical relationship between humanity and nature; they are a comprehensive force formed in the process of humanity’s active transformation of nature, not merely the contingent, unitary, and intuitive result of workers directly applying tools to transform natural objects. As Marx and Engels mentioned in *The German Ideology*, “just as the ‘struggle’ of men against nature promotes the development of their productive forces on a corresponding basis,” productive forces originate from the historical relationship between humanity and nature; therefore, productive forces possess the characteristic of objective reality. For Marx, productive forces are not only a natural relation but also a social relation. On this point, Marx and Engels described it in *The German Ideology* as follows: “a definite mode of production, or definite industrial stage, is always combined with a definite mode of co-operation, or definite social stage, and this mode of co-operation is itself a ‘productive force’.” [1]1 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, *The German Ideology* (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976), p. 50. It can be seen from this that Marx and Engels had already discarded the traditional concept of productive forces, instead interpreting them from the perspective of social relations such as division of labor, production, and intercourse. At the same time, “productive force is of course always the productive force of useful, concrete labour.” [2]2 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume I (Moscow: Progress Publishers, n.d.), p. 47. Marx believed that productive forces arise in the labor process and are the capacity for labor output. On this basis, Marx proposed in *Capital* that the three elements of the worker, the means of labor, and the subject of labor together constitute the basic form of productive forces, far surpassing the three elements of capital, labor, and land in Western theories of productive forces. Whether it is the three elements of productive forces mentioned by Marx or productive forces themselves, they run through the entire history of human social development; therefore, productive forces possess the characteristic of social historicity.

在马克思看来，生产力是人类改造自然和利用自然的能力，即人类在生产实践中形成的改造和影响自然以使其适合社会需要的物质力量。生产力源自人类与自然的实践性关系，是人类在能动地改造自然的过程中形成的综合性力量，而不是单纯指劳动者直接作用于劳动工具以达到对自然对象改造目的的偶然性、单一性、直观性的结果。正如马克思、恩格斯在《德意志意识形态》中提到的，“就像人与自然的‘斗争’促进其生产力在相应基础上的发展一样”，生产力源自于人与自然的历史关系之中，因此生产力具有客观现实性的特点。在马克思这里，生产力不仅是一种自然关系，而且也是一种社会关系，就这一观点，马克思、恩格斯在《德意志意识形态》中是这样描述的，“一定的生产方式或一定的工业阶段始终是与一定的共同活动方式或一定的社会阶段联系着的，而这种共同活动方式本身就是‘生产力’”。由此可见，马克思、恩格斯已经摒弃传统的生产力理念，转而从分工、生产、交往等社会关系角度来解读生产力。与此同时，“生产力当然始终是有用的、具体的劳动的生产力”，马克思认为生产力是在劳动过程中产生的，是劳动产出的能力。在此基础上，马克思在《资本论》中提出劳动者、劳动资料和劳动对象三大要素共同构成了生产力的基本形态，这远远超越了西方生产力理论中的资本、劳动、土地三要素。无论是马克思所提到的生产力三要素还是生产力本身都贯穿人类社会历史发展的始终，因此生产力具有社会历史性的特点。

Marx and Engels further analyzed the social role of productive forces. First, productive forces are the most fundamental dynamic factor in the movement of social contradictions and the material foundation for social existence and development. Engels’s remark in *Dialectics of Nature* that “the men who in the 17th and 18th centuries laboured to create the steam engine had no idea that the instrument they were putting into the world would, more than any other, revolutionize the social conditions throughout the world” precisely illustrates this point. The state of development of productive forces is the fundamental standard for measuring social development and is also the original and long-term force driving social development and progress. The development of productive forces is not only the basic content of social material civilization but also the basic material condition constraining the development of political civilization, cultural-ethical progress, and ecological civilization; it also promotes the development of world history. Second, based on the law of the contradictory movement between productive forces and relations of production, it reveals that productive forces are the fundamental driving force and ultimate decisive force in the historical development of human society. Marx and Engels profoundly discussed the dialectical relationship between productive forces and relations of production in *The German Ideology*, arguing that social productive forces determine major changes in social relations and social formations, and that the contradiction between productive forces and relations of production determines the contradiction between the economic base and the superstructure, as well as the existence and development of other social contradictions, constituting the fundamental driving force for the development of social formations. This is also a basic viewpoint of historical materialism. Finally, as the fundamental driving force for the economic development of human society, the sum total of productive forces determines the state of society. As Marx and Engels stated in *The German Ideology*: “Thus it can be seen that the sum total of productive forces attained by men determines the state of society.” [3]3 Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, p. 52. That is to say, in the process of transforming nature, the elevation of the level of productive forces affects social relations such as the division of labor and modes of exchange, promotes changes in the mode of social existence, and realizes the growth of material wealth, thereby also determining society’s production efficiency and production level.

马克思、恩格斯进一步分析了生产力的社会作用。首先，生产力是社会矛盾运动中最基本的动力因素，是社会存在和发展的物质基础。恩格斯在《自然辩证法》中提到的“17世纪和18世纪从事制造蒸汽机的人们也没有料到，他们所制作的工具，比其他任何东西都更能使全世界的社会状态发生革命”，恰好说明了这一点。生产力的发展状况是衡量社会发展的根本标准尺度，也是推动社会发展进步的本原和长远的力量。生产力的发展不仅是社会物质文明的基本内容，也是制约政治文明、精神文明和生态文明发展的基本物质条件，同时也推动了世界历史的发展。其次，以生产力和生产关系的矛盾运动规律为基础揭示了生产力是推动人类社会历史发展的根本动力和最终决定力量。马克思、恩格斯在《德意志意识形态》中对生产力与生产关系的辩证关系进行了深刻论述，认为社会生产力决定着社会关系和社会形态的重大变革，而生产力和生产关系的矛盾决定着经济基础和上层建筑的矛盾，也决定着社会其他矛盾的存在和发展，构成了社会形态发展的根本动力，这也是唯物史观的基本观点。最后，作为推动人类社会经济发展的根本动力所在，生产力的总和决定着社会状况。正如马克思、恩格斯在《德意志意识形态》中提到的，“由此可见，人们所达到的生产力的总和决定着社会状况”。也就是说，在改造自然的过程中生产力水平的提升会影响社会分工、交换方式等社会关系，促进社会存在方式的变革，实现物质财富的增长，因而也决定了社会的生产效能和生产水平。

In the Preface to *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*, Marx stated: “At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or—this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms—with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto.” [4]4 Karl Marx, Preface to *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1970), p. 21. This indicates that the liberation and development of productive forces will run through the entire great practice of socialist revolution, construction, and reform. It is under the guidance of this theory that the Communist Party of China has led the Chinese people in liberating and developing productive forces. During the period of socialist revolution and construction, facing a backward agricultural country, Mao Zedong emphasized liberating and developing productive forces by adjusting relations of production, innovating factors of production, and establishing socialist ownership of the means of production, which opened the way for concentrating efforts on developing socialist productive forces. Marx repeatedly stated that “productive forces include science.” [5]5 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse* (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 704. On this basis, Deng Xiaoping emphasized that “when speaking of socialism, the first thing is to develop the productive forces,” [6]6 Deng Xiaoping, “Building a Socialism with a Specifically Chinese Character,” in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, Volume III (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994), p. 63. creatively put forward the famous thesis that “science and technology constitute a primary productive force,” [7]7 Deng Xiaoping, “Science and Technology Constitute a Primary Productive Force,” in *Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping*, Volume III, p. 274. and in his Southern Talks [8]8 Deng Xiaoping’s Southern Talks: A series of speeches delivered by Deng Xiaoping during an inspection tour of southern China (Wuhan, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shanghai) in early 1992, which reaffirmed the direction of reform and opening up and market-oriented reforms. took “liberating and developing the productive forces” as the essence of socialism and the “criterion of productive forces” as one of the criteria for judging the success or failure of work. Productive forces were greatly enhanced during reform and opening up, which pointed the way forward for developing socialist productive forces with Chinese characteristics. The important thought of the Three Represents [9]9 The Three Represents: A guiding ideology introduced by Jiang Zemin at the 16th National Congress of the CPC (2002), stating that the Party must always represent the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces, the orientation of China’s advanced culture, and the fundamental interests of the broadest masses of the Chinese people. put forward that “the CPC must always represent the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces,” [10]10 Jiang Zemin, “Report to the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China,” 2002. revealing the connotation of “advanced productive forces.” In the new century and new stage, the Scientific Outlook on Development [11]11 Scientific Outlook on Development: A guiding socio-economic principle proposed by Hu Jintao, formally adopted at the 17th National Congress of the CPC (2007), emphasizing comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable development with people-centeredness. placed the overall focus of developing productive forces on “comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable development,” [12]12 Hu Jintao, “Report to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China,” 2007. focusing on answering major questions such as “what kind of development to achieve and how to achieve it” for productive forces. This effectively improved the contradictions between productive forces and relations of production, and between the economic base and superstructure, during the primary stage of socialism, and further enhanced socialist productive forces.

在《〈政治经济学批判〉序言》中，马克思提到，“社会的物质生产力发展到一定阶段，便同它们一直在其中运动的现存生产关系或财产关系发生矛盾”。由此表明解放和发展生产力将贯穿整个社会主义革命、建设和改革的伟大实践，中国共产党正是在此理论指引下带领中国人民解放和发展生产力。社会主义革命和建设时期，面对落后的农业国，毛泽东强调通过调整生产关系、革新生产力因素、建立生产资料的社会主义所有制来解放和发展生产力，这为集中力量发展社会主义生产力开辟了道路。马克思多次提到“生产力中也包括科学”，邓小平在此基础上强调“讲社会主义，首先就要使生产力发展”，创造性地提出“科学技术是第一生产力”的著名论断，并在南方谈话中将“解放生产力，发展生产力”作为社会主义的本质，将“生产力标准”作为检验工作是非得失的判断标准之一，生产力在改革开放中得到极大提高，这为发展中国特色社会主义生产力指明了光明前景。“三个代表”重要思想提出“中国共产党始终代表中国先进生产力的发展要求”，揭示了“先进生产力”的内涵。新世纪新阶段，科学发展观将发展生产力的总抓手放在“全面协调可持续”之上，重在回答要使生产力“实现什么样的发展、怎样发展”等重大问题，使社会主义初级阶段生产力和生产关系、经济基础和上层建筑的矛盾得到了有效改善，社会主义生产力得到进一步提升。

Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, [13]13 The 18th National Congress of the CPC: Held in November 2012, the congress at which Xi Jinping became General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, marking the beginning of the New Era. General Secretary Xi Jinping has further promoted the transformation of productive forces and the reshaping of relations of production in the process of comprehensively and holistically developing productive forces. Facing a new round of scientific and technological revolution and industrial transformation, he put forward the original viewpoint of “developing new quality productive forces,” opening a new chapter and drawing a new blueprint for raising productive forces to a new level and new qualitative state. As Marx said, “the productive power of labour is determined… by the degree of skill of the workers and the state of development of science and its technological application,” [14]14 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Volume I, p. 43. and new quality productive forces have emerged precisely in this sense. Compared with traditional productive forces, new quality productive forces represent the innovation and development of the Marxist theory of productive forces by the Chinese Communists in the New Era. From the perspective of the worker, new quality productive forces require workers to possess stronger innovation awareness, greater knowledge reserves, and higher skill levels. From the perspective of the means of labor, new quality productive forces are guided by the new development philosophy, [15]15 New development philosophy: A set of five development concepts—innovation, coordination, green, openness, and sharing—first articulated by Xi Jinping in 2015 and formally adopted as a guiding principle for the 13th Five-Year Plan period (2016–2020). driven internally by scientific and technological innovation, supported by original and disruptive technologies, and powered by digital technology and artificial intelligence, characterized by high technology, high efficiency, and high quality. From the perspective of the subject of labor, new quality productive forces aim to take new industries, new models, and new drivers of growth as breakthroughs, and strategic emerging industries and future industries as the “testing ground” and main carrier. Developing new quality productive forces in the New Era helps China accelerate the achievement of high-level scientific and technological self-reliance and self-strengthening in the process of adapting to the new technological revolution and industrial transformation trends. This is of great significance for achieving high-quality development, advancing Chinese-path modernization, and realizing the goal of building China into a great modern socialist country in all respects on the new journey of the New Era.

党的十八大以来，习近平总书记在全面、整体发展生产力的过程中进一步推动生产力变革和生产关系重塑，面对新一轮科技革命和产业变革，提出“发展新质生产力”这一原创性观点，为提高生产力新水准和新质态开启了新篇章、擘画了新蓝图。正如马克思所说，“劳动生产力是随着科学和技术的不断进步而不断发展的”，新质生产力正是在此意义上应运而生。与传统生产力相比较而言，新质生产力是新时代中国共产党人对马克思主义生产力理论的创新和发展。从劳动者方面来看，新质生产力要求劳动者具备更强的创新意识、更多的知识储备、更高的技能水平。从劳动资料方面来看，新质生产力以新发展理念为指导，以科技创新为内驱动力，以原创性技术、颠覆性技术为支撑，以数字技术、人工智能为引擎，具有高科技、高效能、高质量的特征。从劳动对象方面来看，新质生产力旨在以新产业、新模式、新动能为突破口，以战略性新兴产业和未来产业为“试炼场”和主要载体。在新时代发展新质生产力有助于我国在顺应新技术革命和产业变革趋势中加快实现高水平科技自立自强，对新时代新征程上实现高质量发展、推进中国式现代化、实现全面建成社会主义现代化强国的目标具有重大意义。

Marx and Engels concretely demonstrated and elaborated the scientific connotation, basic characteristics, and significant role of productive forces in economic and social development. Guided by this theory, the Communist Party of China, taking the realization of the fundamental interests of the broadest masses of the people as its starting point, has continuously deepened the Marxist understanding of productive forces in its successive planning and deployment for liberating and developing socialist productive forces.

马克思、恩格斯具体论证阐述了生产力的科学内涵、基本特征及其对经济社会发展的重大作用，以此理论为指导，中国共产党以实现最广大人民的根本利益为出发点，在接续解放和发展社会主义生产力的谋篇布局中不断深化马克思主义对生产力的理解。

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