The Ownership Basis of New Quality Productive Forces: An Examination Based on the Theory of Productive Forces and Relations of Production

With the advent of the fourth industrial revolution, disruptive and breakthrough technologies are constantly emerging, making a leap in productive forces possible on a global scale. In September 2023, General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed the concept of "new quality productive forces" during an inspection in Heilongjiang. At the Central Economic Work Conference in December of the same year, the concept of "new quality productive forces" gradually became clearer, proposing to promote industrial innovation through scientific and technological innovation, especially to spawn new industries, new models, and new drivers with disruptive technologies and cutting-edge breakthrough technologies. On January 31, 2024, the Political Bureau of the Party Central Committee, during its eleventh collective study on solidly advancing high-quality development, further clarified that new quality productive forces are an advanced state of productive forces that break away from traditional economic growth models and paths of productive forces development, characterized by high technology, high efficiency, and high quality, and conform to the new development philosophy. As the intrinsic requirement and key focal point for promoting high-quality development, new quality productive forces point the direction of "new" and "quality" for the leap in productive forces against the backdrop of the new industrial revolution.

伴随第四次工业革命的到来，颠覆性、突破性科技不断涌现，世界范围内生产力跃升成为可能。2023年9月，习近平总书记在考察黑龙江时首次提出“新质生产力”概念。同年12月的中央经济工作会议上，“新质生产力”的概念逐渐明晰，提出要以科技创新推动产业创新，特别是以颠覆性技术和前沿突破性技术催生新产业、新模式、新动能。2024年1月31日，中共中央政治局就扎实推进高质量发展问题，在第十一次集体学习中进一步明确新质生产力是摆脱传统经济增长方式、生产力发展路径，具有高科技、高效能、高质量特征，符合新发展理念的先进生产力质态。新质生产力作为推动高质量发展的内在要求和重要着力点，为新工业革命背景下的生产力跃升指明了“新”和“质”的方向。

New quality productive forces are advanced productive forces with scientific and technological innovation as the core element, and also realistic productive forces oriented towards industrial innovation. The leap from scientific and technological innovation to industrial innovation, achieving a leap in productive forces and forming new quality productive forces, is not accomplished overnight or spontaneously. From a historical perspective, only a few countries have been able to seize the opportunity of the technological revolution to achieve a leap in productive forces. Therefore, while the global technological revolution is in full swing, to seize the opportunity to promote a leap in China's productive forces and enable the full release and sustainable development of new quality productive forces, it is necessary, on the basis of continuing to adhere to the "Two Unwaverings" [1]1 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie* (Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1953), p. 594. [Translator’s note: The English translation follows the standard rendering in Marx’s *Grundrisse*, Penguin, 1973, p. 706.], to further deepen reforms comprehensively, break the structural constraints of old relations of production, form new relations of production that are compatible with them, and release the dividends of institutional innovation for promoting a larger-scale qualitative leap in productive forces under the backdrop of the technological revolution.

新质生产力是以科技创新为核心要素的先进生产力，也是以产业创新为导向的现实生产力。从科技创新到产业创新，实现生产力跃升并形成新质生产力，这一跨越并非一蹴而就、自发完成的。从历史角度看，只有少数国家能够把握科技革命的契机实现生产力跃升。因此，在全球科技革命如火如荼之际，要想抓住机会推动我国生产力跃升，使新质生产力得到充分释放和可持续发展，就必须在继续坚持“两个毫不动摇”的基础上，进一步全面深化改革，打破旧的生产关系的结构束缚，形成与之相适应的新型生产关系，为科技革命背景下促进生产力实现更大规模的质的跃升释放出制度创新的红利。

New quality productive forces are the latest achievement of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. Based on Marx's theoretical framework of productive forces and relations of production, ownership of the means of production is the core foundation of relations of production, and technology, as a material-technical force, is an important means of production. This article will take ownership, the core of relations of production, as the foundational perspective. On the basis of analyzing the mechanism of action of ownership of the means of production on new quality productive forces, it will focus on how China's public ownership economy and non-public ownership economy can synergistically form institutional advantages, jointly promoting the leap of scientific and technological innovation and industrial innovation into new quality productive forces.

新质生产力是马克思主义中国化时代化的最新成果，基于马克思生产力—生产关系理论框架，生产资料所有制是生产关系的核心基础，作为物质技术力量的科技则是重要的生产资料。本文将以所有制这一生产关系核心为基础视角，在剖析生产资料所有制对新质生产力作用机制的基础上，聚焦我国公有制经济与非公有制经济如何协同形成制度优势，共同促进科技创新、产业创新向新质生产力跨越。

I. The Marxist Analytical Framework of Productive Forces and Relations of Production and Its Significance for Reference

一、马克思主义生产力生产关系分析框架及借鉴意义

Productive forces and relations of production are a fundamental pair of categories in Marxist political economy. Marx and Engels believed that the contradictory movement of productive forces and relations of production is the basic driving force of the historical process. As the ability of humans to utilize, conquer, and transform nature, productive forces are the most active and revolutionary factor in production. The development of productive forces in the material production sphere is the highest criterion for measuring the progress of human society. Marx marveled that "the bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together" [2]2 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, in *Marx-Engels-Werke* (MEW), Vol. 23, p. 407. [Translator’s note: The English translation follows *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 451.], the subjugation of Nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalization of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground—what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labour?

生产力和生产关系是马克思主义政治经济学中的一对根本性范畴。马克思、恩格斯认为，生产力和生产关系的矛盾运动，是推动历史进程的基本动力。作为人类利用自然、征服自然和改造自然的能力，生产力是生产中最活跃、最革命的因素。物质生产领域的生产力发展是衡量人类社会进步的最高标准。马克思惊叹于“资产阶级在它的不到一百年的阶级统治中所创造的生产力，比过去一切世代创造的全部生产力还要多，还要大”，征服自然力、采用机器、在工业和农业中应用化学技术、轮船航行、铁路通行、电报使用、整个大陆的开垦、河川通航，在过去任何时代都不曾料想到在社会劳动里蕴藏有这样的生产力。

In Marx's relatively scattered exposition on relations of production, he did not give a clear definition of relations of production. He first pointed out that material production is a social activity—a purposeful productive activity—which can only be carried out by forming certain forms of social relations in society. "Men produce cloth, linen, silk stuffs in definite relations of production... These definite social relations are just as much produced by men as linen, flax, etc." [3]3 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, MEW 23, p. 194. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 285.], material relations are produced and developed by people in the process of producing goods. In the scattered expositions in the *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844*, *The German Ideology*, *Capital* and its manuscripts, Marx gave a relatively consistent definition of relations of production: relations of production are the social relations formed by people in material production activities, the foundation on which all other social relations of people are formed, and ownership of the means of production is the basis of relations of production, which is a system of economic relations (relations of interests) encompassing direct production, exchange, distribution, and consumption. In addition, Marx and Engels also pointed out that the mode of combination of laborers and the means of production—the evolution of the mode of production—is also one of the important forms of changes in productive forces. In a certain sense, "productive forces themselves are the technical form of the mode of production, and relations of production are the social form of the mode of production" [4]4 Ibid., p. 195. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 286.].

在马克思对生产关系相对分散的阐述中，并没有给予生产关系明确的定义。他首先指出，物质生产是一种社会活动——有目的性的生产活动，这种活动只有在社会中结成一定形式的社会关系才能开展，“人们是在一定的生产关系中制造呢绒、麻布和丝织品的。……这些一定的社会关系同麻布、亚麻等一样，也是人们生产出来的”，物质关系是人们在生产物品时产生和发展出来的。马克思在《1844年经济学哲学手稿》《德意志意识形态》《资本论》及其手稿的分散阐述中，对生产关系给出了较为一致的定义：生产关系是人们在物质生产活动中结成的社会关系，是人们其他一切社会关系得以形成的基础，而生产资料所有制是生产关系的基础，生产关系是囊括直接生产、交换、分配、消费的经济关系（利益关系）体系。此外，马克思和恩格斯还指出，劳动者与生产资料的结合方式——生产方式的演变也是生产力变迁的重要形式之一，从一定意义上说，“生产力本身是生产方式的技术形式，生产关系是生产方式的社会形式”。

The "system of production" is a form of expression of relations of production. In specific relations of production, the mode of combination of laborers and the means of production, manifested in the possession of the means of production, the domination of the labor process, and the control of the products of labor, constitutes ownership. In other words, ownership arises from the actual relations of production in which living labor combines with objectified labor (or laborers combine with the means of production). It possesses the means of production, dominates the production process and the products of labor through a certain social form of production, and is manifested as the domination of objectified labor and living labor. There is an inevitable internal connection among productive forces, relations of production, and ownership. Productive forces are an objective social material productive capacity; their level of development determines the instruments of labor, thereby determining the social division of labor, and ultimately determining the social relations among people in social production activities. In Marx's concept of "relations of production," including forms of ownership, all are specific forms of expression formed in the process of material production. "These different forms are also forms of the organization of labor, and hence forms of ownership" [5]5 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the 20th Collective Study Session of the Political Bureau of the 20th CPC Central Committee,” *People’s Daily*, February 1, 2024. [Translator’s note: This is a standard formulation from Xi Jinping’s speeches on new quality productive forces.], that is, economic relations of possession expressed through social relations of production. "With the change of the mode of production, they change the economic relations which are merely the necessary relations of this specific mode of production" [6]6 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 3, MEW 25, p. 85. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 3, Penguin, 1981, p. 175.].

“生产制度”是生产关系的一种表现形式，在特定的生产关系中，劳动者与生产资料的结合方式所表现出来的对生产资料的占有、对劳动过程以及劳动产品的支配关系即构成所有制。换言之，所有制产生于活劳动与物化劳动相结合（或劳动者与生产资料相结合）的现实生产关系中，它通过一定社会形式的生产占有生产资料，支配生产过程和劳动产品，并表现为对物化劳动和活劳动的支配。在生产力、生产关系、所有制三者间存在着必然的内在联系。生产力是一种客观的社会物质生产能力，其发展水平决定生产工具进而决定社会分工，并最终决定社会生产活动中人与人之间的社会关系。在马克思的“生产关系”概念中，包括所有制形式在内都是在物质资料的生产过程中形成的具体的表现形式。“这些不同的形式同时也是劳动组织的形式，从而也是所有制的形式”，即通过社会生产关系而表现的经济占有关系。“随着生产方式的改变，他们便改变所有不过是这一特定生产方式的必然关系的经济关系。”

The theory of productive forces and relations of production, as the basic theoretical framework of Marx's historical materialism and political economy, is itself a product of the industrial revolution. It emerged in the era of great change created by the first industrial revolution. As a foundational framework for Marxism to analyze the changes in the social mode of production during the era of great change of the industrial revolution, it has profoundly revealed the changes in the global mode of production since the industrial revolution. New quality productive forces are "a terminological revolution based on Marx's theory of productive forces, combined with the history of productive forces development and the latest practice" [7]7 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, MEW 23, p. 510. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 618.], and are the latest achievement of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. Currently, to better understand the dialectical movement of new quality productive forces and new relations of production in the new era of great change under the digitally driven new industrial revolution, and the interactive relationship between technological innovation and institutional innovation determined thereby, it is equally necessary to draw on the analytical value of the theoretical framework of productive forces and relations of production.

生产力—生产关系理论作为马克思历史唯物主义和政治经济学的基础理论框架，本身也正是工业革命的产物，它提出于第一次工业革命造就的巨变时代，作为马克思主义分析工业革命巨变时代社会生产方式变迁的基础框架，对工业革命以来全球生产方式的变迁进行了深刻的揭示。新质生产力是“以马克思主义的生产力理论为基础，结合生产力发展的历史和最新实践进行的术语革命”，是马克思主义中国化时代化的最新成果。当前，为了更好地认识数字化驱动的新型工业革命下新巨变时代的新质生产力和新型生产关系的辩证运动，以及由此决定的科技创新与制度创新的互动关系，同样需要借助生产力—生产关系理论框架分析价值。

II. The "Quality" of New Quality Productive Forces and Its Ownership Basis

二、新质生产力的“质”及其所有制基础

The "new quality productive forces" constructed on the basis of Marx's concept of productive forces have their qualitative determination in that they are spawned by revolutionary breakthroughs in technology, innovative allocation of production factors, and deep transformation and upgrading of industries. Their basic connotation is manifested as a leap in laborers, means of labor, subjects of labor, and their optimized combination.

建构于马克思生产力概念基础上的“新质生产力”，其“质”的规定性在于它是由技术革命性突破、生产要素创新性配置和产业深度转型升级而催生的，基本内涵表现为劳动者、劳动资料、劳动对象及其优化组合的跃升。

(I) Core Element: Scientific and Technological Innovation

（一）核心要素：科技创新

New quality productive forces are a technological form of the mode of production, while new-type relations of production are the corresponding social form of this mode of production. In this new type of productive forces–relations of production system, scientific and technological innovation possesses the dual attributes of productive forces and means of labor, and is the core element for developing new quality productive forces. Regarding the nature of science and technology as productive forces, Marx conducted a theoretical analysis in the *Grundrisse*. He believed that productive forces “include science as well,” especially in the development of fixed capital, where “general social knowledge has become a direct force of production, and hence the conditions of the social life process itself have come under the control of the general intellect and been transformed in accordance with it.” [1]1 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie* (Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1953), p. 594. [Translator’s note: The English translation follows the standard rendering in Marx’s *Grundrisse*, Penguin, 1973, p. 706.] Science and technology exist in the form of general knowledge, such as “the division and combination of labor in the production process, which are institutions that cost the capitalist nothing. The capitalist pays for individual labor powers, not for their combination, not for the social force of labor.” In this sense, “the power of science is also another productive force that costs the capitalist nothing.” [2]2 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, in *Marx-Engels-Werke* (MEW), Vol. 23, p. 407. [Translator’s note: The English translation follows *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 451.] When science and technology are materialized into specific tools of labor or internalized into the specific labor skills of workers, they directly integrate into the production process combining labor power and means of labor, becoming direct productive forces.

新质生产力是生产方式的一种技术形式，新型生产关系则是这种生产方式对应的一种社会形式。在这种新型生产力—生产关系体系中，科技创新具有生产力和劳动资料双重属性，是发展新质生产力的核心要素。关于科技的生产力性质，马克思在《政治经济学批判大纲》中进行了理论分析。他认为生产力中“也包括科学在内”，尤其是在固定资本的发展中“一般的社会知识、学问，已经在多么大的程度上变成了直接的生产力”。科技以一般知识形态的形式存在，如“生产过程中劳动的分工和结合，是不费资本家分文的机构。资本家支付报酬的，只是单个的劳动力，而不是他们的结合，不是劳动的社会力”，从这个意义上讲，“科学的力量也是不费资本家分文的另一种生产力”。而当科技物化为具体的劳动工具或内化为劳动者特定的劳动技能时，便直接融入劳动力和劳动工具相结合的生产过程，成为直接的生产力。

From the perspective of means of labor, science and technology play a driving role in productive forces. Although Marx, when defining means of labor, referred only to “a thing or a complex of things which the worker interposes between himself and the object of his labor and which serves as the conductor of his activity,” [3]3 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, MEW 23, p. 194. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 285.] his definition of the means of production goes beyond “those things through which the action of labor is transmitted to its object, and which in one way or another serve as conductors of activity,” further stating that “all the material conditions necessary for the labor process to proceed are considered means of the labor process.” [4]4 Ibid., p. 195. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 286.] Marx believed that science and technology had already “gone beyond the scope of the accumulation of methods of production” and represented a labor process of an era in which they had become a relatively independent force. He pointed out that “the general level of science and technological progress” plays a decisive role in the production process by mobilizing various natural forces.

从劳动资料的角度看，科技对于生产力有动因作用。尽管马克思在界定劳动资料时，仅仅指“劳动者置于自己和劳动对象之间、用来把自己的活动传导到劳动对象上去的物或物的综合体”，但他对于生产资料的界定“除了那些把劳动作用传达到劳动对象，因而以这种或那种方式充当活动的传导体的物以外”，更提出“劳动过程的进行所需要的一切物质条件都算作劳动过程的资料”。马克思认为，科技已“超出制作方法的积累的范围”，是一种相对独立力量的时代的劳动过程。他指出，“一般的科学水平和技术进步”通过调动各种自然力，对生产过程起决定作用。

“Scientific and technological innovation can give rise to new industries, new models, and new drivers of growth, and is the core element for developing new quality productive forces.” [5]5 Xi Jinping, “Speech at the 20th Collective Study Session of the Political Bureau of the 20th CPC Central Committee,” *People’s Daily*, February 1, 2024. [Translator’s note: This is a standard formulation from Xi Jinping’s speeches on new quality productive forces.] The development of productive forces “ultimately always originates from the social nature of labor in action, from the division of labor within society, from intellectual labor, especially the development of the natural sciences,” [6]6 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 3, MEW 25, p. 85. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 3, Penguin, 1981, p. 175.] and the role of such science and technology and human intelligence in promoting the development of social productive forces is increasingly significant. In industrial production, “applying natural science to solve the problems arising from this. This principle plays a decisive role everywhere.” [7]7 Karl Marx, *Das Kapital*, Vol. 1, MEW 23, p. 510. [Translator’s note: *Capital*, Vol. 1, Penguin, 1976, p. 618.] Under large-scale industry, this decisive role is increasingly becoming a historical trend: “The creation of real wealth depends less on labor time and the amount of labor expended than on the power of the agents set in motion during labor time, whose immense effectiveness is itself out of all proportion to the direct labor time spent on their production, but depends rather on the general level of science and technological progress, or on the application of science to production.” [8]8 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*, p. 592. [Translator’s note: *Grundrisse*, Penguin, 1973, p. 704.]

“科技创新能够催生新产业、新模式、新动能，是发展新质生产力的核心要素。”生产力的发展“归根到底总是来源于发挥着作用的劳动的社会性质，来源于社会内部的分工，来源于智力劳动特别是自然科学的发展”，并且这种科学技术和人的智力对于推动社会生产力发展的作用越来越大。在工业生产中，“应用自然科学来解决由此产生的问题。这个原则到处都起着决定性的作用”。在大工业下这种决定性作用日益成为一个历史趋势，“现实财富的创造较少地取决于劳动时间和已耗费的劳动量，较多地取决于在劳动时间内所运用的动因的力量，而这种动因自身——它们的巨大效率——又和生产它们所花费的直接劳动时间不成比例，相反地却取决于一般的科学水平和技术进步，或者说取决于科学在生产上的应用”

(II) Essence: Advanced Productive Forces

（二）本质：先进生产力

Social development is a process in which advanced productive forces continuously replace backward productive forces. The advanced nature of productive forces is a relative and historical category. Each specific era has its own form of productive forces that embodies the advanced nature of that era: the iconic productive force of the First Industrial Revolution was the steam engine, that of the Second Industrial Revolution was the electric generator, and that of the Third Industrial Revolution was the computer and information technology. These productive forces all left a profound imprint on their respective eras.

社会发展是先进生产力不断取代落后生产力的过程。生产力的先进性是一个相对性和历史性的范畴。特定时代都具有其时代先进性的生产力形态：第一次工业革命的标志性生产力是蒸汽机，第二次工业革命的标志性生产力是发电机，第三次工业革命的标志性生产力是计算机和信息技术，这些生产力无一不为其时代打下了深刻的烙印。

In a specific era, advanced productive forces, as more efficient production capacities, are always closely linked to the advanced technological innovations of that era. The advanced nature of productive forces is usually measured by their core element—scientific and technological innovation. The advanced nature of new quality productive forces is reflected in their high technological content, their ability to represent the technological level of the era, thereby driving development at other levels, and their capacity to lead and command the development direction of the entire productive forces system. The technological transformation of new quality productive forces is revolutionary, characterized by disruptiveness and frontier breakthroughs. It is not merely technological progress or reform adjustments in individual enterprises or industries, but a systematic and revolutionary progress formed by the concentration of production factors on innovation, which, through industrial innovation, creates a new structure of productive forces and promotes the leapfrog development of advanced productive forces replacing backward ones.

在特定的时代中，先进生产力作为更高效的生产能力总是与所处时代先进的技术创新紧密联系在一起的。生产力的先进性通常通过其核心要素——科技创新来度量。新质生产力的先进性，体现在其技术含量高，能够代表时代技术水平，从而能够带动其他层次发展，能够左右和统领整个生产力系统的发展方向。新质生产力的技术变革是革命性的，具有颠覆性和前沿突破性的特点。它并非个别企业或行业的技术进步或改革调整，而是生产性要素向创新聚集，从而形成系统性和革命性的进步，并通过产业创新形成新的生产力结构，促进先进生产力代替落后生产力的跨越式发展。

The renewal and iteration of advanced productive forces over traditional productive forces is not a simple accumulation of quantitative changes, but a qualitative leap. In this process, “production systems” and “relations of production,” including forms of ownership, must continuously adjust to meet the needs of developing new quality productive forces. This is especially true for science and technology, as a relatively independent element in the production process; it is not only one of the prerequisites for reproduction, but also “the power of science itself is also appropriated by production and is already the power of science realized in production.” [9]9 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*, p. 587. [Translator’s note: *Grundrisse*, Penguin, 1973, p. 699.]

先进生产力对传统生产力的更新和迭代，不是简单的量变积累，而是一种质的跨越。在这个过程中，包括所有制形式在内的“生产制度”以及“生产关系”都要适应新质生产力发展的需要而不断调整。尤其是作为生产过程中相对独立要素的科学技术，它不仅是再生产的前提之一，而且“科学力量本身也包括为生产所占有，并且已经在生产中实现的科学力量”。

(III) Enterprise Ownership Is the Entity Basis for Scientific and Technological Innovation to Become Real Productive Forces

（三）企业所有制是科技创新成为现实生产力的实体基础

The evolution from scientific and technological innovation to new quality productive forces is essentially a major leap from theoretical productive forces to real productive forces. New quality productive forces are not general social productive forces or potential productive forces, but real productive forces formed through a series of transformation processes of science and technology. As the leading force of social productive forces or potential productive forces, scientific and technological innovation is considered the primary productive force. Scientific and technological innovation, as the primary productive force, can only become real productive forces after undergoing a series of transformation processes; otherwise, it remains merely general social productive forces or potential productive forces. From scientific and technological innovation to real productive forces, it is a whole that takes scientific discovery as its source, goes through stages such as research and development, experimentation, and enterprise innovation, and ends with industrial innovation. Scientific discovery can only be transformed from scientific and technological innovation into real productive forces when it is combined and interacts with enterprise technological innovation. New quality productive forces are precisely the industrial innovation directly driven by scientific development and major breakthroughs in science and technology. Unlike traditional enterprise innovation, which focuses mainly on product and technological innovation and aims to solve technical and process problems, industrial innovation based on the new technological revolution does not aim to obtain the competitiveness of a single enterprise, but rather seeks systematic and revolutionary progress in the development of the industry itself through original and disruptive technological revolutions, thereby aiming to gain the competitive advantage of a country or region.

从科技创新到新质生产力的演进，本质上是理论生产力向现实生产力的重大跨越。新质生产力不是一般的社会生产力或潜在生产力，而是将科学技术经过一系列的转化过程形成的现实生产力。作为社会生产力或潜在生产力的先导力量，科技创新被认为是第一生产力。作为第一生产力的科技创新只有经过一系列的转化过程才能成为现实生产力，否则它仅是一般的社会生产力或潜在的生产力。从科技创新到现实生产力，是一个以科学发现为源头，经历研发、试验、企业创新等环节，并以产业创新为终端的整体。科学发现只有与企业技术创新结合并互动起来，才能从科技创新转化为现实生产力。新质生产力即科学发展和科学技术的重大突破直接推动的产业创新。不同于以产品和技术创新为主、旨在解决技术和工艺问题的传统企业创新，建立在新科技革命基础上的产业创新，并不以获得单个企业的竞争性为目标，而是以原创性、颠覆性技术革命谋求产业发展本身系统性、革命性的进步，从而获得一个国家或地区的竞争优势为目标。

Within the theoretical framework of productive forces and relations of production, scientific and technological innovation, means of labor, objects of labor, and the upgrading of their optimized combination are all elements of real productive forces. As real productive forces, revolutionary breakthroughs in technology are the source force of new quality productive forces, while the innovative allocation of production factors and the deep transformation and upgrading of industries are the main and core forces leading new quality productive forces. Scientific and technological innovation can only become real productive forces when it is integrated as a whole with substantive means of production. Enterprises, as the main representatives and carriers of new quality productive forces, are the main drivers of the transformation from scientific and technological innovation to industrial innovation. Enterprises play a crucial role as market economy entities in promoting scientific and technological innovation, industrial innovation, and the integration of the two. As the main body of scientific and technological innovation and industrial innovation is continuously strengthened, enterprises become the main battlefield for developing new quality productive forces in promoting the development of strategic emerging industries and future industries.

在生产力—生产关系理论框架下，科技创新、劳动资料、劳动对象及其优化组合的跃升等均为现实生产力的要素。作为现实生产力，技术的革命性突破是新质生产力的源头力量，生产要素的创新性配置和产业的深度转型升级则是主导新质生产力的主体和核心力量。科技创新只有和实体性生产资料作为一个整体，才能成为现实生产力。作为新质生产力主要代表和载体的企业是实现从科技创新到产业创新的主要推动者。企业在推进科技创新、产业创新以及两者的融合中，作为市场经济主体发挥着至关重要的作用。企业作为科技创新和产业创新的主体不断强化，在推进战略性新兴产业、未来产业发展中，企业成为发展新质生产力的主阵地。

III. The Formation and Development of the Ownership Basis of New Quality Productive Forces

三、新质生产力所有制基础的形成发展

Marx proposed that “property (possession) is a condition of production” and that “all production is appropriation of nature by the individual within and through a specific form of society.” He argued that property (ownership) is humanity’s appropriation of nature through a specific social form; that is, in the production process of a given social form, ownership is precisely the social form of the direct production process or the social relations among people formed in direct production. In *The German Ideology*, Marx stated that “division of labour and private property are identical expressions”; the former refers to the division of activities, the latter to the private ownership of the products of those activities. “The various stages of development in the division of labour are just so many different forms of ownership,” along with “the relations of individuals to one another with respect to the material, instrument, and product of labour.” Before the Industrial Revolution, the initial form of ownership in traditional agricultural society, “both in the classical ancient world and in the Middle Ages, was tribal ownership… Tribal ownership went through several different stages… before it developed into modern capital, which is brought about by large-scale industry and universal competition, i.e., into pure private property that has cast off all semblance of community and eliminated any influence of the state on the development of property.” During the Industrial Revolution, science and technology, as a knowledge-based means of production, possessed the magical power to reduce human labour and make labour more effective. Marx and Engels, from the perspective of scientific and technological means of production, explored the historical transience of capitalist private ownership. They pointed out that in the capitalist production process, the logic of capital “strives to reduce labour time to a minimum, while on the other hand it posits labour time as the sole measure and source of wealth,” attempting “to measure the immense social forces thus created by labour time and to confine them within the limits required to preserve the value already created as value,” thereby becoming “the material conditions for blowing this foundation sky-high.” They also put forward important views such as the “association of free individuals” and the “re-establishment of individual property,” and on this basis outlined in principle the ownership structure of the future social formation. Marx and Engels’ classical exposition and basic ideas concerning science and technology and the public ownership of the means of production in a future society have, to a considerable extent, influenced China’s path of scientific and technological development and its practice of ownership construction.

马克思提出，“财产（占有）是生产的一个条件”，“一切生产都是个人在一定社会形式中并借这种社会形式而进行的对自然的占有”，他认为财产（所有制）是人们通过一定社会形式对自然的占有，即一定社会形式的生产过程中，所有制就是直接生产过程的社会形式或直接生产中形成的人们相互的社会关系。在《德意志意识形态》中，马克思提出“分工和私有制是相等的表达方式”，前者是活动的分工，后者是活动的产品的私有制。“分工的各个不同发展阶段，同时也就是所有制的各种不同形式”，及其“个人在劳动材料、劳动工具和劳动产品方面的相互关系”。在工业革命之前，传统农业社会最初的所有制形式“无论是在古典古代世界或中世纪，都是部落所有制……部落所有制经过了几个不同的阶段……才发展为由大工业和普遍竞争所引起的现代资本，即变为抛弃了共同体的一切外观并消除了国家对所有制发展的任何影响的纯粹私有制”。工业革命中，科技作为一种知识性生产资料，具有减少人类劳动和使劳动更有成效的神奇力量。马克思、恩格斯从科技生产资料的视角探索了资本主义私有制的历史暂时性，指出在资本主义生产过程中，资本的逻辑使得它“竭力把劳动时间缩减到最低限度，另一方面又使劳动时间成为财富的唯一尺度和源泉”，试图“用劳动时间去衡量这样造出来的巨大的社会力量，并把这些力量限制在为了把已经创造的价值作为价值来保存所需要的限度之内”，从而成为“炸毁这个基础的物质条件”，并提出“自由人联合体”以及“重建个人所有制”等重要观点，在此基础上对未来社会形态的所有制结构进行了原则构想。马克思、恩格斯对于科技和未来社会生产资料公有制的经典阐释和基本思想，在很大程度上影响了我国的科技发展路径和所有制建设实践。

As a large traditional agricultural country, on the eve of the founding of New China, China’s scientific, technological and industrial base was extremely weak: there were no more than 50,000 scientific and technical personnel, only 500 full-time research and development personnel, the overall level of industrial technology was very low, and modern scientific research was almost a blank slate. In the early days after the founding of New China, in order to shake off the fate of backwardness inviting attack and to catch up with advanced countries as quickly as possible, the development of the natural sciences received increasing attention. In September 1949, “striving to develop the natural sciences to serve industrial, agricultural and national defence construction” was written into the *Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference*.[10]10 The *Common Programme* served as the de facto provisional constitution of the People’s Republic of China from its founding in 1949 until the adoption of the first formal constitution in 1954. Influenced by Marx and Engels’ conception of a single ownership structure for the whole of society, China set the pursuit of a single public ownership economy coexisting with state ownership and collective ownership as the goal of its ownership system. Expanding the scope of ownership by the whole people, reducing the scope of collective ownership by the working masses, and eventually transitioning to a single form of ownership by the whole people became the main task of China’s ownership construction at that time. The state’s main task shifted to concentrating forces on protecting and developing the productive forces, and the strategic goal was to build a powerful modern industry, modern agriculture, modern transportation and communications, and modern national defence. In 1957, science and culture were formally incorporated into the modernization drive. However, during the “Great Leap Forward” and the “Cultural Revolution,”[11]11 The “Great Leap Forward” (1958–1962) was a campaign for rapid industrialisation and agricultural collectivisation; the “Cultural Revolution” (1966–1976) was a political movement aimed at preserving communist ideology by purifying the Party and society of alleged bourgeois elements. due to the excessive expansion of the state-owned economy, the weakening of the collective economy, and the exclusion of the individual economy, China formed a single socialist public ownership economic structure, with the state-owned economy being unprecedentedly strengthened. During this period, scientific and technological development was mainly concentrated in the military, heavy chemical industry, and cutting-edge technology fields. China successfully “established a complete scientific research system, industrial technology system, national defence science and technology system, and local science and technology system, and achieved a number of major scientific and technological achievements marked by the ‘two bombs, one satellite,’[12]12 “Two bombs, one satellite” refers to China’s successful development of the atomic bomb (1964), the hydrogen bomb (1967), and the first artificial satellite (1970). laying a solid foundation for the development of atomic energy, electronics, semiconductors, automation, computing technology, aviation and rocketry, and promoting the birth and development of a series of new industrial sectors.” However, science and technology concerning the national economy and people’s livelihoods did not receive sufficient attention. It was not until the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC was held in 1978 that China truly began its far-reaching historical shift from “taking class struggle as the key link” to taking economic construction as the centre. The focus of the entire Party’s work returned to the goal of the “four modernizations.”[13]13 The “four modernizations” were the goals of modernising agriculture, industry, national defence, and science and technology, first proposed by Zhou Enlai in 1964 and revived by Deng Xiaoping after 1978.

作为一个传统农业大国，新中国成立前夕，我国科技和工业基础极为薄弱，科技人员不超过5万人，专职研发人员只有500人，工业技术整体水平很低，现代科研几乎一片空白。新中国成立之初，为了尽快摆脱落后就要挨打的命运和赶超先进国家，自然科学发展日益受到重视。1949年9月，“努力发展自然科学，以服务于工业农业和国防的建设”被写入了《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。受马克思、恩格斯全社会单一所有制结构设想的影响，我国将单一的公有制经济与国有制、集体所有制并存作为所有制构成体系的追求目标。不断扩大全民所有制的范围，缩小劳动群众集体所有制的范围，直至过渡到单一的全民所有制，成为我国当时所有制建设的主要任务，国家的主要任务转变为集中力量保护和发展生产力，战略目标是建设强大的现代化的工业、现代化的农业、现代化的交通运输业和现代化的国防。1957年，科学文化被正式纳入现代化建设中。然而，“大跃进”和“文化大革命”时期，由于过度扩张国有经济、削弱集体经济、排斥个体经济，我国形成了单一的社会主义公有制经济结构，特别是国有制经济空前加强。这一时期，科技发展主要集中在军事、重化工业及尖端技术领域，成功“建立了学科齐全的科学研究体系、工业技术体系、国防科技体系、地方科技体系，取得了以‘两弹一星’为标志的一批重大科技成果，为原子能、电子学、半导体、自动化、计算技术、航空和火箭等发展奠定了坚实的基础，促进一系列新兴工业部门的诞生和发展”，但关于国计民生方面的科学技术没有获得足够重视。直到1978年党的十一届三中全会召开，我国才真正意义上开始了从以“阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心的具有深远意义的历史性转变，全党的工作重心重新回到“四个现代化”的目标上来。

In 1978, at the National Science Conference of the CPC Central Committee, Deng Xiaoping proposed that “the key to the four modernizations is the modernization of science and technology” and that “intellectuals are part of the working class,” and pointed out that “science and technology are productive forces.” At this time, the science and technology development strategy began to orient itself towards economic construction, and it was proposed that “economic construction must rely on science and technology.” In 1982, at the National Science and Technology Awards Conference, various ministries and commissions of the state further clarified that science and technology were the focus of the national economic development strategy. The strategy for China’s scientific and technological development became “economic construction must rely on science and technology, and scientific and technological work must orient itself towards economic construction.” At that time, on the issue of ownership, the tendency to one-sidedly pursue “largeness,” “publicness,” and “purity”—developing ownership by the whole people, restricting collective ownership, and eliminating individual ownership—still existed. Comrade Deng Xiaoping pointed out that this was the fundamental reason for the lack of competitive vitality in the entire national economy and the slow development of the productive forces. On the basis of a profound understanding of China’s stage of socialist development, he offered many criticisms of China’s single form of public ownership of the means of production and analysed it from the perspective of the primary stage of socialism, proposing: “Socialism itself is the primary stage of communism, and China is in the primary stage of socialism, that is, the stage of underdevelopment. Everything must proceed from this reality and formulate plans based on this reality.” In line with the “planned commodity economy on the basis of public ownership” established by the *Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Economic System Reform* in 1984, the National Science and Technology Work Conference convened by the State Council in 1985 discussed and adopted the *Decision of the CPC Central Committee on the Reform of the Science and Technology System*, which began to address the integration of science and technology with the economy, so that scientific and technological development could better serve economic construction. The state explicitly recognized that technological achievements possess the basic attributes of commodities and that scientific and technological achievements are also commodities, and proposed the reform content of “opening up the technology market,” thereby greatly liberating the scientific and technological productive forces. To solve the problem of the disconnection between science and technology and the economy, the State Council’s *Decision on Several Issues Concerning Deepening the Reform of the Science and Technology System* in May 1988 further pointed out that the development of science and technology occupies the primary position in China’s economic development strategy, that the reform of the science and technology system must proceed from the reality of the primary stage of socialism, adapt to the needs of the planned commodity economy, and actively support and promote the development of scientific and technological institutions under different forms of ownership, including collective and individual ownership. At the beginning of 1992, in response to the resurgence of certain tendencies in the field of ownership reform, Deng Xiaoping put forward the famous “three favourables” standard,[14]14 The “three favourables” standard, proposed by Deng Xiaoping during his 1992 southern tour, judged policies and practices by whether they were favourable to developing the productive forces of socialism, to increasing the overall strength of the socialist state, and to raising the people’s living standards. which broke through the ideological confusion over whether something was “socialist” or “capitalist” and cleared the theoretical obstacles for ownership reform. “Once society has a technical need, that need will push science forward more than ten universities.” During this stage, the non-public sector of the economy, represented by the private economy, generally had a higher demand for high-level skilled workers and scientific and technological talent. Due to the urgent need for technical personnel, non-public enterprises competed with public enterprises for high-level management and scientific and technological talent through high wages and high benefits. The competition between the non-public sector and the public sector of the economy, to a certain extent, promoted scientific and technological innovation in economic development.

1978年，在中共中央全国科学大会上，邓小平提出“四个现代化关键是科学技术的现代化”和“知识分子是工人阶级的一部分”，并指出“科学技术是生产力”。此时的科技发展战略开始面向经济建设，并提出“经济建设必须依靠科学技术”。1982年，国家各部委又在全国科技奖励大会上进一步明确科学技术是国家经济发展战略的重点，我国科技事业发展的战略变为“经济建设必须依靠科学技术，科学技术工作必须面向经济建设”。而当时在所有制问题上，片面求“大”、求“公”、求“纯”，发展全民、限制集体、消灭个体的倾向依然存在，邓小平同志指出，这是导致整个国民经济缺乏竞争活力、生产力发展缓慢的根本原因。他在对我国社会主义发展阶段形成深刻认识的基础上，对我国单一的生产资料公有制提出了许多批评，并从社会主义初级阶段的角度进行分析并提出：“社会主义本身是共产主义的初级阶段，而我们中国又处在社会主义的初级阶段，就是不发达的阶段。一切都要从这个实际出发，根据这个实际来制订规划。”与1984年《中共中央关于经济体制改革的决定》确立的“在公有制基础上的有计划的商品经济”相呼应，1985年在国务院召开的全国科技工作会议上，讨论并通过了《中共中央关于科学技术体制改革的决定》，着手解决科技与经济的结合问题，以便使科技发展更好地面向经济建设，国家明确认定技术成果具有商品的基本属性，科技成果也是商品，并提出“开拓技术市场”的改革内容，从而大大解放了科学技术生产力。为了解决科技和经济脱节的问题，1988年5月国务院《关于深化科技体制改革若干问题的决定》进一步指出，发展科学技术居于我国经济发展战略的首要位置，科技体制改革必须从社会主义初级阶段的实际出发，适应有计划商品经济的需要，积极支持和促进集体、个体等不同所有制形式科技机构的发展。1992年年初，邓小平针对所有制改革领域出现的回潮现象，提出了著名的“三个有利于”标准，破除了姓资姓社的思想困扰，为所有制改革扫清了理论上的障碍。“社会一旦有技术上的需要，则这种需要就会比十所大学更能把科学推向前进。”这个阶段，以民营经济为代表的非公有制经济普遍对高层次技术工人和科技人才有更高的需求。由于亟须技术人才，非公有制企业通过高工资高福利等方式与公有制企业竞争高层次管理人才和科技人才。非公有制经济与公有制经济相互竞争，一定程度上推动了经济发展中的科技创新。

At this time, the state-owned economy under全民所有制 [ownership by the whole people] entered an important period of reform breakthroughs. On the one hand, the state-owned economy began to explore corporate system reform focused on establishing a modern enterprise system; on the other hand, the public-owned economy gradually began to explore multiple forms of realization, implementing strategic reorganization of state-owned enterprises through the flow and restructuring of existing assets, further strengthening the influence and controlling power of the state-owned economy. The public-owned economy, with the state-owned economy as its leading force, became the fundamental prerequisite, material foundation, and institutional guarantee for the state to concentrate its strength on advancing scientific and technological innovation, while also constituting an important support for China’s participation in international competition. The status of the common development of non-public-owned economies such as the private economy was established in the form of the basic economic system, and under a series of favorable policy environments introduced as a result, the private economy propelled the rapid development of China’s productive forces. By 2010, the total number of private scientific and technological enterprises had exceeded 190,000, with over 21 million employees, and total enterprise assets and total revenue had surpassed 15 trillion yuan. In national high-tech zones, private scientific and technological enterprises accounted for over 70% of all enterprises in the zones, with the number in high-tech zones in Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, and other places reaching over 80%, and Shenzhen reaching 90%. The establishment of the basic economic system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, in which the public-owned economy and the non-public-owned economy coexist, provided a solid material and technological foundation and fundamental driving force for the transformation of China’s scientific and technological achievements into real productive forces.

此时，全民所有制的国有经济进入了重要的改革突破期。一方面，国有经济开始探索以建立现代企业制度为重点的公司制改革；另一方面，公有制经济逐渐开始探索多种实现形式，通过存量资产的流动和重组，对国有企业实施战略性改组，国有经济的影响力和控制力进一步加强。以国有经济为主导的公有制经济，成为国家集中力量推进科技创新的根本前提、物质基础和制度保障，同时也构成我国参与国际竞争的重要依托。民营经济等非公有制经济的共同发展地位以基本经济制度形式确立，在由此推出的一系列利好政策环境下，民营经济推动我国生产力快速发展。截至2010年，民营科技企业总数已超过19万家，从业人员已超过2100万人，企业总资产和总收入已超过15万亿元。在国家高新区中，民营科技企业占园区企业总量的70％以上，其中北京、上海、江苏等地的高新区的民营科技企业数量占到80％以上，深圳已达90％。公有制经济和非公有制经济并存的中国特色社会主义基本经济制度的确立，为我国科技成果转化为现实生产力提供了坚实的物质技术基础和根本动力。

Reviewing the history of science and technology in modern China, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that “in modern times, due to various domestic and international reasons, China repeatedly missed the opportunity of scientific and technological revolutions.” Since the founding of New China, and especially since reform and opening up, China’s scientific and technological development has achieved great accomplishments that have attracted worldwide attention. Since the 18th National Congress of the CPC, the Party Central Committee has attached great importance to science, technology, and innovation. Facing a new scientific and technological revolution, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that developing science and technology requires a global vision and a sense of urgency; China can no longer miss the opportunity of the new scientific and technological revolution. China already possesses the realistic foundation to respond to the new scientific and technological revolution; its overall scientific and technological capability continues to improve, some important fields have entered the world’s advanced ranks, and certain frontier directions have begun to enter a stage of running alongside or taking the lead. China is in an important period of transitioning from quantitative accumulation to qualitative leap, and from breakthroughs in individual points to improvement in systemic capability.

回顾中国近代以来的科技史，习近平总书记指出“近代以后，由于国内外各种原因，我国屡次与科技革命失之交臂”。新中国成立以来特别是改革开放以来，我国科技发展取得举世瞩目的伟大成就。党的十八大以来，党中央高度重视科技和创新，面对新的科技革命，习近平总书记指出发展科学技术要有全球视野和紧迫性，中国不能再与新科技革命失之交臂，中国已经具有了应对新科技革命的现实基础，科技整体能力持续提升，一些重要领域方向跻身世界先进行列，某些前沿方向开始进入并行、领跑阶段，正处于从量的积累向质的飞跃、点的突破向系统能力提升的重要时期。

IV. Strengthening the Complementarity and Mutual Promotion of Public and Non-Public Ownership, Fully Unleashing the Institutional Dividends of the Leap in New Quality Productive Forces

四、强化公有制和非公有制互补互促，全面发挥新质生产力跃升的制度红利

Both the public-owned economy and the non-public-owned economy are subjects of scientific and technological innovation and development. They differ in terms of innovation vitality and innovation resource capacity, each having its own advantages, and together they promote the development of new quality productive forces. As ownership forms of production factors or labor factors, the various entities under public and non-public ownership are all subjects in China’s development of new quality productive forces. Clarifying that both the public-owned economy and the non-public-owned economy are subjects in China’s development of new quality productive forces, and straightening out and strengthening their mutually complementary and mutually promoting relationship, is more conducive to releasing the institutional dividends of socialism with Chinese characteristics and promoting the sustainable leap of new quality productive forces.

公有制经济和非公有制经济都是科技创新发展的主体，两者在创新活力和创新资源能力方面存在差异，且各有优势，共同促进新质生产力发展。作为生产要素或劳动要素的所有制形式，公有制和非公有制的各类主体均是我国发展新质生产力的主体。明确公有制经济和非公有制经济都是我国发展新质生产力的主体，理顺并强化两者的相互补充和相互促进关系，更加有利于释放中国特色社会主义的制度红利，推动新质生产力的可持续跃升。

First, leverage the guiding role of the public-owned economy in the replacement of old productive forces by new ones. In the replacement of old productive forces by new ones, original and disruptive scientific and technological innovations will continuously replace or upgrade old traditional industries by cultivating strategic emerging industries, and give rise to new tracks for economic development. The socialist system with public ownership as the main body is China’s institutional advantage in achieving “orderly advance and retreat” through “creative transformation.” On the one hand, emerging industries are often highly comprehensive, requiring not only the collaborative efforts of scientific researchers from numerous disciplines and departments, but also reliable support in terms of huge material resources, financial resources, and platforms. Through unified leadership and collective tackling of key problems, limited human, material, and financial resources can be rationally allocated and fully utilized, thereby maximizing effectiveness and achieving rapid development of scientific and technological undertakings. The dominant position of the public-owned economy helps the government concentrate its strength to formulate strategic plans for scientific and technological development and guide and promote the structural adjustment of emerging industries. The government can not only guide and promote scientific and technological innovation development and drive industrial transformation and upgrading by formulating scientific and technological development plans, but can also encourage and guide enterprises, universities, research institutions, and other entities to strengthen industry-university-research cooperation, carry out interdisciplinary, cross-industry, and cross-regional cooperation projects, and promote the development and application of scientific and technological undertakings. On the other hand, the “creative destruction” of the new technological revolution harbors risks such as changes in employment structure and technological substitution effects. Scientific and technological innovation and industrial upgrading often have characteristics such as long investment cycles and high risks, requiring patient support from capital. The socialist system with public ownership as the main body helps to circumvent the problem of short-termism in market and capital investment, reduce investment risks, and make up for shortcomings in regulation.

第一，发挥公有制经济在新旧生产力更迭中的方向引领作用。在新旧生产力更迭中，原创性和颠覆性的科技创新将不断通过培育战略性新兴产业取代或更新升级旧的传统产业，并催生出经济发展的新赛道。以公有制为主体的社会主义制度是我国通过“创造性转型”实现“有序进退”的制度优势。一方面，新兴产业往往综合性较强，既需要众多学科和部门的科研人员通力协作，也需要庞大的物力、财力和平台的可靠支持。通过统一领导和集体攻关，有限的人力、物力和财力得以合理调配和充分利用，进而发挥出最大效能，实现科技事业的快速发展。公有制经济占主体地位，有助于政府集中力量通过制定科技发展战略规划、指导推动新兴产业结构调整。政府既可以通过制定科技发展规划，引导和促进科技创新发展，推动产业转型升级，还可以鼓励和引导企业、高校和科研机构等各主体加强产学研合作，开展跨学科、跨行业、跨地区的合作项目，推动科技事业的发展和应用。另一方面，新技术革命的“创造性破坏”潜藏着就业结构变化和技术替代效应等风险，科技创新和产业升级往往具有投资周期长、风险大等特点，需要资本的耐心支持。以公有制为主体的社会主义制度有助于规避市场和资本投资的短期化问题，降低投资风险，弥补监管短板等。

Second, leverage the irreplaceable role of the non-public-owned economy in the application scenarios of disruptive innovation. Supply and demand are always two sides of productive forces. Application scenarios on the demand side are the key to transforming disruptive innovation on the supply side into productive forces. Only when scientific and technological innovations such as digital intelligence are truly transformed into powerful real industries like agricultural modernization and new-type industrialization, meeting humanity’s needs for clothing, food, housing, and transportation, can new quality productive forces truly become real productive forces. The non-public-owned economy can compensate for the shortcomings of uneven development of productive forces, rapidly transforming scientific and technological achievements into productive forces, making it an important force for the industrialization of science and technology. The non-public-owned economy has a flexible operating mechanism, which is conducive to stimulating the innovation vitality of entrepreneurs and forming an internal driving force for the leapfrog development of productive forces. In particular, private scientific and technological enterprises have become a new force for local development of high-tech industries and are pioneers in developing new quality productive forces. Today, the private economy contributes over 50% of the country’s tax revenue, over 60% of GDP, over 70% of technological innovation achievements, over 80% of urban labor employment, and over 90% of new employment and the number of enterprises. The innovation capacity and innovation vitality of the non-public-owned economy, including the private economy, are continuously strengthening.

第二，发挥非公有制经济在颠覆性创新的应用场景中无可替代的作用。供给和需求总是生产力的两面，需求侧的应用场景是供给侧颠覆性创新转化为生产力的关键。只有当数智等科技创新真正转化为农业现代化、新型工业化等强大的实体产业，满足人类的衣、食、住、行，新质生产力才能真正成为现实生产力。而非公有制经济能弥补生产力发展不均衡的缺点，将科技成果迅速转化为生产力，使之成为科技产业化的重要力量。非公有制经济具有灵活的运行机制，有利于激发企业家的创新活力，形成生产力跨越式发展的内驱力。尤其是民营科技企业已经成为地方发展高新技术产业的生力军，是发展新质生产力的先行者。如今，民营经济为国家贡献了50％以上的税收，60％以上的国内生产总值，70％以上的技术创新成果，80％以上的城镇劳动就业，90％以上的新增就业和企业数量，民营经济等非公有制经济的创新能力和创新活力不断增强。

Third, through mixed-ownership reform, promote the mutual integration and common development of state-owned enterprises and private enterprises, effectively solve the problem of “bottleneck” core technologies [15]15 “Bottleneck” (卡脖子) refers to core technologies in which China is dependent on foreign countries and faces potential supply disruptions or restrictions, especially from Western nations., and realize the transformation of new quality productive forces from learning and imitation to running alongside and taking the lead. First, mixed-ownership reform can attract social capital to invest in innovation fields and smooth the channels for transforming high-tech achievements. The private economy faces relatively stringent resource constraints and exclusion issues in financial markets, while state-owned enterprises have the advantage of a large accumulation of basic technology. Mixed-ownership reform can improve the quality and efficiency of the development of new quality productive forces. On the one hand, investment in fields related to new quality productive forces is further increased, better leveraging the leading role of state-owned enterprises; on the other hand, the private economy can better leverage the advantages of the market mechanism in the application scenario research and industrial transformation stages of new quality productive forces, quickly capturing and responding to market demand, while also being more capable of bearing greater risks. Second, mixed-ownership reform can promote enterprises to improve market-oriented operating mechanisms, especially by attracting and retaining talent through means such as employee stock ownership and equity incentives, thereby enhancing the innovation motivation of enterprises. Finally, mixed-ownership reform can effectively circumvent discriminatory clauses by Western countries that obstruct the development of new quality productive forces by China’s state-owned enterprises, while also effectively solving the problems of the private economy’s weak foundation for scientific and technological innovation and relatively insufficient willingness to innovate.

第三，通过混合所有制改革促进国有企业和民营企业相互融合、共同发展，有效解决核心技术“卡脖子”问题，实现新质生产力从学习模仿到并跑领跑的转变。首先，混合所有制改革能够吸引社会资本投向创新领域和畅通高新科技成果转化渠道。民营经济在金融市场上面临较为严苛的资源约束和被排斥的问题，国有企业拥有大量基础技术积累的优势，混合所有制改革能提升新质生产力发展的质量和效率。一方面，对新质生产力相关领域的投入进一步加大，更能发挥国有企业的主导作用；另一方面，民营经济在新质生产力的应用场景研究和产业转化阶段更能发挥市场机制优势，快速捕捉并响应市场需求，同时也更有能力承担更大风险。其次，混合所有制改革可促进企业完善市场化经营机制，特别是通过员工持股、股权激励等手段吸引和留住人才，从而增强企业的创新动力。最后，混合所有制改革可有效规避西方国家阻扰我国国有企业发展新质生产力的歧视性条款，同时有效解决民营经济科技创新基础薄弱、创新意愿相对不足的问题。

In summary, based on Marx’s theoretical framework of productive forces and relations of production, this paper proposes an analytical logic of “scientific and technological innovation—ownership—leap in productive forces.” It comprehensively analyzes the characteristics and connotations of new quality productive forces as advanced productive forces and actual productive forces with scientific and technological innovation as their core element, as well as the mutually reinforcing and complementary roles of the public sector of the economy and the non-public sector of the economy. It argues that the public sector of the economy and the non-public sector of the economy complement and promote each other, creating an ownership advantage for the current development of new quality productive forces in our country. Of course, in promoting the leapfrog development of our country’s productive forces, the driving subjects cannot be limited to a single form of ownership. Both the public sector of the economy and the non-public sector of the economy are subjects of scientific and technological innovation and development, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. It is necessary to both leverage the collective scientific and technological research capacity of the state-owned economy and the more acute market awareness and customization capabilities of the private economy. On the basis of building an institutional environment and social atmosphere in which the two advance in coordination and complement and promote each other, we must adhere to the “Two Unswervinginglys,”[16]16 The “Two Unswervinginglys” (两个毫不动摇) refers to the Party’s policy of unswervingly consolidating and developing the public sector of the economy and unswervingly encouraging, supporting, and guiding the development of the non-public sector of the economy. give full play to the advantages of both forms of ownership, compensate for each other’s shortcomings through mutual supplementation, highlight institutional advantages on the basis of ownership—the core of relations of production—construct new relations of production, release the institutional dividends of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and promote the continuous emergence and leapfrog development of new quality productive forces.

综上，基于马克思生产力—生产关系理论框架，本文提出科技创新—所有制—生产力跃升分析逻辑，全面分析了新质生产力以科技创新为核心要素的先进生产力、现实生产力的特征内涵，以及公有制经济和非公有制经济的互促互补作用，提出公有制经济和非公有制经济相互补充、相互促进，为当前我国发展新质生产力造就了所有制优势。当然，推进我国生产力跨越式发展在推进主体上不能局限于单一的所有制形式，公有制经济和非公有制经济都是科技创新发展的主体，存在优势也存在劣势。既要发挥国有经济的集体科技攻关能力，又要发挥民营经济的更为敏锐的市场意识和定制能力，在构建两者协同共进、互补共促的制度环境和社会氛围的基础上，坚持“两个毫不动摇”，发挥好两种所有制的优势，在相互补充中弥补彼此的不足，在所有制这一生产关系核心基础上彰显制度优势，构建新型生产关系，释放中国特色社会主义的制度红利，促进新质生产力的不断涌现和实现跨越发展。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗