The Empirical-Scientific Character of the Materialist Conception of History

Regarding the empirical-scientific character of the materialist conception of history, there are mainly three different attitudes and views in academia: one fully affirms it, identifying the materialist conception of history as an empirical science; one categorically denies it, insisting that the materialist conception of history is not an empirical science; and one is vague and ambiguous, neither affirming nor denying it. The first attitude and view conform to Marx’s original intention, while the latter two are far from it. Marx believed that the materialist conception of history is an empirical science, which is reflected not only in his direct expression of this view on more than one occasion, but also in the spiritual essence or essential attributes of his materialist conception of history.

关于唯物史观的实证科学性质，学术界主要有三种不同的态度和看法：一种充分肯定，指认唯物史观是实证科学；一种断然否定，坚称唯物史观不是实证科学；一种模糊含混，既不肯定也不否定。第一种态度和看法符合马克思的本意，后两种则相去甚远。马克思认为唯物史观是实证科学，这不仅体现在他不止一次地直接表达了这一看法，而且体现在其唯物史观的精神实质或本质属性当中。

Marx repeatedly discussed the empirical-scientific character of the materialist conception of history, the most representative of which is the classic formulation in *The German Ideology*: “Where speculation ends—in real life—there real, positive science begins: the representation of the practical activity, of the practical process of development of men. The empty talk about consciousness ceases, and real knowledge has to take its place.” [1]1 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *The German Ideology* (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976), p. 37. Taking a comprehensive view of this formulation and the relevant elucidations in important texts such as the *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844* and the *Theses on Feuerbach*, it is not difficult to find that the empirical-scientific character of the materialist conception of history as understood by Marx is relative to the speculative philosophy represented by Hegel. Given that speculative philosophy, represented by Hegel, engages in abstract theoretical speculation far removed from the practical activities of the masses of the people and the actual conditions of real life, enthusiastically constructing abstract, logically rigorous philosophical systems that proceed from concept to concept, while avoiding discussion of the roots of the suffering and oppression endured by the masses—a serious limitation—Marx pointed out: the materialist conception of history he himself founded is a new philosophy. This new philosophy resolutely opposes all kinds of philosophical empty talk, and instead focuses on critically examining the irrational social phenomena that appear in real life, identifying the deep-seated causes of these phenomena from within them, and then systematically investigating the objective laws of human historical development, in order to guide people in better transforming the real world and ultimately realizing the free and comprehensive development of each individual. Therefore, the “empirical science” that Marx refers to as the materialist conception of history is both connected to and distinct from the “empirical science” understood by natural scientists—that is, a system of scientific theory formed by scientists in pre-established, ideal natural environments through methods such as scientific observation, scientific experimentation, and scientific induction. It inherits the truth-seeking spirit of empirical science in the natural-scientific sense, and endows it with new connotations or essential attributes: reality, practicality, criticality, and affinity to the people.

马克思曾多次谈及唯物史观具有实证科学性质，其中最具代表性的是《德意志意识形态》中的经典表述：“在思辨终止的地方，在现实生活面前，正是描述人们的实践活动和实际发展过程的真正实证科学开始的地方。关于意识的空话将终止，它们一定被真正的知识所代替。”综观这一表述和《1844年经济学哲学手稿》《关于费尔巴哈的提纲》等重要文本中的相关阐明，不难发现马克思所理解的唯物史观的实证科学性质，是与以黑格尔为代表的思辨哲学相对而言的。鉴于以黑格尔为代表的思辨哲学远离人民群众的实践活动和现实生活的实际状况进行抽象的理论思辨，热衷于构建抽象的、从概念到概念的、逻辑严密的哲学体系，而对人民群众遭受的苦难和压迫的根源避而不谈的严重局限性，马克思指出：他自己所创立的唯物史观是一种新哲学，这种新哲学坚决反对各种哲学空谈，而注重批判性地考察现实生活中出现的不合理的社会现象，并从中找出这些现象产生的深刻根源，进而系统考察人类历史发展的客观规律，以指导人们更好地变革现实世界，最终实现每个人的自由全面发展。因此，马克思所谈及的唯物史观是实证科学中的“实证科学”，与自然科学家们所理解的“实证科学”，即科学家在预先创设的、理想的自然环境中，通过科学观察、科学实验、科学归纳等途径或方法形成的科学理论体系既有联系，更有区别，它继承了自然科学意义上的实证科学所具有的求真精神，并赋予其新的内涵或本质属性：现实性、实践性、批判性、人民性。

The reality of the materialist conception of history. Given that German speculative philosophers “not one of them has thought of inquiring into the connection of German philosophy with German reality, the relation of their criticism to their own material surroundings,” [2]2 Ibid., p. 39. the materialist conception of history focuses precisely on the material living conditions and spiritual living conditions of real individuals in real history. To this end, it deeply investigates the laws of development from primitive society, through slave society and feudal society, to capitalist society and socialist and communist society, as well as the developmental conditions of the material life, spiritual life, and other aspects of real individuals living in these historical stages. Based on the fact that since the 1840s, most countries and regions have been in a historical stage of transition from capitalist society to socialist and communist society, the materialist conception of history focuses on studying the historical inevitability of the rise, development, and demise of capitalist society and the realization of communism. It comprehensively reveals the economic, political, and cultural conditions of the real people in capitalist society—the bourgeoisie and the proletariat—and profoundly exposes the social reality of capitalism: the capitalists own all the means of production, while the wage workers own nothing; to survive, they are forced to work in the capitalists’ factories, suffering cruel exploitation and enslavement. The capitalist “goes before, with a bold step and a business-like air”; the wage worker “follows him, trembling and hesitating, like one who has sold his own skin, and is only waiting to be tanned.” [3]3 Karl Marx, *Capital*, Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), p. 176. The cruel exploitation and oppression by the capitalists inevitably provoke fierce resistance from the working class, hence “the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.” [4]4 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party* (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), p. 44. The reality of the materialist conception of history is reflected not only in the above content, but also in the fact that every one of its viewpoints and every one of its principles originates from real history and is a profound reflection of real history.

唯物史观的现实性。鉴于德国思辨哲学家“没有一个想到要提出关于德国哲学和德国现实之间的联系问题，关于他们所作的批判和他们自身的物质环境之间的联系问题”，唯物史观关注的正是现实历史中的现实的个人的物质生活状况和精神生活状况。为此，它深入考察了自原始社会、奴隶社会到封建社会，再到资本主义社会、社会主义与共产主义社会的发展规律，以及生活于这些历史阶段中的现实的个人的物质生活、精神生活等方面的发展状况。基于19世纪40年代以来大多数国家和地区正处于由资本主义社会向社会主义、共产主义社会过渡的历史阶段，所以唯物史观重点研究资本主义社会的产生、发展、灭亡和共产主义实现的历史必然性，全面揭示资本主义社会中的现实的人——资产阶级和无产阶级的经济状况、政治状况、文化状况等，深刻揭露了资本主义的社会现实：资本家占有全部生产资料，雇佣工人一无所有，为了生存，不得不到资本家的工厂做工，遭受其残酷剥削和奴役。资本家“笑容满面、雄心勃勃”；雇佣工人“战战兢兢，畏缩不前，像在市场上出卖了自己的皮一样，只有一个前途一一让人家来鞣”。资本家的残酷剥削和压迫势必引起工人阶级的激烈反抗，于是“资产阶级的灭亡和无产阶级的胜利是同样不可避免的”。唯物史观的现实性不仅体现在上述内容中，而且体现在它的每一个观点、每一个原理均源自现实历史，都是对现实历史的深刻反映。

The practicality of the materialist conception of history. Speculative philosophy seeks abstract philosophical categories from each epoch, and starting from these abstract philosophical categories, it studies real society, causing its theories to be far removed from the masses of the people and to take on a mysterious, speculative character. The materialist conception of history, on the other hand, always examines various historical phenomena starting from material production practice. Production practice is the most essential distinction between humans and animals, and also the most essential distinction between one human and another: “As individuals express their life, so they are.” [5]5 Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, p. 32. Production practice is the first premise of all human existence, and also the first premise of all human history. Social phenomena such as politics, law, morality, and philosophy do not emerge from thin air; they originate, arise, and develop from material practice: “Empirical observation must in each separate instance bring out empirically, and without any mystification and speculation, the connection of the social and political structure with production… The social structure and the State are continually evolving out of the life-process of definite individuals.” [6]6 Ibid., p. 36. The basic laws of human history—the law that relations of production must correspond to the condition of productive forces, and the law that the superstructure must correspond to the condition of the economic base—are all generated in production practice. In a word, production practice is the most profound foundation for the existence and development of all human history. The practicality of the materialist conception of history is its most fundamental attribute, the cornerstone of the materialist conception of history; the viewpoint of practice is the primary and basic viewpoint of the materialist conception of history.

唯物史观的实践性。思辨哲学从每个时代中寻找抽象的哲学范畴，并从这些抽象的哲学范畴出发研究现实社会，导致其理论远离人民群众而具有神秘、思辨的色彩。唯物史观则始终从物质生产实践出发考察各种历史现象。生产实践是人与动物最本质的区别，也是人与人之间最本质的区别，“个人怎样表现自己的生活，他们自己也就怎样”；生产实践是一切人类生存的第一个前提，也是全部人类历史的第一个前提；政治、法律、道德、哲学等社会现象不是凭空出现的，都是从物质实践中起源、产生、发展的，“经验的观察在任何情况下都应当根据经验来揭示社会结构和政治结构同生产的联系……社会结构和国家总是从一定的个人的生活过程中产生的”；人类历史的基本规律即生产关系一定要适合生产力状况的规律、上层建筑一定要适合经济基础状况的规律都是在生产实践中生成的。一言以蔽之，生产实践是全部人类历史存在和发展最深刻的基础。唯物史观的实践性是唯物史观最根本的属性，是唯物史观的基石，实践的观点是唯物史观首要的和基本的观点。

The criticality of the materialist conception of history. Unlike speculative philosophy, which uses abstract theories to provide theoretical justification for capitalist private property, the materialist conception of history engages in ruthless criticism of the existing system of exploitation. To this end, it wages a resolute struggle against speculative philosophers who concoct various refined theoretical systems to beautify this system. For instance, in *The German Ideology*, Marx, exposing the theoretical limitations of speculative philosophers represented by Hegel, points out: the theoretical premise of German speculative philosophy is “consciousness” or “some imaginary, isolated, and fixed state of man,” hence its theoretical system advocates descending “from heaven to earth,” [7]7 Ibid., p. 42. holding that the spiritual realm determines real life and social consciousness determines social being, in order to use abstract concepts such as “Absolute Spirit,” “fixed man,” “self-consciousness,” and “the Unique One” as a cloak to provide a theoretical basis for the eternity of capital. This philosophy starts from abstract consciousness or imaginary, fixed man, rather than from the production and living conditions of real people, so in fact it has no premise; consequently, its entire theoretical system is naturally full of contradictions. “All German philosophical critics assert that ideas, notions, concepts have, up to now, dominated and determined the real men, that the real world is a product of the world of ideas.” [8]8 Ibid., p. 41. In contrast, the theoretical premise of the materialist conception of history is the “real individuals” in human history; its entire theoretical system truthfully depicts the production and living conditions of “real individuals” in each historical stage, along with the various historical phenomena related to them, viewing all of human history as an organic whole, thereby scientifically revealing the essence, features, and laws of human history. The criticality of the materialist conception of history is an important attribute of it; criticizing old philosophy is only a means, while constructing a new philosophy—the materialist conception of history—to provide the working masses with a scientific theoretical guide for transforming the real world is the end.

唯物史观的批判性。与思辨哲学用抽象的理论为资本主义私有制提供理论辩护不同，唯物史观对现存的剥削制度进行无情批判。为此，它与炮制各种精致的理论体系以美化这一制度的思辨哲学家进行坚决斗争。诸如，在《德意志意识形态》中，马克思揭露以黑格尔为代表的思辨哲学家的理论局限时指出：德国思辨哲学的理论前提是“意识”或“某种虚幻的离群索居和固定不变状态中的人”，因而其理论体系主张从“天国降到人间”，认为精神王国决定现实生活、社会意识决定社会存在，以便用“绝对精神”“固定不变的人”“自我意识”“唯一者”等抽象概念为外衣，为资本的永恒性提供理论依据。这种哲学从抽象的意识或虚幻的固定不变的人出发，而不从现实的人的生产、生活状况出发，所以实际上等于没有前提，因此其整个理论体系自然矛盾重重。“所有的德国哲学批判家们都断言：观念、想法、概念迄今一直支配和决定着现实的人，现实世界是观念世界的产物。”与此相反，唯物史观的理论前提是人类历史中的“现实的个人”，其整个理论体系如实描绘每一历史阶段中的“现实的个人”的生产、生活状况，以及与此相关的各种历史现象，将整个人类历史看作一个有机整体，从而科学揭示了人类历史的本质、面貌和规律。唯物史观的批判性是唯物史观的重要属性，批判旧哲学只是手段，建构新哲学——唯物史观，以便为劳动人民群众改造现实世界提供科学的理论指南才是目的。

The people-centered character of historical materialism. The old philosophy represented by speculative philosophy fell into idealist conceptions of history in its view of history; it trumpeted that a few heroic figures dominate and determine the development of human history. This conception of history “can see in history only the grand and magnificent deeds of princes and states,” while turning a blind eye to the creative power of the masses of the people. Historical materialism, by contrast, holds that material production practice determines the emergence and development of human history, and that the subject of material production practice is the masses of the people. Therefore, the masses of the people are the creators of history, and the source of history lies “in the coarse material production of the earthly world.” First, the masses of the people are the creators of society’s material wealth: “any people that stopped working, I will not say for a year, but for even a few weeks, would perish.” [9]9 Marx, letter to Ludwig Kugelmann, 11 July 1868. Second, the masses of the people are the creators of society’s spiritual wealth: “Critical Criticism has created nothing; the workers create everything, and even their spiritual creations put the whole of Criticism to shame.” [10]10 Marx and Engels, *The Holy Family*, Chapter 4. Finally, the masses of the people are the decisive force in social change: “History is nothing but the activity of the masses pursuing their own ends; as history deepens, the mass of the people necessarily expands.” [11]11 Marx and Engels, *The Holy Family*, Chapter 6. The people-centered character of historical materialism is not only expressed in the above formulations but also runs through its realism, its practical character, and its critical character. The people-centered character is both the starting point of historical materialism and its theoretical destination.

唯物史观的人民性。以思辨哲学为代表的旧哲学在历史观上陷入唯心史观，它鼓吹少数英雄人物主宰并决定人类历史的发展，这种历史观“只能在历史上看到元首和国家的丰功伟绩”，而对人民群众的创造伟力视而不见。唯物史观则认为物质生产实践决定人类历史的产生、发展，而物质生产实践的主体是人民群众，所以人民群众是历史的创造者，历史的发源地“在尘世的粗糙的物质生产中”。首先，人民群众是社会物质财富的创造者，“任何一个民族，如果停止劳动，不用说一年，就是几个星期，也要灭亡”。其次，人民群众是社会精神财富的创造者，“批判的批判什么都没有创造，工人才创造一切，甚至以他们的精神创造来说，也会使得整个批判感到羞愧”。最后，人民群众是社会变革的决定力量，“历史活动是群众的活动，随着历史活动的深入，必将是群众队伍的扩大”。唯物史观的人民性不仅体现在上述表述中，而且贯穿在唯物史观的现实性、实践性、批判性之中，人民性是唯物史观的出发点，也是其理论归宿。

In summary, the empirical-scientific character of historical materialism enables philosophy to become, for the first time, a science in the true sense. It demands that philosophy cannot stop at abstract logical deduction, cannot stop at theoretical critique that, while seemingly sharp, is in fact conservative because it does not touch the existing system of private property; rather, it must undergo the test of reality, the test of practice, and the test of the people.

综上所述，唯物史观的实证科学性质使得哲学首次成为一门真正意义上的科学。它要求哲学不能仅停留于抽象的逻辑推演，不能仅停留于不触及现存私有制的、貌似尖锐实则保守的理论批判，而要经受现实的检验、实践的检验和人民的检验。

(This article is a phased result of the National Social Science Fund major project “Research on Marx’s Concept of Community and Its Contemporary Value” [23&ZD200].)

（本文系国家社科基金重大项目“马克思共同体思想及其当代价值研究”（23&ZD200）阶段性成果）

(The authors are a professor at the School of Marxism, Central China Normal University, and a researcher at the Central China Normal University branch of the Research Center for the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.)

（作者系华中师范大学马克思主义学院教授；湖北省中国特色社会主义理论体系研究中心华中师范大学分中心研究员）

Online editor: Tongxin

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